Introduction to Sociolinguistic Research Issues in Hong Kong

Transkript

2/24/2014
Lecture Topics
LING6023
Introduction to Sociolinguistic
Research Issues in Hong Kong
25 January 2014
包睿舜
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Robert S. BAUER
Dept. of Linguistics
University of Hong Kong
Email: [email protected]
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Methods for researching Hong Kong’s languages
Surveys
Interviews
Language diary: study of speakers of Punjabi,
Cantonese, and English
Hong Kong’s Languages
Meaning of
“mother tongue” and
‘Chinese(?)’
Terminology and need to be clear and precise
How to study speakers’ use of their languages?
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Sociolinguistic correlational studies
Social and linguistic variables
Language is a sociopolitically sensitive issue
Study on Cantonese Profanity
Is Hong Kong Cantonese a language or a
dialect?
• Attitudes toward Cantonese
• Survey of topics to be discussed this semester
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Census Data on HK’s Ethnic Groups:
Minority subtotal:
Total Pop.:
2
Hong Kong is multilingual community in which
different Chinese dialects and foreign linguistic
varieties are spoken.
Hong Kong Census has asked questions about use of
languages among population. Most recent data are
from 2011 (for website address see References).
HK’s predominant language and Chinese variety is
Cantonese.
Other Chinese varieties include Putonghua, Chiu
Chau, Hakka, Hoklo, Shanghainese, etc.
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Table 2. % of HK’s Population speaking languages and dialects.
Table 1. HK’s populations of ethnic groups from 2011 Census.
Ethnic group: Population number: % of total:
Chinese:
Indonesians:
Filipinos:
Whites:
Indians:
Mixed
ethnicity:
Pakistanis:
Nepalese:
Japanese:
Thais:
Other Asians:
Koreans:
Others
中文
Census Survey of Languages
Spoken in Hong Kong
Lecture Topics
Majority pop.:
Minority pop.:
母語
6,620,393
133,377
133,018
55,236
28,616
24,649
93.6% of total pop.
29.6% of subtotal pop.
29.5%
12.2%
6.3%
5.5%
18,042
16,518
12,580
11,213
7,038
5,209
5,687
451,183
7,071,576
4.0%
3.7%
2.8%
2.5%
1.6%
1.2%
1.2%
6.4% of total pop.
100.0%
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Lang.:
Usual Lang.
Another Lang./Dial.:
Total:
2001 2006 2011 2001 2006 2011 2001 2006 2011
Cantonese 89.2% 90.8% 89.5% 6.8%
English
5.7%
6.3%
96.1% 96.5% 95.8%
3.2
2.8
3.5
39.8
41.9
42.6
43.0
44.7
Putonghua 0.9
0.9
1.4
33.3
39.2
46.5
34.2
40.1
47.9
Hakka
1.2
0.9
3.8
3.6
3.8
5.1
4.7
4.7
1.3
46.1
Chiu Chau 1.0
0.8
0.7
3.8
3.2
3.1
4.8
3.9
3.8
Fukien
1.7
1.2
1.1
2.3
2.1
2.3
4.0
3.3
3.4
Shanghai
0.4
0.3
0.3
1.1
0.9
0.9
1.5
1.2
1.2
Pilipino
0.2
0.1
0.2
1.7
1.3
1.4
1.9
1.4
1.6
Indonesian 0.2
0.1
0.3
1.2
1.5
2.2
1.3
1.7
2.5
Japanese
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.4
1.2
1.6
Other
1.7
1.6
1.9
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-
-
-
-
-
Total:
100.0 100.0 100.0 -
-
-
-
-
-
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Non-Chinese Languages
Spoken in Hong Kong
Bahasa Indonesian
Burmese
English
Filipino/Tagalog
Hindi
Japanese
Korean
Malay
Language Use among Bilingual Indian
Adolescents in Hong Kong
• Besides Chinese dialects, some minority
languages are also spoken in Hong Kong.
• Included among these are Hindi and Punjabi
spoken within HK’s Indian population.
• Pannu (1998) conducted a small-scale study of
language use among a group of eight bilingual
secondary-school Indian students.
Nepali
Punjabi
Thai
Urdu
Vietnamese
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Sociolinguistic Characteristics of
this Microstudy’s Subjects
Methodology: Language-diary
• Language-diary: students kept a language diary
in which they recorded over a period of one
week the languages they spoke, along with
details about the topic of conversation and the
social characteristics of the people with whom
they verbally interacted.
• Tape-recorder: students carried around with
them tape-recorders which they used to record
all of their verbal interactions for one whole day.
• The eight secondary-school students (four male
and four female) were 16 and 17 years old; six
were born in Hong Kong and two in India.
• All eight students were native speakers of
Punjabi, but they also spoke Hindi, Cantonese,
and English with high proficiency; four of the
students also spoke French.
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Language Choices in Interactions
Findings from Pannu’s Study
A total of 1,179 verbal interactions were recorded
in the eight students’ diaries.
Verbal interactions by ethnic background of
students’ interlocutors (who they talked to):
• Indians:
84%
• Chinese:
9%
• Westerners and other Asian peoples:
7%
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Monolingual interactions (741 or 62.8%) are preferred:
• Cantonese:
30.0%
• Punjabi:
23.6
• English:
9.2%
Bilingual = mixed-code interactions (438 or 37.2%):
• Cantonese with some Punjabi:
13.3%
• Cantonese with some English:
7.0
• Punjabi with some Cantonese:
6.9
• Cantonese, Punjabi, English:
4.9
• Punjabi with some English:
3.2
• English with some Cantonese:
1.5
• English with some Punjabi:
0.4
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Other Findings and Conclusions
Mixed-code Interactions
By Matrix Language:
• Cantonese (239):
62.9%
• Punjabi (119):
31.3%
• English (22):
5.8%
(58 interactions involved Cantonese, Punjabi,
and English mixed together, so matrix
language could not be determined).
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Hong Kong’s Official Languages
• Students spoke only Punjabi to their parents even
though parents also spoke Cantonese
• Punjabi was spoken by boys in 30.2% of their
interactions, and by girls in 18.1%
• Cantonese was spoken by girls in 36.4%of their
interactions, and by boys in 22.6%; girls may regard
Cantonese as having prestige and conferring status
on speaker
• English was spoken by boys in 9.4% of their
interactions, and by girls in 8.9%
• Students’ preference for Cantonese indicates
assimilation into HK Chinese community
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Hong Kong’s Official Languages
香港基本法，第一章: 總則，第九條:
香港特別行政區的行政機關、立法機關和司法
機關，除使用中文外，還可使用英文，英文也
是正式語文。
Two official languages:
Chinese
zung man: established in law in
1974 and reaffirmed in HK’s Basic Law.
English
jing man: HK’s Basic Law states it
“may also be used as an official language”.
Language policy in education:
Biliterate
loeng man: Chinese and
English
Trilingual
saam jyu: Cantonese,
Putonghua, and English
中文
英文
Hong Kong Basic Law, Chapter I, General Principles,
Article 9:
In addition to the Chinese language, English may
also be used as an official language by the
executive authorities, legislature and judiciary of
the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
兩文
三語
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What is 中文?
中文
中文 zung man in Hong Kong
中文
中文
中國話
漢語
華語
普通話
官話
北方話
What is the meaning of
?
• Cantonese?
• Putonghua?
• Mainland standard written Chinese?
• Hong Kong written Chinese?
• Classical Chinese?
• All of the above?
Why
zung man instead of another word?
What other words could have been used:
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Translation of Previous Text
Hong Kong’s “Mother Tongue”
中文為香港的母語
語文政策：為促進學習成效，[香港]政府
一直以來都致力推行以母語（香港的情況
是以中文為母語）為本地學校的主流教學
語言。
語言。由於中文和英文同是本港的法定語
文，所以政府亦投放大量資源，以培訓學
童兩文（中文和英文）三語（廣東話、普
通話和英語）的能力。”
• “
http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/mce/mega2/tea
chers/education.pdf
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Language policy: In order to promote effective
learning, the government has all along promoted
the use of mother tongue (in the Hong Kong
situation Chinese is the mother tongue) as the
mainstream language of instruction in local schools.
Because Chinese and English are both official
languages in Hong Kong, therefore the government
has also expended considerable resources in
training schoolchildren’s ability in the two written
languages [i.e. biliteracy] (of Chinese and English)
and three spoken languages [i.e. trilingualism] (of
Cantonese, Putonghua, and English).”
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Meaning of “Mother Tongue”
Study on HK Cantonese Profanity
From Glossary of Sociolinguistics (Trudgill 2003):
Mother tongue see native language
Native language see first language
First language A language or (languages) which
a speaker learns first, from infancy, as their
native language or mother-tongue. Compare
primary language.
Primary language A language which speakers
use most often.
A study on the topic of Cantonese profanity was
conducted by Liang Lijuan
; it is entitled
“
,
‒
” [I won’t say it, but I know what it is, a
study of the attitudes of Hong Kong young
people toward profanity].
This study was published in 1994 in the Hong
Kong magazine
Breakthrough .
梁麗娟
我唔講但我知係乜香港青少年對粗口態
度調查
《突破
》
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Liang’s purpose was to survey through the means of
a questionnaire young people’s definitions of
Cantonese profanity and their usage and attitudes
toward it.
Most (73%) of Liang’s subjects were aged between
16 and 30; half were male and the other half
female; 92% had at least a middle school
education or higher (50% indicated university
education); 63% were workers, while 20% were
students; 56% indicated they had no religion,
while 40% did.
This survey requested the subjects to do the
following things:
indicate which items in a list of 20 lexical items they
considered to be profanity;
rate each lexical item’s degree of profanity;
indicate if they often used these words in their own
conversations; and
indicate whether or not they accepted the frequent
use of profanity in their conversations with other
people.
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Cantonese Profanity 粵語粗口
Profanity and Non-profanity
• Some of the 20 items that were investigated
had been predetermined by Liang to be
profanity and some to be non-profanity.
• The following graph indicates the evaluation
of the 20 lexical items according to they
degree by which they were classified as
profanity by the subjects who participated in
the study.
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(Liang 1994:7)
(Liang 1994:6)
(Liang 1994:7)
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(Liang 1994:8)
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(Liang 1994:9)
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Why can Language be
Sociopolitically Sensitive?
Implications?
The language(s) we speak symbolize(s) who we
are, the group(s) we belong to, and define(s)
our sociocultural identity.
“People have a natural wish to use their own
mother tongue, to see it survive and grow, and
they do not take kindly when the language of
another culture is imposed upon them.”
Crystal (2012:125)
“. . . Hong Kong is the Cantonese-speaking
capital of the world.”
Bolton (2011:64)
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Is Cantonese Being
Suppressed or Sidelined?
Language Attitudes
“The attitudes which people have towards
different languages, dialects, accents and their
speakers.
Such attitudes may range from very favourable to
very unfavourable, and may be manifested in
subjective judgements about the ‘correctness’,
worth and aesthetic qualities of varieties, as
well as about the personal qualities of their
speakers.” (Trudgill 2003:73)
In January 2014 in response to complaints HK
Airlines tried to abolish using Cantonese in its
inflight announcements on some flights :
由中資海南航空控股、標榜「很香港」的香
港航空，上周發通告，由昨日起近九成航
線取消機上的廣東話廣播，只用普通話及
英語；但實施不到一天，疑因前線員工群
起反對，昨日黃昏即急急取消新規定。
http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/news/art/20140
107/18582286
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Language Attitudes
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Cantonese is “coarse, vulgar relic”
“Linguistics has shown that such attitudes have
no linguistic basis. Sociolinguistics notes that
such attitudes are social in origin, but that
they may have important effects on language
behaviour, being involved in acts of identity,
and on linguistic change . . . Language
attitudes is one of the most important topics
in the social psychology of language.”
(Trudgill 2003:73)
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“Cantonese is a dialect, not a language, and
Hong Kong and Guangdong province are
not countries that have their own
independent cultures. Like all Chinese
dialects, Cantonese is an appropriate
medium of folk culture only. However, in
the way that it is used in Hong Kong, it is
merely a coarse, vulgar relic of China's
feudal past.”
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Cantonese is only fit to be spoken in
“home or wet market”
Cantonese is “corrupt form of Chinese”
“Hongkongers should be ashamed. Thirteen
years after returning to the motherland, the
great majority of this city's residents are
unable to speak Putonghua well and our
children continue to learn a corrupt form of
Chinese in schools.”
Clark Li, Tai Po, from his letter to editor, South
China Morning Post, 5 August 2010
“It is fine to use a dialect like Cantonese in the
home or wet market, but it is completely
inappropriate in a modern city to use it for
education and formal communication in the
way that Hong Kong people stubbornly do.”
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How to Distinguish between
Language and Dialect?
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A Language is a Dialect
In 1945 Max Weinreich (1893-1969), mid-20th
century Yiddish linguist based in America, wrote:
“A language is a dialect with an army and navy.”
(Chambers 1997:214)
(Original Yiddish: “A shprakh iz a dyalekt mit an
armey un flot”. Yiddish is a variety of German
written in the Hebrew alphabet).
Weinreich said that he himself did not originate
this statement but was in fact quoting a man
who had attended one of his public lectures.
While this aphorism may sound humorous to us,
is there some truth in it?
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Mutual Intelligibility
For some people (but not sociolinguists) the
criterion of mutual intelligibility may be used to
distinguish between languages and dialects: i.e.,
languages are mutually unintelligible, while
dialects are mutually intelligible.
“Mutual intelligibility: the extent to which speakers
of one [speech] variety are able to understand
speakers of another [speech] variety.” Trudgill
(2003:91)
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Mutual Intelligibility,
Language, and Dialect
“The criterion of ‘mutual intelligibility’, and
other purely linguistic criteria, are . . . of less
importance in the use of the terms language
and dialect than are political and cultural
factors . . .” Trudgill (2000:4)
Differences between language and dialect are
based on non-linguistic – that is, political,
social, cultural, historical factors, etc.
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“What on earth
do you mean!?”
“Grandma,
please speak
Putonghua.”
Slogans Promote Putonghua among
Mainland Primary Schoolchildren
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(from the Monkey King (2010)
“I love Cantonese, I don’t know
*bou1 dung1 gwaa1 [literally, ‘cook
winter melon’, i.e. Putonghua]
“
“
“
“
愛國旗，唱國歌，説普通話”
説普通話，寫規範字，做個文明人”
不講方言，不講髒話，做個合格小公民 “
我是中國娃，愛説普通話”
Views on Cantonese are
Condescending and Offensive
*Pun on Cantonese
pronunciation of
pou2 tung1 waa6/2.
普通話
(From The Monkey King 2010)
•
•
•
•
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“What is the basis that Cantonese has been
inappropriate for education when we in Hong
Kong have produced, at least through the Chinese
University and the University of Hong Kong, some
excellent Chinese scholars?
Why should Cantonese people, who make up most
of the residents of Hong Kong, be ashamed to
speak their own tongue? Why should we have to
substitute Cantonese with Mandarin?”
Sir David Tang, from his letter to Editor of Soth
Chin Morning Post, 10 August 2010
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“I did not know whether to laugh out loud, or to cry
out loud when I read the letter by Clark Li
. . . Cantonese is a dialect and a language - and a
very well-developed and rich language at that. You
don't need a country to have independent cultures.
On the contrary, every country possesses its own
spectrum of regional cultures. . .
It is an absurdity and gross condescension that
Cantonese should only be used at home or the wet
market.”
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“Why Cantonese Threatens
Beijing’s Language of Power”
“Why are authoritarian regimes so obsessed with the
suppression of local languages, or dialects . . .? . . .
China has demonstrated an equal determination to
curb or even destroy the linguistic diversity that
exists in the nation. In Guangdong, home of
Cantonese, the language battle is accelerating. The
most recent spark [for public protests] was over a
proposal to switch from Cantonese to Putonghua in
Guangdong television broadcasts (SEHK: 0511), but
the underlying issue has been there for much
longer and is more profound.“
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“Cantonese, like Shanghainese and the non-Chinesebased languages of the Uygurs and Tibetans, has
not been submerged by the national language.
Although Cantonese is described as a dialect, many
linguists say it is a language. But this view is
contentious, although it is hard to deny that it is a
much older tongue than the northern-based
Mandarin and could well have become the national
language after the foundation of the People’s
Republic.“
“Like other languages, Cantonese provides an
identity for the society it serves. It reinforces the
regional differences and is attached to a rich
cultural history that cannot simply be expunged by
edict. Moreover, because of the intense tradition
of emigration from the south of the country,
Cantonese has become the effective lingua franca
of much of the Chinese diaspora and has
developed a life of its own outside China.“
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49
“Back in Guangdong, and here in Hong Kong,
Cantonese speakers have demonstrated an
intriguing ability to seamlessly incorporate
foreign words, particularly English ones, into
the lexicon and proved more than adept at
creative use of the language by employing
puns and synonyms that makes Cantonese
quite distinctive and worth treasuring not only
for historical reasons.“
51
“And, of course, Cantonese enhances a sense of
identity. It is this that scares the rulers in Beijing;
officials across the border are already accusing the
defenders of Cantonese of having “ulterior
motives”.
Authoritarian governments have great difficulty with
diversity; they see it as undermining their
authority and sowing the seeds of discontent. Even
quite innocent manifestations of local pride and
regional identification are frowned upon unless
officially instigated and approved.“
52
“. . . Thus, in schools, every effort is made to
denigrate and downplay local languages. Officials,
like the born-again patriots who run Hong Kong,
strive to demonstrate their proficiency in the
national language, wearing it as a badge of loyalty.
And there has been a constant battle against the
development of local languages in literature and
the mass media..“
53
“. . . in China, there is a sullen suspicion of
anyone showing the smallest sign of asserting
anything other than officially approved forms
of identification with the state. This makes the
nation infinitely poorer, not more united.“
(from Vines 2010)
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Some Sociolinguistic Research Issues
in Hong Kong to be Discussed
this Semester:
• Development of Chinese as a
Pluricentric Language: the View from
Hong Kong
• Distinctively regional varieties of
Chinese: Hong Kong, Taiwan,
Singapore, mainland China
Hong Kong Chinese
• Hong Kong Chinese: distinctive, separate,
and unique variety of Chinese under
influence of local historical, sociopolitical,
and linguistic factors.
• Hong Kong Chinese is not incorrect, wrong,
or improper in comparison to mainland
standard Chinese but is simply different.
55
Language Contact in Hong Kong
and Its Consequences
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Contact between Cantonese and
English and Its Consequences
• Linguistic borrowing from English
into Cantonese:
• Lexical borrowing: Methods of
borrowing English loanwords into
Cantonese
• Loanwords from historical and
modern perspectives
• Development of Canton Pidgin
English in 19th century
• Is Canton Pidgin English still spoken
today?
• Cantonese-English Code-mixing
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Bilingual Education
Hong Kong Bilingualism
• Acquisition of Cantonese and English by
children in the family, from peers, at
school, etc. (inside and outside the home
environment)
• Formal bilingual education in Cantonese,
English, and Putonghua
59
• Meeting differing needs for bilingual
schooling among speakers of Cantonese,
English, and minority languages in Hong
Kong
• Cantonese speakers learning English and
Putonghua
• English speakers learning Cantonese and
Putonghua
• Speakers of South Asian languages learning
written Chinese through medium of
Cantonese
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Languages in Hong Kong Education
•
•
•
•
Medium of Instruction (MoI)
English in Anglo-Chinese schools
What is “Mixed code”? Is it bad for students?
Introduction of “mother tongue” education in
Hong Kong
• Using Putonghua as MoI to teach Chinese
language subjects
Language Variation and Change
• Sociolinguistically-based research
findings on phonological variation and
change in Cantonese initial
consonants, rimes, and tones
• Principles and methodology for
sociolinguistic research applied to
study of Cantonese phonological
variation and change
62
61
Linguistic Variable
“. . . a linguistic item which has identifiable variants.”
(Wardhaugh 1992:139)
“A linguistic unit, sometimes known as a
sociolinguistic variable, initially developed by
Labov in connection with his work in secular
linguistics and variation theory, in order to be able
to handle linguistic variation.
Variables may be lexical and grammatical, but are
most often phonological.” (Trudgill 2003:82)
(Secular – “of or relating to the worldly or temporal;
not overtly or specifically religious”).
Social Variables
Speakers use of linguistic variables has been
found to correlate with following social
variables of the speaker and speech situation:
• Sex
• Age
• Educational level
• Social class
• Speech style (formal, colloquial)
64
63
Variation and Change in the
Cantonese Lexicon
Variation and Change in Syntax
• Slang, “trendy” words, argot (secret
language), taboo words, auspicious lexical
homophony, taboo bilingual homophony
• Lexical innovation and attrition induced by
social change and influence of Putonghua
and English
• Lexical-phonological interface in colloquial
stratum of Cantonese
65
• Syntactic developments in HK’s standard
written Chinese as influenced by
(spoken) Cantonese
• Impact of Cantonese-English bilinguals
on development of Cantonese syntax
66
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Variation and Change in Semantics
Written Cantonese 書面粵語
• Variational Lexico-semantics in Hong
Kong Cantonese and standard
written Chinese
• Description and analysis of features,
conventions, principles, and texts
• Comparative developments in
written Cantonese within Hong Kong
and Guangzhou communities
67
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Hong Kong Diglossia
Hong Kong English
• Is there a distinctive linguistic variety that
can be called “Hong Kong English”?
• Some lexical and phonological features of
Hong Kong English
In HK relationship between standard written
Chinese (and English by some accounts) as the
H(igh) language(s), on the one hand, and
Cantonese as L(ow), on the other, has been one
of “modern diglossia”.
According to Snow (2010), HK society has been
moving away from this situation toward
bilingualism (Cantonese and English in the last
years of the colonial era), and, in recent years,
trilingualism (Cantonese, Putonghua, and English
under Chinese sovereignty) (Snow 2009).
69
70
References
References
Apple Daily on Hong Kong Airlines. Retrieved from:
http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/news/art/201401
07/18582286
Bolton, Kingsley. 2011. Language policy and planning
in Hong Kong: colonial and post-colonial
perspectives. In Li Wei, ed., Applied Linguistics
Review 2: 51-74.
Chambers, J.K. 1997. Sociolinguistic Theory. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Crystal, David. 2003. English as a Global Language.
Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. 2nd edition.
Hong Kong Basic Law. Retrieved from:
http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/tc/basiclawtext/chapt
er_1.html
http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chap
ter_1.html
Hong Kong Population Census. 2011. Retrieved from:
http://www.census2011.gov.hk/en/maintable/A107.html, A111.html
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