Commonly Confused Words

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İngilizce Akademik Düzenleme
Commonly Confused Words
Part I
Sıklıkla Karışan Kelimeler- Bölüm 1
COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS (Part – I)
SIKLIKLA KARIŞAN KELIMELER (Bölüm 1)
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Contents
Commonly Confused Words, Part - I
I.
absorption and adsorption ................................................. 2
II.
adapt and adopt ................................................................. 4
III. among and between ........................................................... 6
IV. compose, comprise, consist, constitute and form ............... 7
V.
concept and idea ................................................................ 9
VI. continual and continuous ................................................. 11
VII. cooperate and collaborate................................................ 13
VIII. dosage and dose ............................................................... 14
IX. endemic, epidemic, pandemic ........................................... 15
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Commonly Confused Words, Part - I
Do you face issues in choosing the apt term amongst words
such as adapt and adopt; dosage and dose and similar terms?
When two words are confused for one another the results can
sometimes have severe consequences on your academic work
and publication possibility.
To help you avoid such mishaps we have compiled a list of the
English language’s most commonly confused words and given
the two words in each pair a definition so that you can
appreciate the differences which are sometimes quite subtle
and other times more substantial.
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I. absorption and adsorption
The nouns absorption and adsorption are often confused. Below
is the definition of these terms as used in scientific fields and
example sentences demonstrating proper usage.
absorption
(1) biology: A diffusion-driven process through which a
substance enters a cell by passing through its membrane.
(2) chemistry, physics: A process through which one object or
substance takes in and holds another within its boundary.
(3) physics: A process through which an object or substance
takes in and holds energy within its boundary.
The following illustrate proper usage of absorption, along with
its verb form, absorb:
(1) We study the absorption of radiation in Earth’s
atmosphere.
(2) The absorption of water by leaves is treated in Winter’s
book.
(3) They measured the rate of absorption of the drug into the
bloodstream.
(4) When the polymer melt exhibiting hexagonal structure
absorbs a solvent of this class, it first swells, retaining its
hexagonal structure, and then exhibits a transition to a
disordered state at a critical solvent density.
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adsorption
A process through which the molecules of a fluid become
affixed to the surface of an object.
The following illustrate proper usage of adsorption, along with
its verb form, adsorb:
(5) Here we are chiefly concerned with reducing adsorption of
nitrogen on the surfaces of the test masses.
(6) When biomaterials are introduced into biological media,
proteins adsorb onto the material surface.
(7) In many cases, adsorbed molecules can form only a single
layer, and hence adsorption ceases when the surface of
the adsorbent is covered. However, there are situations in
which multiple adsorption layers can form.
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II. adapt and adopt
The verbs adapt and adopt are often confused. Particularly
common is the misuse of adopt when the intended meaning is
that of adapt. This misuse creates a serious problem, because
the meanings expressed by these verbs are quite different: The
meaning of adapt is to appropriately alter for a particular purpose
or to appropriately change to suit a particular environment, while
that of adopt is to choose or accept (e.g., for use).
The semantic difference between these verbs is elucidated by
the following sentences.
(1) We adopted this indirect measurement technique for use
in in vitro experiments.
(2) We adapted this indirect measurement technique for use
in in vitro experiments.
The uses of both adapt and adopt here are correct. However, the
meanings expressed by these sentences differ significantly.
In (1), “adopted” simply expresses the meaning that this
“measurement technique” was used in the “in vitro
experiments,” with no special meaning included. Contrastingly,
“adapted” in (2) implies that to allow application to the
experiments in question, this technique was altered and
prepared in a manner specific to these experiments, with the
aim of maximal effectiveness.
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Below are some examples
illustrating most common misuses
Note
of adopt, along with their
Illustrations show sentences
corrected forms.
demonstrating common
(3) We adopt the model of
Webber et al. by replacing
the unidirectional
types of mistakes, are
numbered with red
numerals.
Sentences demonstrating
intergenerational transfer
proper usage are numbered
mechanism with a self-
with black numerals.
adjusting bidirectional
mechanism.
(4) This perturbative analysis is adopted to investigation of
the physical realizability problem.
(3) We adapt the model of Webber et al. by replacing the
unidirectional intergenerational transfer mechanism with
a self-adjusting bidirectional mechanism.
(3’) We adopt the model of Webber et al., first generalizing it
by replacing the unidirectional intergenerational transfer
mechanism with a self-adjusting bidirectional mechanism.
(4) This perturbative analysis is adapted to investigation of
(4’) This perturbative analysis is adopted for investigation of
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III. among and between
The prepositions among and between are used similarly and
express nearly identical meanings, but there is one important
difference between them. This difference is demonstrated by
the following sentences.
between
Between is used to express a relationship involving two things:
(1) A reaction between two unstable compounds resulted in
an explosion.
among
Among is used to express a relationship or relationships
involving three or more things:
(2) The separation of sequences among DNA fragments was
done using gel electrophoresis.
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IV. compose, comprise, consist, constitute and
form
The verbs compose, comprise, consist, constitute and form are all
similar, but there are important differences among them with
regard to both usage and meaning. Here, I discuss the
distinguishing characteristics of each.
First, let us consider the following examples, demonstrating
proper usage.
(1) The brain is composed of neurons and neuroglia.
(2) This set consists of only four points.
(3) Their approach constitutes a general method for
constructing solutions to this class of equations.
(4) This symphony comprises three completely independent
and seemingly unrelated movements.
(5) With the operation defined above, these four elements
form a group.
The above sentences illustrate the important characteristics of
each verb.
Below is discussion elucidating these.
The verb consist simply expresses the meaning that something
possesses as its components or constituent pieces some other
things. Further, the expression “A consists of B, C and D” would
be interpreted to mean that there are no components or
constituent pieces of A other than B, C and D. Compose is similar
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to consist in that it describes the situation in which some
components or constituent pieces make up some composite
whole, but it expresses the additional meaning that these
components or constituent pieces came together to form the
structure of the whole through some process or procedure. An
expression of the form “A constitutes B” expresses a somewhat
indirect meaning. Rather than simply meaning that B is made up
of A, it conveys the idea that the thing which is composed of B is
equivalent to A or meets the criterion to be regarded as A. In
most cases, comprise expresses a meaning similar to that of
consist of, but it can also be used as a synonym of include.
Finally, form expresses the meaning that the pieces contained in
a whole possess some relations through which this whole
becomes more than merely a collection of the pieces.
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V. concept and idea
The nouns concept and idea are quite similar in meaning, and in
ordinary usage, they are often interchangeable. However, there
are significant differences between these nouns, and when used
in academic papers, they should be distinguished. There are
three main differences between them. The first is that concept is
generally understood as expressing a more abstract meaning.
For this reason, it is used quite frequently in scientific and
mathematical fields, in which abstraction plays a particularly
important role. The second difference is that concept is more
naturally used in reference to something that can be defined
and described precisely. By contrast, idea is often used in
reference to things that cannot be described in a precise
manner or are somewhat (or very) poorly defined. The third
difference is that idea has a much broader meaning, possessing
a number of definitions that concept lacks.
The two main meanings of concept are similar to those of
abstraction or construct and understanding or comprehension,
respectively. These are illustrated by the following.
(1) The concept of the infinitesimal limit played a key role in
the development of calculus.
(2) Scientists at that time yet had no concept of how to treat
experimental uncertainty.
If “concept” above were replaced with idea, although these
sentences would be understandable, they would be somewhat
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unnatural, due to the semantic differences explained above.
Finally, here are few examples demonstrating typical uses of
idea.
(3) The idea of treating the input and the output on the same
footing is quite novel.
(4) In that paper, the authors develop an idea that was first
discussed in Ref. [3].
(5) I had no idea that you were coming.
(6) His idea about how to proceed is quite unconventional.
(7) I once had the idea of becoming an artist.
Although concept would not be ‘wrong’ in (3) and (4), idea is more
appropriate. In the cases of (5)–(7), concept would be entirely
inappropriate.
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VI. continual and continuous
The adjectives continual and continuous (and their adverbial
forms continually and continuously) express similar meanings,
and in informal usage, they are often interchangeable. However,
strictly interpreted, their meanings are not the same, and in
formal written English, and particularly in academic papers, they
should be distinguished.
Both of these adjectives describe a situation in which some
conditions or state does not cease. The difference in their
meanings is that while continuous depicts behavior or conditions
that are uninterrupted, continual applies to situations in which
some behavior or condition appears repeatedly, with
interruptions between.
The following examples elucidate the difference between
continual(ly) and continuous(ly).
(1) The visitors have made continual requests to be moved to
another room.
(2) After continually attempting to measure the signal directly,
we eventually gave up and constructed an indirect and
more generally applicable method.
(3) The herons continually returned to the same marsh to
feed.
(4) We assume that the pressure is a continuous function of
the volume during the operation.
(5) The patient is continuously monitored.
(6) This power plant generally operates with a continuous
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output of 22 MW.
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VII. cooperate and collaborate
The verbs cooperate and collaborate are close in meaning, both
being approximately synonymous with work together. However,
there is an important distinction between the two, and generally
they cannot be used interchangeably. The main difference
between cooperate and collaborate regards the broadness of
their meanings. Of these terms, cooperate expresses a more
broadly defined meaning and conveys the idea of simply
‘combining effort’. While collaborate also contains this meaning,
it expresses a much more precise idea. Specifically, rather than
simply ‘combining effort’, collaborate expresses the idea of
‘working to produce a particular result through combined effort’.
Thus, whereas cooperate places emphasis on the process of
combining effort itself, collaborate places emphasis on the
desired result of this process.
The following sentences demonstrate correct usage of cooperate
and collaborate, as well as their noun forms, cooperation and
collaboration.
(1) Thomas and Yamada have collaborated on several
research projects.
(2) We are presently collaborating on three papers.
(3) Their collaboration produced important results.
(4) The patient did not cooperate with her physical therapist.
(5) Your cooperation in dealing with this problem is
requested.
(6) The referee did not cooperate with the editor.
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VIII. dosage and dose
The medical terms dosage and dose are closely related, but they
express different meanings. Below is the definition of each
word, along with an illustrative example.
dose: the prescribed amount of medicine per administration.
(1) Each packet contains one dose.
dosage: the prescribed amount of medicine per administration,
frequency of administrations and duration of treatment.
(2) The dosage was increased in size, frequency and duration.
The following sentences further illustrate the proper usage of
these two nouns.
(3) The patient has two more doses remaining in the
prescribed dosage.
(4) The failure to complete the full dosage of an antibiotic can
in some cases contribute to the target bacteria becoming
resistant to that antibiotic.
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IX. endemic, epidemic, pandemic
The words endemic, epidemic and pandemic are often confused.
Here I explain the differences among these terms as they are
used in the field of public health.
Endemic is chiefly used as an adjective. (When used as a noun, it
is an abbreviated form of endemic disease.) When used as an
adjective, endemic means ‘peculiar to a particular time, place or
group’. Hence, endemic disease refers to a disease whose scope
of influence is quite limited. Additionally, endemic disease does
not include the meaning of temporary prevalence, and thus it is
understood as a long-term or permanent phenomenon.
Contrastingly, epidemic refers to a short-term outbreak of a
disease that suddenly grows in prominence, spreads rapidly,
and then suddenly loses prominence. An epidemic is not
regarded as being confined to a particular group or region, nor
is it regarded as being long term in nature.
Pandemic is very similar in meaning to epidemic, with the only
difference being that of scale. Usually, pandemic refers to the
outbreak of a communicable disease that has influence on a
national or global scale.
The following sentences demonstrate proper use of these three
nouns, along with their adjectival forms.
(1) In order for an infectious disease to be endemic to a
region, each infected person must, on average, infect one
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other person; if the transmission rate is lower, the disease
will die out, while if it is higher, the infection rate will
increase exponentially, and the disease will become
epidemic.
(2) An epidemic will eventually disappear or leave an endemic
disease. In either case, however, there is the chance that
an epidemic may reappear in the future.
(3) The first influenza pandemic of the 21st century was the
“swine flu” (Influenza A/H1N1) outbreak of 2009–2010. It
was first reported in Mexico and eventually spread
throughout the world, killing over 6,000 people.
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Commonly Confused Words

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