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EURASIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
A Quarterly Peer-Reviewed Journal, Year: 15 Issue: 61 / 2015
Üç Ayda Bir Yayımlanan Hakemli Dergi, Yıl: 15 Sayı: 61/ 2015
FOUNDING EDITOR / Kurucu Editör
Veysel Sönmez, Hacettepe University, Ankara, TURKEY
EDITOR / Editör
Şakir Çınkır, Ankara University, Ankara, TURKEY
CO- EDITORS
Ayşe Çiftçi, Purdue University, IN, USA
Şenel Poyrazlı, Penn State University, PA, USA
Ramazan Baştürk, Pamukkale University / TURKEY
Ahmet Aypay, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, TURKEY
Bülbin Sucuoğlu, Ankara University, Ankara, URKEY
Kürşad Yılmaz, Dumlupınar University, Kütahya, TURKEY
Hakan Atılgan, Ege Universty, İzmir, TURKEY
INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD / Uluslararası Editörler Kurulu
Anita Pipere, Daugavpils University, LATVIA
Aslı Özgün Koca, Wayne State University, USA
Beatrice Adeara, West Chester University,USA
Birgit Pepin, Sor-Trondelag Univ. College / NORWAY
Gerry McNamara, Dublin City University, IRELAND
Danny Wyffels, KATHO University, Kortrijk, BELGIUM
David Bridges, Cambridge University /UK
Ekber Tomul, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur TURKEY
Erdinç Duru, Pamukkale University, Denizli, TURKEY
Fatma Hazır Bıkmaz, Ankara University, TURKEY
Hasan Hüseyin Aksoy, Ankara University, Ankara, TURKEY
Iordanescu Eugen, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, ROMANIA
Joe O'Hara, Dublin City University / IRELAND
Sven Persson, Malmö University, Malmö, SWEDEN
Theo Wubbels, Univeristiy of Utrecht/ NETHERLAND
Úrsula Casanova, Arizona State University, USA
Yusif Mammadov, Azerbaijan State Pedagogy University, Baku, AZERBIJAN
SAHİBİ VE YAZI İŞLERİ MÜDÜRÜ / Publishing manager
Özer Daşcan
EDITORIAL OFFICE / Yayın Yönetim
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Printing Date / Basım Tarihi: 15. 11. 2015
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The ideas published in the journal belong to the authors.
Dergide yayınlanan yazıların tüm sorumluluğu yazarlarına aittir
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research (ISSN 1302-597X) is a bimonthly (6 issues per year) peer-reviewed journal published by
Anı Yayıncılık (ISSN 1302-597X) Anı Yayıncılık tarafından yılda dört kez yayımlanan hakemli bir dergidir.
© 2015 ANI Publishing. All rights reserved. © 2015 ANI Yayıncılık. Her hakkı saklıdır.
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research (EJER) is abstracted and indexed in;
The Education Resources Information Center (ERIC)
Social Scisearch,
Journal Citation Reports/ Social Sciences Editon,
Higher Education Research Data Collection (HERDC),
Educational Research Abstracts (ERA),
SCOPUS database,
EBSCO Host database, and
ULAKBİM national index.
CONTENTS
REVIEWERS of the 61th ISSUE
İçindekiler
61. Sayı Hakemleri
A Comparative Study on the Teaching Profession in Turkey and
South Korea: Secondary Analysis of TALIS 2008 Data in Relation to
Teacher Self-Efficacy
Berna Aslan............................................................................................1-22
Ahmet Özpolat
Psychometric Characteristics of the Social Justice Scale’s Turkish
Form and A Structural Equation Modeling
İlker Cırık..............................................................................................23-44
Multimodal Literacy Scale:
A Study of Validity and Reliability
Berker Bulut, Hacer Ulu, Adnan Kan....................................................45-60
Ali Ersoy
Arif Sarıçoban
Ayşe Çiftçi
Ayşegül Bayraktar
Baki Duy
Bircan Başak
Learning Environments Designed According to Learning Styles and
Its Effects on Mathematics Achievement
Aysen Ozerem, Buket Akkoyunlu.........................................................61-80
Bülent Çetinkaya
Investigating Opinions of Mothers on Different Socioeconomic Status
in Terms of Perceived Maternal Styles
Esra Çalık Var, Şükran Kılıç, Hatice Kumandaş...................................81-98
Canani Kaygusuz
The Effect of Identity Development, Self-Esteem, Low Self-Control and
Gender on Aggression in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood
Ümit Morsünbül...................................................................................99-116
Canan Aslan
Deha Doğan
Erkan Tabancalı
Esma Çolak
Course and Instructor Characteristics Distinguishing Highest and
Lowest Student Ratings of Instructors
Sevgi Özgüngör, Erdinc Duru………………………………….……….117-136
Hakan Atılgan
Contrasting Rhetorical Patterns: Discovering Effects of First and
Second Language Writing Conventions
Volkan İnceçay………………………………………….……….……….137-154
Hasan Hüseyin Aksoy
Counselor Trainees’ Views on Their Forthcoming Experiences in
Practicum Course
Yıldız Kurtyılmaz…………………………………….……….…....…….155-180
An Investigation of the Perceptions of School Administrators
Towards the Roles and Duties of School Counselors
Kasım Karataş, İsmet Kaya…………………………………….……….181-198
Gökhan Atik
Hasan Aydın
Hasan Hüseyin Aksu
Hasan Ünal
Kamile Demir
Kürşad Yılmaz
Kürşat Yenilmez
The Effect of the Developed Differentiation Approach on the Achievements of the Students
Esra Altıntaş, Ahmet Ş. Özdemir……………………………….….…..199-216
M. Ertuğrul Uçar
The Analysis of Elementary Mathematics Preservice Teachers’ Spatial
Orientation Skills with SOLO Model
Ahmet Şükrü Özdemir, Sevda Göktepe Yıldız…………….……..…..217-236
Ramazan Baştürk
In Regards to Higher Education Strategy, Assessment of Educational
Activities in Public Universities: The Case of Turkey
Ezgi Cevher, Hasan Yuksel……………………………………………237-256
Mehmet Güven
Şebnem Türktan
Şenel Poyrazlı
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, Issue 61, 2015, 1-22
A Comparative Study on the Teaching Profession in Turkey
and South Korea: Secondary Analysis of TALIS 2008 Data in
Relation to Teacher Self-Efficacy
Berna ASLAN*
Suggested Citation:
Aslan, B. (2015). A comparative study on the teaching profession in Turkey and
South Korea: Secondary analysis of TALIS 2008 data in relation to teacher selfefficacy. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 61, 1-22
http://dx.doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2015.61.1
Abstract
Problem Statement: Teacher self-efficacy is important factor for school and
student success. This study investigates the variables that explain teacher
self-efficacy in Turkey and South Korea according to TALIS 2008 data. A
detailed comparison was conducted and the state of the teaching
profession in both countries is discussed.
Purpose of the Study: The study aims to compare the teaching profession in
Turkey and South Korea in relation to teacher self-efficacy.
Method: Data relating to a total of 6194 teachers participating in TALIS
2008 from Turkey and South Korea were re-analyzed and evaluated in
relation to teacher self-efficacy. For this purpose TALIS 2008 data were
taken from the OECD official web page and subjected to stepwise multiple
regression analysis in relation to the variables that can explain teacher selfefficacy.
Findings: Results indicated that in both countries, the variable that best
explains the teacher self-efficacy is teacher-student relations in the school
environment (TSRELAT). The second variable that best explains the
teacher self-efficacy is the classroom disciplinary climate (CCLIMATE) for
Turkish teachers, it is professional collaboration (TCCOLLAB) for South
Korean teachers. Third variable is professional collaboration for Turkish
teachers, while it is classroom disciplinary climate and teacher's job
satisfaction in South Korean teachers. Job satisfaction is the fourth variable
that explains the teacher perception of self-efficacy in Turkey. Lastly,
while the respect given for the teaching profession within the society
appears to be a weak variable for explaining self-efficacy level of Turkish
teachers; it appears to be a more effective variable for South Korean
*
Assist. Prof. Dr., Ankara University, Faculty of Educational Sciences, [email protected]
2
Berna Aslan
teachers. All the variables together explain 22% of the variance in Turkey
and 28% of the variance in Korea in relation to teacher self-efficacy.
Conclusion and Recommendations: The variable that best explains the teacher
self-efficacy in both countries was found to be teacher-student relations in
the school. Results were discussed by supporting the literature.
Keywords: Teacher self-efficacy, teaching profession, TALIS, comparative
education.
Introduction
The Republic of Korea (South Korea) has shown great success in international
exams, such as the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), Trends in
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS), and Progress in International
Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). These exams are administered by the International
Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) of the OECD.
South Korea ranks among the top five countries in international examinations, such
as PISA exams, held every three years since 2000, and the TIMMS exam, which
assesses science and mathematics achievement and has been administered every four
years since 1995. The average scores of the South Korean students are well above the
OECD average.
South Korea was founded in 1948 after World War II. The Civil War between
1950 and 1953 had negative effects on the country. According to Lee, Kim and Byun
(2012), after the Korean Civil War the country had the same per capita income as
Kenya. During the period of 20-30 years following the war, the country made great
strides both in their economy and democracy. Adams and Gottlieb (1993) underlined
the importance of education in this significant progress (in Lee, Kim & Byun, 2012).
According to 2010 OECD data, South Korea's population was 49,394,000 and the
gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was $28,797. Turkey's population was then
72,698,000 with a gross domestic product per capita of $15,604 (OECD, 2013b),
approximately half the amount of South Korea. The country was founded 25 years
after the Republic of Turkey and launched their economic development initiatives at
approximately the same time (Calisir & Gulmez, 2010). Therefore, what is the reason
for the success of South Korea in education that has managed to place the country
among the major economies in today's world?
A national curriculum is followed in schools in both Turkey and South Korea.
Curricula are prepared by the Ministry of Education in South Korea (MOE, 2015a)
and by the Ministry of Education in Turkey. In 2008, when the first TALIS survey
was conducted, the age of completion of mandatory education in both countries was
14. Free compulsory middle school education began in 1985 in the South Korean
remote island areas and was expanded to county areas between 1992 and 1994. Since
2002, all cities across the nation have adopted the compulsory education system,
which spread nationwide after 2004 (MOE, 2015b). However, in regard to
participation in education, the age range is 6-17 in South Korea while it is 6-13 in
Turkey (OECD, 2013a). In other words, while the vast majority of the population in
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research
3
Korea participate in education beyond the mandatory education stage, the
mandatory education range in Turkey cannot even be achieved.
Private preparatory centres and private lessons are common in both countries
due to the fact that they both have a university matriculation exam and student
achievement is assessed through several centralized exams. However, from the
viewpoint of student success on international exams, the average student score of
Turkey cannot compete with that of South Korea. The high success of the South
Korean students on international exams draws attention to the teacher training and
teacher qualities. Indeed, much research (Angrist & Lavy, 1998; Boyd, Grossman,
Lankford, Loeb & Wyckoff 2009; Kang & Hong, 2008) reveals the relationship
between student success and teacher quality. Recent studies (Scheerens & Bosker,
1997) have revealed that the quality and methods of teaching impact student success
more than the school environment. Being the first large-scale international teacher
survey, TALIS 2008 investigated different variables, which may directly or indirectly
affect student success (OECD, 2009a, p.90). Based on the modern teaching view
arguing that teachers are not only effective in the classroom, but also active
participants in school development (Darling-Hammond et al., 2005, as cited in OECD
2009a), TALIS investigated teachers’ views and participation in in-class and out ofclass activities.
Teacher Self-Efficacy as a Factor in Student Success
The concept of self-efficacy was introduced to the literature by Albert Bandura
and has been the subject of many studies. Bandura (1997) describes self-efficacy as
"an individual's self judgment about their capacity to organize and fulfil activities
required to demonstrate a particular performance”. Bandura defines individual's
perception of efficacy as a principal variable relating to a man's nature. Accordingly,
if individuals believe that they cannot affect the result, they prefer not to do anything
although they could (1997, p. 3). According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy beliefs are
grounded in four main resources: 1) mastery experience, 2) vicarious experiences, 3)
social persuasion, and 4) physical and emotional state. Bandura suggests that as an
individuals' experiences increase and they overcome some challenges, their
perception of self-efficacy grows. Experiences of others and rewards and penalties
received for success or failures also indirectly impact growth of self-efficacy. Bandura
further states that social persuasion/recognition of their behaviour also impact the
self-efficacy belief. Finally, an individual's mental state and physical and emotional
state affect the perception of self-efficacy.
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (1993) assumes that an individual's perception
of self-efficacy affects one’s entire life, including their educational experiences.
According to this theory, an individual's belief that he or she will accomplish a job
with success impacts motivation, interests and success. Also, as the perceived
efficacy level increases, targets go up further, and efforts and resolutions to achieve
these targets increase. Student perceptions of self-efficacy and success levels have
been the subject of many studies. Dogan and Barıs (2010), in their study on the
Turkish students who took the TIMMS-1999 and TIMMS-2007 exams, have suggested
that students' beliefs of self-efficacy are the most important predictor in explaining
success and that their TIMMS exam scores increase as their self-efficacy belief
increases.
4
Berna Aslan
Extensive research indicates a positive relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy
and students’ success (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Ross, 1992; Mojavezi & Tamiz, 2012;
Caprara et al., 2006). Mojavezi & Tamiz's research (2012) has revealed that there is a
high positive relationship between teacher self-efficacy and student success. Beyond
its impact on the student, teacher’s self-efficacy determines their behaviour in the
classroom, advancing teaching skills and improving enthusiasm and motivation
toward the teaching profession (Chan, 2005). Therefore, improvement of teacher selfefficacy is important not only for increasing student success, but also for making
teacher's classroom practices more effective and engaging in the profession more
enthusiastically.
Bandura (1997, p. 244) suggests that in efficacious schools, the teacher shares the
responsibility of student success and accepts their responsibility for student
development. He further suggests that in schools with a low success level, the
teacher does not expect high academic achievement from students and those teachers
at these schools provide less academic education and rather spend effort in ensuring
class discipline (p. 245).
A review of related literature and TALIS 2008 has concluded that the following
variables (some index scores in TALIS 2008) may predict teachers’ self-efficacy (see
Figure 1).
The value of
the profession
within the
society (31f)
Job
Satisfaction
(31a)
Professional
Collaboration
(TCCOLLAB)
Classroom
Disciplinary
Climate
(CCLIMATE)
Teacher Self
Efficacy
TeacherStudent
Relations
(SELFEF)
(TSRELAT)
Figure 1. TALIS 2008 index values that may explain teacher self-efficacy
Olafsson and Macdonald’s (2012) study with TALIS 2008 data revealed two
clusters of teachers from the countries participating in TALIS. The study divided the
participating countries into two clusters: those having and those not having a culture
of observation and working together. Among these countries, South Korea was
found to be the top country with the highest level of observation, feedback and
collective work among teachers (p. 8). As a result of the study, in which Turkey and
South Korea fell into two opposite clusters (p. 8), it was suggested that political and
socio-economic status affected teacher practices and was also suggested to
investigate teacher training systems in different clusters. Oettingen (1995) has further
recommended that perceived self-efficacy may differ depending on the culture, and
therefore, perception of self-efficacy in every culture must be investigated in
5
association with the current culture and also by investigating the school culture.
Oettingen (1995, p. 151) indicated the importance of culture on self-efficacy and said
it may change depending on the perception of members of a society and their
interpretation of the variables that may be associated with self-efficacy.
In the present study, which aims to investigate the extent to which some variables
of TALIS 2008 data predict teacher self-efficacy in South Korea and Turkey, the status
and conditions of teacher profession were discussed.
TALIS 2008 Research
TALIS (Teaching and Learning Survey) 2008 was the first large-scale teacher
survey to collect views of teachers and administrators from different countries on
schools, programs and practices to provide international comparative data. TALIS
discussed the overall teaching processes as factors affecting teaching processes at the
classroom and school level. The survey was administered to teachers and
administrators working at the ISCED 2 education level (starting from age 11-12 and
continuing for three years) in the participating countries. This age group corresponds
to the last stage of mandatory education in many countries. Twenty-four countries
participated in TALIS 2008, and the views of teachers and administrators about
topics such as professional development, teaching-learning processes and the
teaching profession were identified. Thus, county profiles were identified according
to the teacher and administrator views about the education systems (OECD, 2009a).
TALIS 2008 provided data for the following four dimensions in the schooling
processes of the participant countries (OECD, 2009b, p. 6).
1- The role and functioning of school leadership
2- How teachers’ work is appraised and the feedback they receive
3- Teachers’ professional development
4- Teachers' beliefs and attitudes about teaching and their pedagogical practices
As result of TALIS 2008, many indices were developed for these four dimensions.
The present study identifies the extent to which some indices obtained from the
teacher survey and some questions available in the said survey explain the teacher
perception of self-efficacy in South Korea and Turkey.
Methodology
Research Design
The present research is a descriptive and correlational study that compares the
teacher views in Turkey and South Korea. Study answer the following question:
“How well do some of the TALIS 2008 variables (CCLIMATE, TSRELAT,
TCCOLLAB, job satisfaction, place of the teaching profession in society from the
teacher’s point of view) predict the teachers’ self-efficacy (SELFEF) in Turkey and
South Korea?”
To do this, the two categorical questions in TALIS 2008 (31a: “All in all, I am
satisfied with my job” and 31f: “Teachers in this local community are well
respected”) were converted to constant values using SPSS (Dummy variable - See
6
Berna Aslan
OECD, 2009b, p. 36). Later, a regression analysis was performed using IDBAnalyzer
to conduct secondary analyses of TALIS 2008 data. As a result, the best predictor of
teacher self-efficacy was defined for both countries.
Research Instruments and Procedures
Indexes utilized in the present study and their properties are briefly given as
follows (see for more information, OECD 2009b, p. 17).
Self-efficacy index (SELFEF). This index consists of four items (see Table 1). The
index provided a valid and reliable result both in an international sample and
specifically for each country. Therefore, it qualifies as a comparable index (OECD,
2010, p. 148).
Table 1.
Items in the Self-Efficacy Index*
Please indicate your opinion on the following.
BTG31B
I feel that I am making a significant educational difference in the lives of my
students.
BTG31C
If I really try hard, I can make progress with even the most difficult and
unmotivated students.
BTG31D
I am successful with the students in my class.
BTG31E
I usually know how to get through to students.
*4 = strongly agree, 3 = agree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree
Teacher-student relations index (TSRELAT). In TALIS 2008, teachers and
administrators were asked questions aimed to determine the school climate. These
indices about the school climate have a valid and reliable structure that allows
comparison between the countries. This index consists of four items (see Table 2) in
the teacher survey.
Table 2.
Items in the Teacher-Student Relations Index*
Please indicate your level of agreement on the following. What is the current
situation in this school about the following?
BTG31G
In this school, teachers and students usually get on well with each other.
BTG31H
Most teachers in this school believe that students' well-being is important.
BTG31I
Most teachers in this school are interested in what students have to say.
BTG31J
If a student from this school needs extra help, the school provides it.
* 4 = strongly agree, 3 = agree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree
7
Classroom disciplinary climate index (CCLIMATE). This index assesses the teacher
views on classroom discipline. Since the PISA research suggested a positive
relationship between student success and classroom discipline in many countries,
TALIS 2008 also discussed the classroom disciplinary climate as an important
dimension that affects the learning processes and motivation of students (OECD
2009a, p. 90). Consisting of four items (BTG43A, BTG43B, BTG43C, BTG43D,see Table
3), the index score has a high internal validity in all countries (OECD, 2010, p. 147).
Confirmatory factor analysis results have also indicated that the index is a fit and
valid scale to make an international comparison. A high index score suggests a
positive classroom disciplinary climate and a low index score suggests a negative
classroom disciplinary climate (OECD, 2010, p. 147).
Table 3.
Items in the Classroom Disciplinary Climate Index*
Please indicate your opinion on the following.
BTG43A
When the lesson begins, I have to wait a long time for students to
quieten down.
BTG43B
Students in this class take care to create a pleasant learning
environment.
BTG43C
I lose quite a lot of time because of students interrupting the lesson.
BTG43D
There is much noise in this classroom.
* 4 = strongly agree, 3 = agree, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree
Professional collaboration (TCCOLLAB). This index consists of five items (see Table
4). Validity and reliability coefficients (see Tables 9 and 10) and model concordance
are satisfactory.
Table 4.
Items in Professional Collaboration Index*
How often do you do the following activities?
BTG30H
Teach jointly as a team in the same class.
BTG30I
Take part in professional learning activities (e.g. group supervision).
BTG30J
Observe other teachers' classes and provide feedback.
BTG30K
Engage in different activities across different classes and age groups (e.g., projects).
BTG30L
Discuss and coordinate homework practice across subjects.
*1=never, 2=less than once a year, 3=once a year, 4=3-4 times a year, 5=monthly, 6=weekly
8
Berna Aslan
Research Sample
In TALIS 2008, samples were determined using the two-stage cluster sampling
method. Each school that participated in the research was assumed to be a separate
cluster and teachers at these schools were considered as subsets within these clusters.
Thus, the schools may be considered as primary or macro units, and the teachers as
micro or secondary units. During the sample determination process, national units of
each country in charge of conducting the TALIS research sent a list of schools
providing ISCED 2 level education to the Canadian Statistics Institute (Statistics
Canada). There the participant schools were grouped in proportion to their size, and
a list of teachers teaching at ISCED2 level and eligible to participate in the survey
was sent to the national centres. National centres identified the teachers to participate
in the research by a random sampling method using IEA DPC program. On average,
200 schools from each country and 20 teachers from each school participated in the
research (OECD, 2009b, p. 8). Sampling weight was used to generalize the findings
obtained from samples selected by random sampling method for the entire education
system. Sample weight is a method used to reduce the probability of unfit selection
of schools or teachers. If group response has a low probability of representation, this
is offset by a high sample weight, or reversely, as a response's probability of
representation increases, its sample weight decreases (OECD, 2009b, p. 23). In the
present study teacher weight values were used and also the standard error and
standard deviation scores, depending on the teacher weight values, were indicated in
the analyses.
This study was conducted in line with the views of 6,194 teachers from Turkey
and South Korea who participated in TALIS 2008. The TALIS survey was conducted
with teachers instructing at ISCED 2 level (starting from age 11-12 and continuing for
three years) in the OECD countries. The age group that was administered the TALIS
survey in South Korea corresponds to the first part of the secondary education. The
survey was administered to teachers at the first level of secondary education (the last
three years of the mandatory education). In 2008, when the research was conducted,
participants from Turkey were 6th, 7th and 8th grade teachers working at primary
schools. Data was collected through questionnaires applied on-line or on paper by
the national centres in each country. All of the teachers in Turkey and South Korea
completed the questionnaire on-line (OECD, 2010, p. 85) Age groups of the
participating teachers are provided in Table 5.
9
Table 5.
Age Ranges of the Teachers that Participated in TALIS 2008 from Turkey and South Korea
Age Ranges
Total
Under age
25-29 30-39
40-49
50-59
60+
25
N
192
936
1225
559
305
7
3224
Turkey
%
3.4
20.7
32.3
30.9
12.1
0.6
100
N
19
346
773
1354
446
32
2970
S. Korea %
0.6
11.6
26.0
45.6
15.0
1.1
100
As seen in Table 5, the age range of the teachers participating in the research from
Turkey is younger than those from Korea. While 56.4% of the teachers participating
in the research from Turkey were under age 40, 61.7% of those from South Korea
were above age 40.
Table 6 lists the fields of the teachers that participated in the TALIS research. Of
those recruited for the survey, 109 teachers from Turkey and 66 teachers from South
Korea did not respond to this question. Fields of study of the 6,019 teachers who did
respond are shown in Table 6. According to this, the majority of the teachers
participating in the research from both countries are mother tongue and foreign
language teachers. Mathematics, science and social sciences teachers follow them.
Table 6.
Distribution of Teachers that Participated in TALIS 2008 from Turkey and South Korea
According to Their Field of Study
Turkey
South Korea
Field of Study
n
%
n
%
Mother Tongue Teacher
453
13.69
519
18
Mathematics
362
11.46
371
12.81
Science
345
10.85
367
12.82
Social Sciences
306
9.65
379
12.92
Foreign Languages
501
15.91
330
11.51
Technology
292
9.48
199
6.86
Art
286
8.74
261
8.67
Physical Education
229
7.94
251
8.70
Religious Studies
226
7.80
49
1.67
Vocational Classes
50
1.73
97
3.32
Other
65
2.75
81
2.74
TOTAL
3115
100
2904
100
Missing
109
66
Data Analysis
The data file that contains the information for Turkish and South Korean
teachers’
answers
in
TALIS
2008
was
downloaded
from
http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TALIS#. For secondary analysis of
10
Berna Aslan
the data IDBAnalyzer 3 program, developed by IEA to analyse large-scale data, was
used. First, the questionnaires of the teachers from the two countries were merged in
the "merge" module of the IDBAnalyzer 3 program, and thereafter, the data was
analysed in the "analysis" module. Data were analysed using the teacher weighted
average, percentage calculations and regression analysis in the IDBAnalyzer 3
program. Standard error and standard deviation values are presented in the tables.
Stepwise multiple regression analysis was used in data analysis. However, before the
analyses, the correlation coefficients between variables and VIF (variance inflation
factors) for each variable were calculated to determine if there was a multicollinearity
between the variables.
Table 7.
Correlation Coefficients of the Variables
SOCIAL RESPECT
.25
.14
1
.20
.18
.24
1
SOCIAL RESPECT
.25
1
JOB SATISFACTION
1
1
TCCOLLAB
.12
.29
SELFEF
.16
.32
TSRELAT
.14
.31
CCLIMATE
.27
.39
SELFEF
SOCIAL RESPECT
.23
1
JOB SATISFACTION
SELFEF
TCCOLLAB
JOB SATISFACTION
1
SOUTH KOREA
TCCOLLAB
CCLIMATE
TSRELAT
TSRELAT
CCLIMATE
TURKEY
.19
1
.26
.37
.07
.22
.14
.17
.16
.22
1
.31
1
.27
.08
1
.30
.20
.22
1
Viewing the correlation between the variables (see Table 7), there is a moderate
relationship between teacher self-efficacy (SELFEF) and other variables in both
countries. Overall, there is a low or moderate relationship between the variables.
11
Table 8.
Variance Inflation Factors for Each Variable
Turkey
S. Korea
CCLIMATE
1.08
1.07
TSRELAT
1.18
1.16
TCCOLLAB
1.07
1.11
JOB SATISFACTION
1.07
1.08
SOCIAL RESPECT
1.04
1.10
When Table 8 is examined, it is apparent that the VIF values of the variables
range between 1.07 and 1.16. Multicollinearity exists if VIFj ≥ 10 (Keith, 2006). There
is no multicollinearity between the variables in this study that may preclude a
regression analysis.
Validity and Reliability
Table 9 presents the results of exploratory factor analysis of the TALIS 2008
indices used in this study. When the table is examined, index findings in both
countries are seen to present a valid structure.
Table 9.
Exploratory Factor Analysis Results
Teacher Selfefficacy Index
(SELFEF)
Classroom
Disciplinary
Climate Index
(CCLIMATE)
TeacherStudent
Relations Index
(TSRELAT)
Professional
Collaboration
(TCCOLLAB)
Turkey
0.898
0.938
0.934
0.907
South Korea
0.881
0.921
0.873
0.923
Source: OECD 2010, Technical Report pp. 176, 179, 183, 204
As indicated in the TALIS report (OECD, 2009b, p. 74), while the scales are
reliable (See Table 10) in terms of configural and metric invariance, the scalar
invariance is not achieved in general, and it is therefore warned that some indices
cannot be used for direct comparison. However, it is stated that the scale's invariance
coefficient for the index scores used in the present study (SELFEF, CCLIMATE,
TSRELAT, TCCOLLAB) are fit for international comparison and that it is possible to
make a comparison (OECD, 2010).
12
Berna Aslan
Table 10.
Cronbach Alpha Reliability Coefficients
Teacher Selfefficacy
Index
Classroom
Disciplinary
Climate Index
(SELFEF)
(CCLIMATE)
TeacherStudent
Relations Index
(TSRELAT)
Professional
Collaboration
(TCCOLLAB)
Turkey
0.771
0.839
0.811
0.722
South
Korea
0.744
0.760
0.723
0.808
Source: OECD 2010, Technical Report pp. 169,177,180, 200
Results and Discussion
The TALIS study revealed that the teachers from South Korea had low perception
of self-efficacy, although their students showed high success in international exams.
This finding is not congruent with the findings in the literature (Ashton & Webb,
1986; Ross, 1992; Caprara et al., 2006) suggesting that there is a directly proportional
relationship between teacher self-efficacy and student success. South Korean teachers
had the lowest self-efficacy (X = -.77, se = .02) among the teachers participating in
TALIS 2008 from 23 countries.
In the present study, predictors of teachers’ self-efficacy were defined. TALIS
2008 data was re-analyzed and job satisfaction of the teachers, the value of the
teaching profession within society (from the teacher's point of view), and how well
some TALIS 2008 indices (CCLIMATE, TSRELAT, TCCOLLAB) can predict the
teacher perception of self-efficacy in Turkey and South Korea were investigated (See
Figure 1)
For job satisfaction, while 15.78% of the teachers in Turkey indicated that they
were not satisfied with their job, the rate of teachers who shared the same view was
10.86% in South Korea (See Table 11). In both countries, more than 80% of the
teachers still reported that they were satisfied with their jobs.
13
Table 11.
Teacher Views about Job Satisfaction in Turkey and South Korea
Despite everything, I am professionally satisfied with
teaching.
Strongly
Disagree
Turkey
South Korea
Total
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Total
N
107
387
1766
869
3129
%
3.4
12.4
56.4
27.8
100
N
18
299
2096
504
2917
%
0.6
10.3
71.9
17.3
100
N
125
686
3862
1373
6046
%
2.1
11.3
63.9
22.7
100
Kuzgun, Sevim and Hamamci (1999) suggested that job satisfaction may be
influenced by different factors (income level, awards and recognition, job security,
advancement opportunity, etc.). However, scarcity or plenitude of workplace
conditions does not directly lead to job satisfaction in that satisfaction depends on the
importance attached by the individual to these factors. Although there are significant
differences between the conditions of teachers in South Korea and Turkey,
participants in the TALIS 2008 survey expressed similar views about job satisfaction.
In terms of salary, which is one of the factors that may explain job satisfaction, there
are significant differences between the teachers in the two countries. Among the
OECD countries, South Korea gives the highest raises for teacher salaries (Lee & Yoo,
2000). A teacher at the first level of secondary education earns an average of $52,699
annually by the time they are midway through their career. This figure is well above
the OECD average ($41,701) (CIEB, 2015). Teachers who start working with an
annual salary of $30,401 can reach $84,529 by the end of their career, which is much
higher than the highest OECD average ($51,317). In South Korea, teacher salaries
always tend to be higher than that of other professions in the country (Lee & Yoo,
2000). On the other hand, in Turkey, although starting teacher salaries in Turkey
($23,494) (OECD, 2013c) is above the gross domestic per capita level ($17,034 for
2011), salary raises and improvements are very low compared to South Korea
(maximum $27,201 per annum) (OECD, 2013c). While teachers can earn twice the
income per capita in South Korea as their career progresses, teachers in Turkey can
only earn a little over their starting salary even if they demonstrate great success.
In terms of employees’ rights of teachers working at private and public schools,
teachers in South Korea have more advantages than their counterparts in Turkey.
There can be significant differences in salaries of teachers working at private and
public schools in Turkey. However, Lee & Yoo (2000) report that teachers working at
private and public school in South Korea's education system earn the same salary
(based on experience and seniority) and differences are paid by the state if private
schools do not pay the same salary (p. 3). This practice is crucial in preserving the
14
Berna Aslan
status and value of the teaching profession. In return, preserving the status of the
profession leads to the teaching profession still being one of the most preferred
programs among the students taking university exams (CIEB, 2015). Thus, the most
successful students strive to become teachers in the country that allows for
advancement of qualified teachers. By contrast, in Turkey, although there have been
attempts to improve the teaching profession since 1950s, this aim has still not been
achieved, due to the profession is not preferred by successful students because of its
low socio-economic status (Deniz & Sahin, 2006). In South Korea, 5% of the most
successful students taking the university exam prefer the teaching profession (Kwon
& Ju, 2012). Kwon & Ju (2012) attribute it to the respect held for the profession within
the society according to the traditional understanding based on the teachings of
Confucius, job security and high salary offered by the profession.
Teaching is among the most preferred professions in South Korea and well
respected by the society (Kim, 2009; Sorensen, 1994). Shin & Koh (2005) report that
education is highly valued in the Far Eastern societies because of the impact of
Confucius' teachings. In South Korea, there are regulative studies to improve the
teaching profession in the society. It is seen that law also protects the prestige of the
teaching profession in South Korea. The "Teaching Profession Status Enhancement
Act" dated 2008 introduced regulations regarding how the status of the teaching
profession in the society must be preserved. The same act stipulated to create a
"council for improving the status of the teaching profession" in each metropolitan
area to preserve and improve the status of teaching profession (MOE, 2008).
According to the TALIS 2008 data, the majority of the teachers in Turkey think
that their profession is recognized as a respectable profession by the society (See
Table 12). 71.60% of the teachers participating in the research from Turkey (n: 2239)
think that their profession is perceived as a respectable profession by the society.
However, contrary to the views in the literature (Kim, 2009; Shin & Koh, 2005), only
41.67% of the teachers (n: 1211) in South Korea think that their profession is
respected by the society.
Table 12.
Teacher Views in Turkey and South Korea on "Respect for Teaching Profession in Their
Country"
Teaching is a respected profession in this area.
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Total
Disagree
Agree
Turkey
N
212
676
1720
519
3127
%
6.8
21.6
55.0
16.6
100
South
N
237
1458
1165
46
2906
Korea
%
8.2
50.2
40.1
1.6
100
Total
N
449
2134
2885
565
6033
%
7.4
35.4
47.8
9.4
100
15
Descriptive statistics are given in Table 13. When the table is examined, the
teachers’ self-efficacy is seen to be very low in South Korea. This finding is not
congruent with the findings in the literature correlating the student success with the
teacher self-efficacy (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Ross, 1992; Mojavezi & Tamiz, 2012;
Caprara et al., 2006). The classroom disciplinary climate (CCLIMATE) index scores
are lower among the South Korean teachers. In other words, there is a more negative
classroom discipline in South Korea. Also in terms of teacher-student relations
(TSRELAT), the teachers in South Korea demonstrate a more negative attitude.
Table 13.
Sample Weighted Descriptive Statistics
TURKEY
SOUTH KOREA
M
SD
Min
Max
M
SD
Min
Max
CCLIMATE
-.07
.99
-2.78
1.60
-.12
.79
-2.65
1.56
TSRELAT
-.10
1.09
-2.5
2
-.39
.70
-2.38
1.64
SELFEF
.01
1.11
-2.93
2.18
-.77
.90
-3.09
1.85
TCCOLLAB
-.36
.77
-1.71
2.49
1.36
.83
-.29
4.16
JOB
SATISFACTION
.83
.38
.00
1.00
.89
.31
.00
1.00
SOCIAL
RESPECT
.65
.48
.00
1.00
.43
.49
.00
1.00
In terms of professional collaboration (TCCOLLAB), teachers in South Korea are
far more advanced than their counterparts in Turkey. It is worth mentioning here the
different practices of experience sharing. Team teaching is a method that has been
preferred by teachers in many countries in recent years (Tajino & Walker, 1998;
Welch, 2000). Although there may be some uncertainties in division of tasks among
the teachers instructing as a team, it is preferred by the field teachers in Japan and
South Korea (Anderson & Speck, 1998; Welch, 2000) because of its positive impact on
student success. Although the literature discusses practices such as co-teaching and
team teaching and their differences (Welch, 2000), the principal goal is to have the
teachers from the same field teach together and share their experiences. To the
question, "How often do you teach with your colleagues as a team?" 2039 out of 3077
teachers (66.3%) in Turkey responded "never". By contrast, 72.4% of the teachers from
South Korea reported that they taught with their colleagues as a team at least once a
year. This result is an important finding that indicates the difference between the
professional solidarity and collaboration between the teachers in the two countries.
In the TALIS 2008 research, the teachers were asked about observing their
colleagues' classes and providing feedback. 1917 teachers among 3093 (62%) in
Turkey responded to this question as "never". On the other hand, the percentage of
teachers who responded as "never" from South Korea was only 5.5% (n: 159). 78.4%
16
Berna Aslan
of the teachers from South Korea reported that they observed other colleagues and
provided feedback at least once a year. The percentage in Turkey was 26.5%.
This significant difference between the two countries in observing colleagues'
classes and providing feedback is an important finding that indicates the different
perspectives of the teachers concerning their profession. In the literature, observing
colleagues and providing feedback is regarded as an approach that improves
education (Blackwell, 1996; Cosh, 1999). In South Korea, teachers tend to benefit from
each other's experiences by observing colleague's classes and holding collective
discussions. However, in Turkey, teachers view their classrooms as a part of their
privacy. TALIS results also suggest that the more feedback teachers receive, the more
their self-confidence increases in the teaching process (TALIS, 2009). When evaluated
in this respect, it is important for teachers to develop a habit of observing each other's
classes and providing feedback.
Table 14.
Predictors of Teacher Self-Efficacy According to TALIS 2008 Data
Turkey
Predictor
B
SEB
Constant
-.25
.15
CCLIMATE
.19
.04
TSRELAT
.26
TCCOLLAB
South Korea
B
SEB
-1.46
.07
.17
.18
.02
.16
.04
.26
.31
.03
.24
.18
.08
.12
.22
.02
.20
JOB S.
.33
.11
.11
.48
.06
.16
SOCIAL
RESPECT
.13
.12
.06
.26
.04
.14
R2
.22
F
198.92
β
β
.28
214,916
P<.01
The results of the stepwise multiple regression, indicating how well different
variables explain teacher self-efficacy, is provided in Table 14. According to this, the
relationship between the teachers’ self-efficacy (SELFEF) and the independent
variables is R=.45 for the teachers in Turkey and R=.53 for the teachers in South
Korea.
17
In both countries, the variable that best explains the teacher perception of selfefficacy is teacher-student relations in the school environment (TSRELAT) (Turkey β
=. 26, South Korea β = 24). While the second variable that best explains the teacher
self-efficacy is the classroom disciplinary climate (CCLIMATE) in Turkey (β=.17,
p<.01), it is professional collaboration (TCCOLLAB) in South Korea (β = 20, p <. 01).
The third variable is professional collaboration in Turkey (β=.12, p<.01) , while it is
classroom disciplinary climate (β=.16, p<.01) and teachers' job satisfaction (β=.16,
p<.01) in South Korea. Job satisfaction is the fourth variable that explains the teacher
perception of self-efficacy in Turkey (β=.11, p<.01). Lastly, while the respect for the
teaching profession within the society appears to be a weak variable for explaining
the self-efficacies of Turkish teachers (β=.06), it appears to be a more effective
variable for South Korean teachers (β=.14). All the variables explain 22% (F (5, 3027) =
198.92; p<.01) of the variance in Turkey and 28% (F (5, 2866) = 214,916; p<.01) of the
variance in Korea in relation to teacher self-efficacy. This is a good degree of
explanation for a large-scale research finding to make a generalization about the
teachers across the country.
Conclusion and Recommendations
This study investigated the teaching profession in Turkey and South Korea in
relation to teacher self-efficacy, an important variable that may impact student
success. Secondary analysis of TALIS 2008 data was conducted in order to find out
variables that best explain self-efficacy. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was
used to reveal the state of the teaching profession in both countries. No difference
was found between the teachers of the two countries in terms of job satisfaction. A
significant difference was found in favour of the South Korean teachers in terms of
sharing professional experience and observing colleagues.
In terms of teacher self-efficacy, the teacher-student relation in the school
environment is the most important factor in explaining the teachers’ perception of
self-efficacy in both countries. While the classroom disciplinary climate may explain
the teacher self-efficacy better in Turkey, for South Korean teachers, collaboration
with colleagues appears to be more indispensable. This result suggests that the
disciplinary climate in the teacher's classroom in Turkey is more effective and
collaboration with colleagues in South Korea is more effective in creating a
perception of self-efficacy. The degree of the variables discussed in the study to
explain the teacher perception of self-efficacy in both countries is quite respectable.
Conducted with re-analysis of TALIS 2008, the present study reveals important
findings regarding the condition of teachers in Turkey and South Korea. There is also
a need for similar studies focusing on the practices of different countries.
18
Berna Aslan
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Türkiye ve Güney Kore’de Öğretmenlik Mesleğine İlişkin Karşılaştırmalı
Bir Çalışma: TALIS 2008 Verilerinin Öğretmen Öz-Yeterliği Bağlamında Tekrar
Analizi
Atıf:
Aslan, B. (2015). A comparative study on the teaching profession in Turkey and
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1-26.
Özet
Problem Durumu: Kore Cumhuriyeti (Güney Kore) OECD bünyesinde yer alan
Uluslararası Eğitim Başarısını Değerlendirme Birliği (IEA- The International
Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement) tarafından düzenlenen
PISA, TIMMS, PIRLS gibi uluslararası sınavlarda büyük başarılar göstermektedir.
Güney Kore’deki öğrencilerin ortalama başarı puanları OECD ortalamasının çok
üzerindedir. Ülkedeki yüksek başarı düzeyi öğretmenler ve öğretmen yetiştirme
sistemine dikkati çekmektedir. Nitekim araştırmalar öğretmenin öğrenci başarısını
etkileyen önemli faktörlerden birisi olduğunu göstermektedir. TALIS 2008
araştırması, öğrenci başarısında çok etkin bir rol oynayan öğretmenler üzerine
yapılan, uluslararası katılımlı ilk geniş çaplı araştırmadır. TALIS, araştırmaya katılan
21
OECD üyesi ülkelerdeki öğretmen profilleri hakkında bilgi vermesi açısından
önemlidir. Bu araştırmada Güney Kore ve Türkiye’deki öğretmenlerin öz-yeterlik
inançlarını açıklayan değişkenleri belirlemek ve bu bağlamda iki ülkedeki
öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin bir analiz yapmak amaçlanmıştır.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Bu çalışmada, TALIS 2008 verisinde yer alan bazı index puanları
[Sınıf disiplini (CCLIMATE), Öğretmen-öğrenci ilişkisi (TSRELAT), Öğretmenlerin
mesleki işbirliği (TCCOLLAB), iş doyumu, toplumda öğretmenlik mesleğine verilen
önem] Türkiye ve Güney Kore’deki öğretmenlerin öz-yeterlik inançlarını (SELFEF)
ne kadar açıklayabilmektedir? Sorusuna yanıt aranmıştır. Bu çerçevede iki ülkedeki
öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin durum karşılaştırılmıştır.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Araştırma betimsel ve ilişkisel araştırma türünde bir
çalışmadır. Araştırmanın örneklemini TALIS 2008 araştırmasına Türkiye ve Güney
Kore’den ISCED 2 düzeyinde (11-12 yaşta başlayıp üç yıl süren eğitim kademesi)
öğretmenlik yapan 6194 öğretmen oluşturmaktadır. TALIS 2008 araştırmasına
Türkiye’den ve G. Kore’den katılan öğretmenlere ilişkin veriler OECD resmi
sitesinden indirilmiş ve IDBAnalyzer 3 programı kullanılarak regresyon analizi
yapılmıştır.
Araştırmanın Bulguları: TALIS araştırması Güney Kore’deki öğretmenlerin öz-yeterlik
inançlarının oldukça düşük olduğunu göstermiştir. Öğrencilerin yüksek akademik
başarı göstermelerine karşın öğretmenlerin düşük öz-yeterlik inancına sahip olması
literatürle çelişir görünmektedir. Öz-yeterlik inancını açıklayan değişkenlere
bakıldığında hem Türkiye’deki hem de G. Kore’deki öğretmenlerin öz-yeterlik
inançlarını en iyi açıklayan değişkenin okuldaki öğretmen-öğrenci ilişkisi (TSRELAT)
olduğu görülmüştür (Türkiye β =. 26, Güney Kore β = 24). Türkiye’de öğretmenlerin
öz-yeterlik inançlarını en iyi açıklayan ikinci değişken sınıf disiplini (CCLIMATE)
(β=.17, p<.01) iken Güney Kore’de öğretmenler arasındaki mesleki işbirliğidir (β =
20, p <. 01). Öğretmenlerin öz-yeterlik inançlarını en iyi açıklayan üçüncü değişken
Türkiye’deki öğretmenler için mesleki işbirliği (β=.12, p<.01) iken Güney Kore’de
sınıf disiplini (β=.16, p<.01) ve iş doyumudur (β=.16, p<.01). İş doyumu Türkiye’deki
öğretmenler için öz-yeterliği açıklayan dördüncü değişkendir (β=.11, p<.01).
Toplumda öğretmenlik mesleğine duyulan saygı Türkiye’deki öğretmenler için özyeterliği açıklamada yetersiz kalırken (β=.06); Güney Kore’deki öğretmenler için özyeterliği açıklayan daha önemli bir değişkendir (β=.14). Tüm değişkenler birlikte
Türkiye’deki öğretmenlerin öz-yeterlik inançlarına ilişkin varyansın %22’sini G.
Kore’de %28’sini açıklamaktadır.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: TALIS araştırması OECD üye ülkelerindeki
öğretmenler hakkında bilgi veren önemli bir araştırmadır. Bu çalışmada TALIS 2008
verileri tekrar analiz edilerek Türkiye ve Güney Kore’deki öğretmenlerin özyeterliklerini (SELFEF) açıklayan faktörleri belirlemek ve bu bağlamda iki ülkedeki
öğretmenlik mesleğinin durumunu analiz etmek amaçlanmıştır. Sonuçlar G.Kore’li
öğretmenlerin Türkiye’deki meslektaşlarına göre çok daha fazla işbirliği yaptıklarını
ve birlikte derse girme, meslektaşların ders gözlemi gibi uygulamaların G. Kore’de
çok daha sık olduğunu göstermiştir. Öğretmenlerin öz-yeterlik inançlarının G.Koreli
öğretmenlerde düşük düzeyde olması uluslararası sınavlarda G.Koreli öğrencilerin
yüksek başarısı dikkate alındığında literatürle çelişmektedir. Regresyon analizi
22
Berna Aslan
sonuçları her iki ülkede de öz-yeterliği en iyi açıklayan değişkenin öğretmen-öğrenci
ilişkileri (TSRELAT) olduğunu göstermiştir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Öğretmen öz-yeterliği, öğretmenlik mesleği, TALIS, karşılaştırmalı
eğitim.
Psychometric Characteristics of the Social Justice Scale’s
Turkish Form and A Structural Equation Modeling1
İlker CIRIK*
Suggested Citation:
Cirik, I. (2015). Psychometric characteristics of the social justice scale’s Turkish form
and a structural equation modeling. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research,
61, 23-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2015.61.2
Abstract
Problem Statement: In order to provide equal educational opportunities for
students, teachers should encourage their students to have an effective
voice concerning social justice. Studies reveal that teachers face trouble
when transferring from the concept of social justice as theory to social
justice as practice. A scale which will be developed on social justice may
enable teachers to better comprehend the process of movement from
attitude to action. Moreover, examining which factors affect teachers’
behaviors towards social justice will contribute to the arrangement of
social justice studies in learning environments.
Purpose of the Study: The primary aim of the study is to analyze the
psychometric characteristics of the Social Justice Scale’s Turkish form. The
secondary aim is to determine the effects of social justice attitudes,
subjective norms and perceived behavioral control on behavioral
intentions.
Method: The scale adaptation process was conducted with 515 participants
(376 female, 139 male), and structural equation modeling was conducted
with 410 (313 female, 97 male) participants. The data were collected
through the Social Justice Scale. In analyzing the data, Pearson Correlation
Coefficients, confirmatory factor analysis and Cronbach Alpha coefficients
were utilized. The effects of social justice attitudes, subjective norms and
perceived behavioral control on behavioral intentions were analyzed
through structural equation modeling.
Findings and Results: Linguistic equivalence of the scale was obtained
p=.00, p<.01. After confirmatory factor analysis, the fit indices χ2=671.15,
This study was presented at the 2nd Eurasian Educational Research Congress in Ankara, 8-10
June, 2015
* Dr. Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, E-mail:
[email protected]
1
24
İlker Cırık
df=246, χ2/df=2.72, GFI=.90, AGFI=.88 were found to be at an acceptable
level; RMSEA=.05, NFI=.96, NNFI=.97, CFI=.97, SRMR=.04 indices
demonstrated good fit. The internal and external consistency coefficients
and corrected item-total correlations of the scale were found to be high.
After the model test, the values of χ2=570.93, df=246, χ2/df=2.32, GFI=.90,
AGFI=.87 showed that model data consistency was at an acceptable level;
the values of RMSEA=.05, NFI=.95, NNFI=.97, CFI=.97, SRMR=.05
demonstrated a good fit.
Conclusion and Recommendations: It was determined that the Turkish form
of the scale has 24 items that fall under four factors. The reliability
coefficients of the scale were found to be high. It was revealed that the
effects of attitudes towards social justice, perceived behavioral control and
subjective norms on behavioral intentions were significant. It is concluded
that the Turkish form of the scale will help measure prospective teachers’
views about social justice and thus will contribute to filling a gap in the
field. Further researches are recommended to provide evidence for the
concurrent validity of the scale.
Keywords: Equality, educational opportunity, confirmatory factor analysis,
teacher education
Introduction
It can be stated that educators who are supposed to keep a balance of equality
and justice among their students cannot sometimes hold the balance and give
adequate support to all their students. As Bradley, Werth, and Hastings (2012)
specified, the means of providing such a balance of equality and justice for all the
classes in a society have been argued by different philosophers from Aristotle and
Socrates to contemporary activists such as Freire and Beauvoir on a large scale. In the
very essence of these arguments, there lies the interaction between education and
society. When this interaction is considered from the point of education, it can be
said that “education is not the ultimate lever for social transformation, but without it
transformation cannot occur” (Freire, 1998, p. 37). When assessed from the society’s
perspective, “it is vital that the school and community recognize the importance of
community involvement in education and the involvement of students in the
community” (Goulet & Goulet, 2014, p. 210). Altogether, these two outlooks disclose
the fact that the interaction between education and society has an undeniable
significance. This perspective has enhanced studies by educators intending to
provide equal educational opportunities for students who have come from different
social structures (Capper & Young, 2014; Constantine, Hage, Kindaichi, & Bryant,
2007; Goodman et al., 2004; Lemley, 2014; Leonard & Moore, 2014). In the essence of
these studies, there exist social justice objectives which are intended to support
cultural pluralism.
According to Prilleltensky (2001), social justice should “promote fair and
equitable allocation of bargaining powers, resources, and obligations in society in
consideration of people’s differential power, needs, and abilities to express their
25
wishes” (p. 754). Correspondingly, Fouad, Gerstein, and Toporek (2006) also argue
that social justice requires being fair and equitable in distributing social resources for
every member of the society, regardless of their race, gender, ability status, sexual
orientation, physical makeup, or religious creed. To realize all of these, the society
itself has to work in a collaborative, democratic, participatory and inclusive way
(Bell, 2007). Therefore, it can be argued that allowing social justice applications in
learning environments which display themselves in a micro-dimensional size in
social structure will lead to positive contributions to the structure of the society.
In social justice applications, the interaction among teacher, student and learning
environment is crucial. Teachers and students do not only bring their own cultural
backgrounds into the classroom, but also interpret the classroom culture and social
life they find there (Lalas, 2007). In light of these interpretations, the notions of
equality and justice gain profound importance for the stakeholders in the learning
environments as many studies point out. For instance, Aydin and Tonbuloglu (2014)
stated that educators primarily emphasize equality, democracy and justice in
learning environments. Similarly, Fuentes, Chanthongthip, and Rios (2010)
concluded that university students who had social justice education have more
attention to equality and justice. In another study, Torres-Harding, Diaz,
Schamberger, and Carollo (2015) mentioned that taking service-learning courses was
related to university students’ social justice attitudes, intentions and actions. Also
Littenberg-Tobias (2014) stated that participating in some service programs may
influence university students’ attitudes and understandings of social justice. Thus,
the students’ sensitivity to these concepts in human life is closely associated with
social justice education (Banks, 2009; Goodman & Burton, 2012; Leonard & Moore,
2014). It is because social justice education, which has a student-centered,
cooperative, empirical, intellectual, analytical and multicultural structure (Wade,
2004), enables students to see not only their differences, but also their common
ground (Capper & Young, 2014). The key role in this context is played by teachers.
Teachers who aim to create differences in their students’ lives should be sensitive
to the notion of equal opportunities in education (Villegas, 2007), should help
students develop strategies to solve social problems (Brown & Brown, 2011; Wade,
2004) and should support their students in having an effective voice in terms of social
justice (Garii & Rule, 2009). In order to realize this necessity, it is thought that teacher
training education should include social justice subjects. Related studies carried out
in this context also support this view. For example, Leonard and Moore (2014) and
Page (2009) found that prospective teachers taking social justice education gave more
attention to equality and justice. Tinkler, Hannah, Tinkler, and Miller (2015)
mentioned that social justice service-learning experiences support the social justice
goals of prospective teachers. Rios and Montecinos (1999), in a similar study, found
that prospective teachers pointed out the importance of social justice in their
education and that the notion of social justice should be a part of their instructional
curriculum. On the other hand, a study conducted by Tomul, Celik, and Tas (2012)
revealed that according to prospective teachers, in-service teachers behave in a
discriminative way in terms of students’ socio-economic features, political views and
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İlker Cırık
beliefs. In a similar study by Ersoy (2014), it was detected that, since teachers do not
have adequate knowledge and experience concerning effective and democratic
citizenship education, primary students belonging to lower socio-economic levels
cannot exercise their rights adequately compared to those who come from higher
socio-economic levels. Thomas (2007) in his study argues that teachers who intend to
maintain social justice implementations are not supported enough. The inadequacy
of social justice implementations of in-service teachers reveals the fact that problems
emerge in the transition of social justice from theory to practice.
Even though the notions of equality and justice are frequently emphasized in
literature, there have been arguments over how to implement social justice in
learning environments (Speight & Vera, 2009). Vera and Speight (2003) argue that
solely focusing on theoretical knowledge could be important for researchers;
however, allotting efforts to implementation will enable social justice to exist as a
dynamic structure. Correspondingly, Torres-Harding, Siers, and Olson (2012)
underline the fact that the relationship between attitudes and actions requires more
applied research. Therefore, though not sufficient for now, it can be stated that in the
literature there is an increasing tendency concerning implementation of the notion of
social justice in studies (Bradley et al., 2012).
At this point, there appears to be a question over how the teachers’ behaviors
towards social justice implementations will be evaluated and directed. TorresHarding et al. (2012) hold that a scale that can be developed in the field of social
justice will help researchers and educators in terms of understanding the process of
moving from attitudes to action. Analyzing the literature, it is clear that there are
scales which evaluate individuals’ behaviors concerning social justice in general;
however, the number of scales used to evaluate which factors at what levels
effectively influence behaviors is limited (Colquitt, 2001; Rasinski, 1987). In order to
remove the stated limitation, Torres-Harding et al. (2012), developed the Social
Justice Scale (SJS) based on Ajzen’s (1991) social cognitive model. Ajzen (1991) in his
model states that individuals’ attitudes towards the action, subjective norms around
the action and their perceived behavioral control of the action predict the behavioral
intention.
The component of behavioral intention in the model points out that an
individual’s intention to act affects their behavior in the future; the component of
attitudes towards the action is related with the individual’s evaluation of the
behavior’s convenience level; the component of subjective norms relates to the
individual’s perception of social support or pressure from his/her environment in
terms of performing the action; the component of perceived behavioral control of
action refers to the individual’s perception of self-efficacy about himself/herself
regarding the difficulty of behavior. The three elements in the model could show
differences in accordance with the significance level of behavioral intention and
situation, as well as the feature of the behavior. In other words, these three predictors
may affect behavioral intentions independently or all together.
27
All in all, SJS was developed in order to measure attitudes concerning social
justice, values, perceived behavioral control and behavioral intentions. It is thought
that searching the psychometric characteristics of SJS’s Turkish form, and thus
bringing it into the literature, will contribute to the researches regarding social justice
and social justice implementations to become integrated into learning environments.
Therefore, the primary aim of this study is to analyze linguistic equivalence, validity
and reliability of SJS. The secondary aim is to test Ajzen’s (1991) model upon whose
basis the scale was constructed. Within the framework of the second aim, the effects
of “social justice attitudes,” “subjective norms” and “perceived behavioral control”
(independent variables) on “behavioral intentions” (dependent variable) were
investigated.
Method
Research Design
This research is comprised of two different studies: scale adaptation and
structural equation modeling (SEM). In scale adaptation, since the existing situation
remained to be determined, the data gained through SJS were analyzed by applying
a survey method, as Fraenkel and Wallen (2009) suggested. In the SEM study, as it
was thought that, based on Ajzen’s (1991) model, there would be a cause and effect
relationship between “social justice attitudes,” “perceived behavioral control,”
“subjective norms,” and “behavioral intentions,” causal research design was
preferred.
Research Sample
This research was carried out in two different study groups; the first group being
in the scale adaptation study, the other being in the SEM. The first study group was
comprised of 515 prospective teachers attending pedagogical formation programs at
Marmara University, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University and Yildiz Technical
University in the 2013-2014 Academic Year. The second study group included 410
prospective teachers attending pedagogical formation programs at Mimar Sinan Fine
Arts University in the 2014-2015 Academic Year. The demographic characteristics of
the participants are displayed in Table 1.
Table 1.
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Participants’ Demographic Characteristics
First Group
Second Group
f
%
f
%
Female
376
73.0
313
76.3
Male
139
27.0
97
23.7
Undergraduate
411
79.8
346
84.4
Graduate
104
20.2
64
15.6
Gender
Education Level
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İlker Cırık
Table 1 continue…
First Group
Second Group
f
%
f
%
Turkish
95
18.4
113
27.6
History
24
4.7
62
15.1
Music
90
17.5
78
19.0
101
19.6
49
12.0
Mathematics
29
5.6
57
13.9
Physics
36
7.0
-
-
Theology
62
12.0
-
-
Art and Design
78
15.1
-
-
51
12.4
410
100
Graduation
Painting
Sociology
Total
-
-
515
100
Research Instrument and Procedure
The data of the study were collected through SJS developed by Torres-Harding et
al. (2012). The scale has four factors (social justice attitudes, perceived behavioral
control, subjective norms and behavioral intentions) and 24 items in total. The first
factor consists of 11 items concerning social justice attitudes. An example of these
items includes, “Allow others to have meaningful input into decisions affecting their
lives.” In the second factor, there are five items intended to measure the individuals’
perceived behavioral controls about social justice. An example of these items
includes, “I am capable of influencing others to promote fairness and equality.” The
third factor contains four items to measure subjective norms about social justice. An
example of these items includes, “Other people around me are supportive of efforts
that promote social justice.” The fourth factor is comprised of four items to measure
behavioral intentions toward social justice in the future. An example of these items
includes, “In the future, I will do my best to ensure that all individuals and groups in
my community have a chance to speak and be heard.” Responses were scored on a 7point scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7).
In order to adapt SJS into Turkish, permission was obtained from S.R. TorresHarding via e-mail. Three lecturers who are experts in psychological counseling and
guidance, curriculum development and instruction, measurement and evaluation
were asked for their opinions on the scale’s cultural convenience, clarity etc. During
the process of translation, two English Language experts translated the scale into
Turkish and then two other experts made the reverse translation. In accordance with
the common opinions of the experts and the researcher, the problematic items were
corrected on the Turkish form of the scale. Then, the Turkish form was examined by
Turkish Language experts in the context of language and expression. English and
Turkish forms of the scale, respectively, were applied to English Language Teaching
29
students attending their 4th class in a four-week interval, and the consistency
between the forms was examined. Applying the scale to the participants was realized
by four lecturers including the researcher. The participants were informed of the aim
of the study, features of the scale and privacy of the data in order to get them to
involve themselves in the study voluntarily.
The factor structure of the original scale was analyzed through confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA). After the analysis, it was discovered that the fit indices,
χ2=789.14, df=246, p=.00, RMSEA=.09, NFI=.95, CFI=.97, GFI=.80, AGFI=.75,
PGFI=.65, were at an acceptable level. The factor loading values of the items were
calculated between .55 and .91, and after reliability analysis, the Cronbach Alpha
coefficients in factors were found to range from .82 to .95. Finally, the inter-factor
correlation coefficients were determined to be between .34 and .58.
Data Analysis
In the process of linguistic equivalence, the consistency between English and
Turkish applications was analyzed through Pearson Correlation Coefficient. As the
scale’s factor numbers and consistency between factors and indicators (Kline, 2011)
were specified in the original form, factor consistency with the data obtained from
the first study group was tested through CFA (Bentler & Bonett, 1980; Brown, 2015).
In order to specify the internal consistency of the scale, the Cronbach Alpha
Coefficients of the factors and the total of the scale were examined. For the purpose
of specifying on what level the items differentiate the participants, corrected itemtotal correlation was calculated and independent samples t test was realized between
the lower 27% and the upper 27% groups. The external consistency of the scale was
calculated through test-retest applications performed in four-week intervals. The
effects of social justice attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control
on behavioral intentions were analyzed by means of SEM. SEM is a comprehensive
and flexible approach in modeling the relationships between observed and latent
variables (Hoyle & Smith, 1994; Hu & Bentler, 1998). Additionally, its capability to
provide the chance of evaluation and correction about a theoretical model (Anderson
& Gerbing, 1988), its offering the chance of controlling measurement errors and its
utility to provide information about the consistency level of the model make SEM an
influential method (Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004). LISREL 8.80 and SPSS 17.0 were
used for the analysis of the data.
Results
Linguistic Equivalence
Between four-week interval applications of the SJS’s English and Turkish forms
(N=33), a positive and significant correlation was found in items .63 and .84; in
factors .76 and .84; in the total of the scale .86, p=.00, p<.01 (Table 2). Findings show
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İlker Cırık
that the consistency between applications is at an acceptable level. Thus the scale’s
linguistic equivalence was acquired.
Table 2.
Correlation Coefficients of the SJS’ Linguistic Equivalence
Item
r
Item
r
Item
1
.76*
7
.76*
13
*
*
2
.75
8
.79
14
3
.75*
9
.76*
15
4
.68*
10
.63*
16
5
.80*
11
.63*
17
6
.70*
12
.81*
18
Factor
Attitude
.81*
Behavior
.84*
Norm
*
Total
.86
(N=33), *p<.01
r
.73*
.74*
.82*
.77*
.72*
.82*
Item
19
20
21
22
23
24
r
.75*
.68*
.63*
.73*
.83*
.84*
.76*
Intention
.84*
First-Order Confirmatory Factor Analysis
In the factor analysis, as Brown (2015) suggested, to arrange the relationships
between indicators, maximum likelihood technique, which enables a statistical
evaluation over how to perform a better factor analysis, was applied. After CFA, the
fit indices χ2=671.15, df=246, χ2/df=2.72, GFI=.90, AGFI=.88 were found to be at an
acceptable level; RMSEA=.05, NFI=.96, NNFI=.97, CFI=.97, SRMR=.04 indices
showed good fit (Hu & Bentler, 1998; Hoyle & Smith, 1994; Schermelleh-Engel,
Moosbrugger, & Muller, 2003). The explained variances ranged from .29 to .51 in
social justice attitude factor; ranged from .48 to .54 in perceived behavioral control
factor; ranged from .56 to .83 in subjective norms factor; and, ranged from .55 to .76
in behavioral intention factor. As for factor loadings (Figure 1), they ranged from .54
to .71 in the first factor; from .70 to .73 in the second factor; from .75 to .91 in the third
factor; and, from .74 to .87 in the fourth factor. Findings showed that the scale, as in
the original form, consisted of 24 items falling under four factors.
31
Figure 1. SJS first-order confirmatory factor analysis.
Second-Order Confirmatory Factor Analysis
As Kline (2011) suggested, in order to test for whether the four factors are
components of a higher latent structure (social justice behaviors), something which
cannot be measured directly, the second order CFA was applied. The fit indices of
the second order CFA were found to be similar to that of the first order CFA fit
indices: χ2=671.64, df=248, χ2/df=2.70, GFI=.90, AGFI=.88, RMSEA=.05, NFI=.96,
NNFI=.97, CFI=.97, SRMR=.04. When explained variances were examined, it was
found that 45% of the variability of social justice behavior was expressed by social
32
İlker Cırık
justice attitude factor; 49% by perceived behavioral control factor; 24% by subjective
norms factor and 88% by behavioral intention factor. The factor loadings of the
second order CFA were found to be the same as the first order CFA factor loadings
(Figure 1, Figure 2). When the levels of factor effect on social justice behaviors are
taken into consideration, it was specified that standardized direct effect size of the
first factor was .67; of the second factor .70; of the third factor .49 and of the fourth
factor .94. Kline (2011) determined standardized direct effect sizes as <.10 small;
about .30 medium and >.50 large. Values found showed that factors significantly
explained the latent variable of social justice behavior.
Figure 2. SJS second-order confirmatory factor analysis.
33
34
İlker Cırık
Internal Consistency
The internal consistency coefficients of the scale in factors were found to fall
between .84 and .92; in the total of the scale they were found to be .92. This finding
showed that the internal consistency coefficients of the scale were high. Corrected
item-total correlations in factors ranged from .55 to .82, and in total scale ranged from
.41 to .73 (Table 3). Correspondingly, t test fulfilled between the grades of lower 27%
and upper 27% demonstrated that the difference between all items was significant
p=.00, p<.05. Findings suggested that items could differentiate the participants.
Positive and significant relationships ranged from .26 to .61 in factors and from .61 to
.85 in the total scale p=.00, p<.01 (Table 4). Correlation coefficients between factors
indicated that factors measured different sub-dimension though they belonged to the
same primary structure.
Table 3.
The Reliability Coefficients of the SJS
Factors
Items
Cronbach Alpha
Coefficients
Corrected Item-Total
Correlations
Factor
Total
.92
Attitude
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
.66
.66
.55
.74
.71
.74
.74
.74
.64
.72
.80
.56
.57
.50
.63
.63
.67
.64
.63
.58
.63
.69
.66
.64
.65
.64
.66
.48
.54
.54
.58
.48
.68
.73
.82
.72
.42
.50
.49
.41
.70
.82
.81
.79
.69
.73
.66
.67
.84
Behavior
12
13
14
15
16
.88
Norm
17
18
19
20
.90
Intention
Total
21
22
23
24
.92
35
Table 4.
Correlation Coefficients, Means and Standard Deviations for the Factors and Total of the SJS
Factors
1
2
3
4
5
1.Attitude
-
2.Behavior
3.Norm
4.Intention
5.Total
M
SD
6.41
.90
.47*
.26*
.61*
.85*
-
.31*
.58*
-
.41*
-
.72*
.61*
.82*
6.02
.81
5.82
.97
5.19
1.43
6.04
1.18
(N=515), *p<.01
External Consistency
In order to determine the external consistency of the scale, test-retest applications
(N=31) were performed in four-week intervals. At the end of applications, correlation
coefficients in items were found between .70 and .91; in factors between .85 and .95;
and, in the total of the scale they were found to be .95, p=.00, p<.01 (Table 5). The
results disclosed that the consistency between the two applications was at an
adequate level, and the external consistency of the scale was obtained.
Table 5.
Correlation Coefficients of the SJS’ External Consistency
Item
r
Item
r
Item
1
.81*
2
.76*
3
.85*
4
.82*
5
.79*
6
r
Item
r
13
.77*
19
.75*
14
.81*
20
.80*
15
.70*
21
.88*
16
.83*
22
.80*
17
.82*
23
.77*
.77*
18
.73*
24
.82*
.87*
Norm
.85*
Intention
.87*
7
.91*
8
.86*
9
.71*
10
.77*
11
.76*
.84*
12
Attitude
.95*
Behavior
Total
.95*
Factor
(N=31), *p<.01
The Structural Equation Model Regarding Attitude, Behavior, Norm and Intention
Within the framework of the study’s second aim, the effects of social justice
attitudes, perceived behavioral control and subjective norms on behavioral intentions
were analyzed through SEM (Figure 3). Among the fit indices, the values of
χ2=570.93, df=246, χ2/df=2.32, GFI=.90, AGFI=.87 showed that model data consistency
was at an acceptable level; the values of RMSEA=.05, NFI=.95, NNFI=.97, CFI=.97,
SRMR=.05 demonstrated a good fit. When standardized direct effect sizes were taken
into consideration, it was noted that attitude (.35) and perceived behavioral control
36
İlker Cırık
(.47) affected behavioral intention at a medium level; on the other hand, subjective
norms (.11) affected behavioral intention at a low level. Analyzing the explained
variances, attitudes, perceived behavioral control and subjective norms predicted
56% of the variance of behavioral intention. From the findings, it can be stated that
the model was verified and the total effects of attitude, perceived behavioral control
and subjective norms on behavioral intention were positive and significant.
Figure 3. Structural model for the second aim of the study.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The primary aim of this study was to adapt SJS, developed by Torres-Harding et
al. (2012), into Turkish. High consistency level between SJS’ English and Turkish
applications showed that the scale provided linguistic equivalence. At the end of the
first order CFA, it was found that model data consistency was adequate and
37
explained variances ranged from .29 to .83. From the findings, the Turkish form of
the scale, similar to its original form, consists of 24 items grouped under four factors
(social justice attitudes, perceived behavioral control, subjective norms and
behavioral intentions). The fit indices gained from the second order CFA showed that
factors explained the latent variable of social justice behavior significantly.
Correlation coefficients between factors indicated that factors measured different
sub-dimensions though they belonged to the same primary structure.
High internal consistency coefficients of the scale in factors and in the total of the
scale indicated that the scale was reliable. Similarly, high levels of corrected itemtotal correlation and the difference between the lower 27% and the upper 27% being
significant in all items displayed demonstrates that items can differentiate the
participants. Correlation coefficients after the test-retest applications were at an
acceptable level, which demonstrated that the external consistency of the scale was
ensured. In conclusion, the data gained from the Turkish form of SJS exhibited
adequate evidences in terms of validity and reliability.
The second aim of the study was to investigate the effects of “social justice
attitudes,” “perceived behavioral control” and “subjective norms” (independent
variables) on “behavioral intentions” (dependent variable). After applying SEM,
model data consistency proved to be adequate, and the effects of independent
variables on the dependent variable were found to be positive and significant. It was
determined that the independent variables explained 56% of the variance of the
dependent variable. From the findings, it was concluded that the model was verified
and prospective teachers’ evaluation of social justice behaviors’ convenience level,
perception of social support or pressure from their environment in terms of acting
behaviors or not, and their perception of self-efficacy with regard to difficulty level of
the behavior all predicted their intention to implement the aforesaid behaviors in the
future.
When interpreting the findings, some limitations should be taken into
consideration. Firstly, the data was gained from prospective teachers attending three
universities in Istanbul. With data which can be obtained from different in-service
teachers and prospective teachers attending different universities, the reconstruction
of the reliability and validity analysis could increase the generalizability of the scale.
Therefore, the researchers can survey prospective teachers’ views concerning social
justice via longitudinal studies throughout their educational process, as well as views
concerning their duties. Secondly, the scale’s concurrent validity could not be
analyzed. Concurrent validity of the scale can be examined through the scales related
to social justice issues. Thirdly, prospective teachers’ views about social justice were
measured through SJS. However, their behaviors regarding social justice were not
tested via this scale. It is thought that studying prospective teachers’ behaviors by
observing them, and in this way determining SJS’ prediction level for these
behaviors, is worth further investigation.
Outside of its limitations, this study has strengths, as well. In the literature, there
is no Turkish scale to measure prospective teachers’ views concerning social justice.
38
İlker Cırık
The Turkish form of SJS is thought to fill this deficiency in the field. Evaluating
prospective teachers’ views concerning social justice, researchers and educators can
arrange convenient social justice educational environments. Researchers can study
prospective teachers’ opinions, especially those who have graduated from related
fields, regarding social justice by analyzing social justice topics in the instructional
curriculum. In this way, they may contribute to associated instructional curriculum
with prospective teachers’ social justice education. Researchers can evaluate the
efficiency and productivity of learning environments which are arranged for
prospective teachers’ social justice education. Lastly, by using the Turkish and
English forms of SJS, social justice views of prospective teachers who come from
different cultures can be studied comparatively.
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42
İlker Cırık
Sosyal Adalet Ölçeği Türkçe Formunun Psikometrik Özellikleri ve Bir
Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesi
Atıf:
Cirik, I. (2015). Psychometric characteristics of the social justice scale’s Turkish
form and a structural equation modeling. Eurasian Journal of Educational
Research, 61, 23-44. . http://dx.doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2015.61.2
Özet
Problem Durumu: Öğrencileri arasında eşitlik ve adalet dengesini sağlamak
durumunda olan eğitimcilerin zaman zaman bu dengeyi kuramadıkları;
öğrencilerine yeterli derecede destek olamadıkları gözlenmektedir. Öğrenci
yaşamında farklılıklar yaratmayı hedefleyen öğretmenlerin, eğitimde fırsat eşitliği
konusunda duyarlı olmaları; öğrencilerinin, sosyal problemlerin çözümüne yönelik
stratejiler geliştirmelerini ve sosyal adaletle ilgili etkili bir sese sahip olmalarını
desteklemeleri gerekir. Ancak, ilgili araştırmalar incelendiğinde, öğretmenlerin
sosyal adalet uygulamalarının yeterli düzeyde olmadığı; sosyal adaleti kuramsal
boyuttan uygulama boyutuna aktarmada sorunlar yaşadıkları görülmektedir.
Öğretmenlerin sosyal adalet uygulamalarına yönelik sergiledikleri davranışların
nasıl yönlendirilebileceğinin araştırılmasının ilgili sorunların çözümüne katkı
sağlayacağı ifade edilebilir. Bununla birlikte, sosyal adaletle ilgili geliştirilecek olan
bir ölçme aracının, öğretmenlerin tutumdan eyleme geçme sürecinin anlaşılması
konusunda araştırmacılara ve eğitimcilere yardımcı olacağı düşünülebilir. Aynı
zamanda, öğretmenlerin sosyal adalete yönelik davranış eğilimlerinin hangi
faktörlerin etkisi altında olduğunun incelenmesinin de öğrenme ortamlarında
düzenlenecek olan sosyal adalet çalışmalarına katkı sağlayacağı söylenebilir.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Bu araştırmanın birinci amacı, Sosyal Adalet Ölçeği Türkçe
formunun dilsel eşdeğerlik, geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmasının yapılmasıdır.
Araştırmanın ikinci amacı ise sosyal adaletle ilgili tutumların, öznel normların ve
algılanan davranış kontrolünün davranış eğilimleri üzerindeki etkilerinin
incelenmesidir.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Bu araştırma, ölçek uyarlama ve yapısal eşitlik modellemesi
olmak üzere iki farklı çalışmayı kapsamaktadır. Ölçek uyarlama çalışmasında,
tarama yöntemi; yapısal eşitlik modellemesinde ise nedensel desen kullanılmıştır.
Ölçek uyarlama çalışması, üç farklı devlet üniversitesinden 515 öğretmen adayının
(376 kadın, 139 erkek) katılımıyla; yapısal eşitlik modellemesi ise bir devlet
üniversitesinden 410 öğretmen adayının (313 kadın, 97 erkek) katılımıyla
yürütülmüştür. Araştırma verileri, Sosyal Adalet Ölçeği ile toplanmıştır. Ölçek, dört
faktör altında (sosyal adalete yönelik tutum, algılanan davranışsal kontrol, öznel
normlar, davranışı sergileme eğilimi) toplam 24 maddeden oluşmaktadır. Birinci
faktörde 11, ikinci faktörde beş, üçüncü ve dördüncü faktörde dört madde
bulunmaktadır. Ölçeğin faktör yapısı doğrulayıcı faktör analizi ile belirlenmiştir.
43
Güvenirlik analizleri sonucunda, alfa katsayılarının faktörlerde .82 ile .95 arasında
değiştiği bulunmuştur. Ölçeğin Türkçeye uyarlanması sürecinde, kültüre uygunluğu,
açıklığı vb. konularda psikolojik danışma ve rehberlik, program geliştirme ve
öğretim, ölçme ve değerlendirme alanlarında uzman üç öğretim üyesinden görüş
alınmıştır. Ölçeğin dilsel eşdeğerlik çalışmasında, İngilizce ve Türkçe uygulamalar
arasındaki tutarlık Pearson Korelasyon Katsayısının hesaplanmasıyla; faktörlerin
elde edilen verilerle uyumu doğrulayıcı faktör analiziyle; ölçeğin iç tutarlığı
Cronbach Alfa katsayısıyla; maddelerin puanlayıcıları ne derece ayırt ettiği
düzeltilmiş madde-toplam korelasyonları ve bağımsız gruplar t testiyle; ölçeğin dış
tutarlığı, test-tekrar test uygulamalarına ait korelasyon katsayısının hesaplanmasıyla
belirlenmiştir. Sosyal adaletle ilgili tutumların, öznel normların ve algılanan davranış
kontrolünün davranış eğilimleri üzerindeki etkileri yapısal eşitlik modellemesi ile
incelenmiştir.
Araştırmanın Bulguları: Ölçeğin dilsel eşdeğerlik çalışmasında maddelerde .63 ile .84;
faktörlerde .76 ile .84 arasında; toplam ölçekte ise .86 düzeyinde korelasyon
değerlerine ulaşılmıştır p=.00, p<.01. Birinci düzey doğrulayıcı faktör analizi
sonucunda uyum indekslerinden χ2=671.15, df=246, χ2/df=2.72, GFI=.90, AGFI=.88
değerleri kabul edilebilir düzeyde; RMSEA=.05, NFI=.96, NNFI=.97, CFI=.97,
SRMR=.04 değerleri ise iyi düzeyde uyuma işaret etmiştir. Faktörlerin açıkladıkları
varyanslar, .29 ile .83 arasında değişmiştir. İkinci düzey doğrulayıcı faktör analizi
sonucunda saptanan uyum indeksleri ise şöyledir: χ2=671.64, df=248, χ2/df=2.70,
GFI=.90, AGFI=.88, RMSEA=.05, NFI=.96, NNFI=.97, CFI=.97, SRMR=.04. Açıklanan
varyanslar .24 ile .88 arasında değişmiştir. Ölçeğin iç tutarlık katsayıları faktörlerde
.84 ile .92 arasında; toplam ölçekte ise .92 olarak bulunmuştur. Düzeltilmiş maddetoplam korelasyonları faktörlerde .55 ile .82; toplam ölçekte ise .41 ile .73 arasında
değişmiştir. Bununla birlikte, t testi sonucunda tüm maddelerde farkın anlamlı
olduğu görülmüştür p=.00, p<.05. Ölçeğin dış tutarlığı için yapılan test-tekrar test
sonucunda korelasyon katsayıları, maddelerde .70 ile .91; faktörlerde .85 ile .95
arasında; toplam ölçekte ise .95 olarak bulunmuştur p=.00, p<.01. Araştırmanın ikinci
amacı çerçevesinde, sosyal adaletle ilgili tutumların, algılanan davranış kontrolünün
ve öznel normların, davranış eğilimleri üzerindeki etkileri incelenmiştir. Uyum
indekslerinden, χ2=570.93, df=246, χ2/df=2.32, GFI=.90, AGFI=.87, değerleri model
veri uyumunun kabul edilebilir düzeyde olduğuna; RMSEA=.05, NFI=.95, NNFI=.97,
CFI=.97, SRMR=.05 değerleri ise uyumun iyi düzeyde olduğuna işaret etmiştir.
Açıklanan varyanslar incelendiğinde, tutumun, algılanan davranış kontrolünün ve
öznel normların birlikte davranış eğilimlerindeki varyansın yüzde 56’sını açıkladığı
saptanmıştır.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Ölçeğin İngilizce ve Türkçe uygulamaları
arasındaki tutarlığın yüksek olması dilsel eşdeğerliğinin sağlandığını göstermiştir.
Birinci düzey doğrulayıcı faktör analizi sonucunda, model veri uyumunun yeterli
düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Ölçeğin Türkçe formunun, özgün ölçeğe benzer
olarak, dört (sosyal adalete yönelik tutum, algılanan davranışsal kontrol, öznel
44
İlker Cırık
normlar, davranışı sergileme eğilimi) faktör altında 24 maddeden oluştuğu
saptanmıştır. İkinci düzey doğrulayıcı faktör analizi sonucunda elde edilen uyum
indeksleri, faktörlerin, sosyal adalete yönelik davranış örtük değişkenini anlamlı
biçimde açıkladığına işaret etmiştir. Ölçeğin iç tutarlık katsayılarının faktörlerde ve
toplam ölçekte yüksek olması güvenilir bir ölçme aracının elde edildiğini
göstermiştir. Düzeltilmiş madde-toplam korelasyonlarının yüksek olması ve alt %27
ve üst %27’lik grupların puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olması maddelerin
puanlayıcıları ayırt edebildiğine işaret etmiştir. Test-tekrar test korelasyon
katsayılarının kabul edilebilir düzeyde olması ölçeğin dış tutarlığının sağlandığını
göstermiştir. Yapısal eşitlik modellemesi sonucunda sosyal adaletle ilgili tutumların,
algılanan davranış kontrolünün ve öznel normların, davranış eğilimleri üzerindeki
etkilerinin olumlu yönde ve anlamlı olduğu saptanmıştır. Alanda, öğretmen
adaylarının sosyal adaletle ilgili düşünüşlerini ölçecek Türkçe ölçme aracı
bulunmamaktadır. Bu nedenle, ölçeğin Türkçe formunun alandaki boşluğu
dolduracağı düşünülmektedir. Araştırmacılar ve eğitimciler, ölçek aracılığıyla
öğretmen adaylarının sosyal adalete ilişkin düşünüşlerini değerlendirerek uygun
sosyal adalet eğitimleri düzenleyebilirler. Yapılacak araştırmalarda, farklı
üniversitelerdeki öğretmen adaylarından ve görev başındaki öğretmenlerden elde
edilecek verilerle geçerlik ve güvenirlik analizlerinin yeniden yapılmasının ölçeğin
genellenebilirliğini artıracağı söylenebilir. Sosyal adalet konularıyla ilgili farklı
ölçekler kullanılarak ölçeğin uyum geçerliği araştırılabilir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Eşitlik, eğitim olanağı, doğrulayıcı faktör analizi, öğretmen eğitimi
Multimodal Literacy Scale:
A Study of Validity and Reliability1
Berker BULUT*
Hacer ULU**
Adnan KAN***
Suggested Citation:
Bulut, B., Ulu, H. & Kan, A. (2015). Multimodal literacy scale: A study of validity and
reliability. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 61, 45-60.
Abstract
Problem Statement: Most structures of the texts individuals encounter today
are multimodal, in which written, visual, and auditory elements are used
together. Students who spend most of their time on social networks or
playing various computer games gain experience in multimodal
environments. As a part of teacher training, it is important that teachers
who prepare students for life and set an example have multimodal literacy
skills by keeping up with advancing technology.
Purpose of Study: The study, carried out in Turkey, researches whether or
not the multimodal literacy skills within the formal training prospective
teachers receive are limited. A scale that aims to measure the multimodal
literacy skills of teachers is developed.
Method: Designed in a survey model, the scale aimed to develop a
multimodal literacy scale for prospective teachers. The validity and
reliability studies of the scale were conducted on 392 prospective teachers.
Findings and Results: At the end of EFA, we identified that the scale had a 3
factored structure, which explains 52.63% of the total variance. As a result
of the CFA conducted, consistency index values were identified and the 3
The summary of this paper was presented at the Ith Eurasian Educational Research Congress in
Istanbul, 24-26 April, 2014.
* Corresponding author: Res. Assist., Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Education,
Department of Elementary Education, [email protected].
** Form Master, Afyonkarahisar Provincial Directorate of National Education,
[email protected].
*** Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Sciences,
[email protected].
1
46
Berker Bulut, Hacer Ulu & Adnan Kan
factor structured scale, recognized as made up of 17 items, was verified as
a model. In order to determine the reliability of the scale, we calculated the
Cronbach Alpha internal consistency and test-retest reliability coefficients.
In light of the values obtained, the scale was concluded as reliable and
valid. During the studies of item analysis, corrected item-total correlation
of the items within 3 factors was calculated and the t-test was used to
determine if these items discriminate the 27 % of the upper groups and the
27 % the lower groups. These results can indicate that the items in the
scale have a high validity rate, and it can discriminate between students
with regard to their capabilities of multimodal literacy.
Conclusions and Recommendations: A scale designed to measure the
multimodal literacy skills of teachers who will play a big part in the
education of upcoming generations was developed. With this, we can
identify multimodal literacy skills during their undergraduate education,
whereby we can identify the prospective teachers who do not have such
skills and they can then be trained in this respect.
Keywords: Multimodal literacy, scale development, validity, reliability
Introduction
In this century, the sources of literacy applications should be humans and
materials: literacy skills should be advanced and meaning should be derived from
texts (Wolfe & Flewitt, 2010). Within the scope of the 21st century concept of literacy,
written words, oral communication, and visuals cannot stand out from each other in
communication; rather, it is important to make people literate in multimodal text
structures in which all three elements are used together (Tüzel, 2013). Multimodal
texts involve the use of many components and sign sources in order to form a
coherent message (Klein & Shinas, 2012). Multimodal literacy is reflected in the
processes of interpreting texts, producing materials, and communicating in both our
daily lives and on social networks. The changes in the perception of literacy with
developing technology have changed the structure of the process of interpretation of
texts.
Multimodal literacy refers to meaning-making that occurs through the reading,
watching, understanding, interpreting, reacting, and interacting with digital texts
and multimedia (Walsh, 2010). In this type of literacy, the text has to be interpreted
separately in terms of sounds, writing, and visuals, and then has to be interpreted as
a whole as a multimodal entity (Kress, 2003). The nature of literacy involves the
analysis, review, and production of words and images as a whole rather than the
separate interpretation of the words and images (Bearne & Wolstencroft, 2007). These
elements (tables, words, and images) each have a distinct potential to form meaning,
and making sense of them involves mobility among the elements in the chain of
signs (McKee, 2013). Multimodal literacy is a strong access point for children to make
interpretations (Pahl & Rowsell, 2006). The change in the structure of the
47
interpretation process in this kind of media involves a change in the structure of the
production process of multimodal products, too.
The process includes reading, comprehending, and analyzing the texts shared in
electronic media and then producing new texts through writing (Hocks, 2003, cited
in Tüzel & Tok, 2013). This process involves multimodaled possibilities such as
order, colors, images, tables, words, and sounds in order for individuals to produce
their outputs (Jewitt, 2006). The interpretation of the experiences of users on social
networks through sharing helps users form images and interpretations in
multimodaled situations (Bowen & Whithous, 2013).
Multimodal literacy involves changing the mode of communication as a result of
the social network (Rowsell & Walsh, 2011). Today, changing the perception of texts
requires showing a deeper interest in every kind of sound, visual, writing, or
multimodal structure; all are employed in making meaningful communication
(Kurudayıoğlu & Tüzel, 2010). Multimodal literacy is interpreted as an extended
form of social semiology dealing with how society interprets and manages signs and
symbols (Jewitt & Kress, 2003, cited in Tüzel, 2013).
Individuals are now more eager to be the producers and readers of multimodal
texts (Unsworth, 2003, cited in Neville, 2006). In addition, one of the findings that
have emerged from conducted studies is that multimodal texts used during classes
are more appreciated by students than printed texts (Tüzel, 2012). Multimodal texts
have both surrounded today’s students and have become more preferable to them
(Tüzel, 2013).
Students confirm that they use their cognitive skills more often and are more
participative and productive during classes in which multimodal texts are used
(Callow & Zammit, 2012, cited in Tüzel, 2013). Literacy involves developing
individuals’ skills in interpreting the meaning in multimodal elements (Narey, 2009).
We need to integrate these kinds of texts into classroom environments to enhance
students’ skills and attract their attention. According to Bearne and Wolstencroft
(2007), developments observed in students could be through education that
combines speaking, dramatizing, writing, and visualizing, as well as training in
reading and writing. As a response to the changes in the perception of literacy,
teachers should resort to different methods and techniques.
Educators should help children establish relationships and reflect the aim of
literacy in a critical manner for the language and literacy development of children in
various fields (Wolfe & Flewitt, 2010). Using various methods during classes based
on multimodal qualities means having various skills on the part of teachers.
Including multimodal qualities in educational environments is of importance when it
comes to education based on the individual characteristics and dominant types of
intelligence of the students. According to Neville (2006), teachers should produce
projects in order to underline the basic point of view of multimodal literacy rather
than the analysis of the fundamental importance of the design of multimodal texts.
48
Education in computers, information, communication, and multimedia
technologies, which are indications of the fact that society is now an information
society, plays a central role in every field of life. This incredible transformation
causes educators to rethink their own basic principles and plan new technologies in
ingenious and productive ways (Kellner, 2000). Studies carried out in Turkey about
the multimodal literacy skills within the formal training received by prospective
teachers receive have been quite limited. In this study, we formulate a scale that aims
to identify the views of prospective teachers on multimodal literacy. During the scale
development, we identified the definition of multimodal literacy by resorting to a
literature review. Indicators of these items were determined with the help of
literature. Indicators in the factors concerned with the items of the multimodal
literacy scale and the literature review for the indicators are presented in Table 1.
Table 1.
Factors and their Indicators of Concern in the Multimodal Literacy Scale and a Literature
Review of the Indicators
Factors
Indicators
References
Item
no.
Expressing
Referring to
(Kurudayıoğlu & Tüzel, 2010).
3
Oneself
Communication
(Rowsell & Walsh, 2011).
Using
Production
(Bearne & Wolstencroft, 2009).
1, 2, 5
Multimodal
Arranging
(Hocks, 2003, cited in Tüzel, 2013).
4
Structure
Contents
(Jewitt, 2006).
Synthesizing
Contents
(Walsh, 2010).
6, 9
Presented in
(Bowen & Whithous, 2013).
Interpretation
Various Media
of the
Contents
(Jewitt & Kress, 2003, cited in Tüzel,
Recognizing
7, 8
Presented in
2013).
Body Language
12
Multimodal
(McKee, 2013).
Structure
Using Various
(Pahl & Rowsell, 2006)
Resources in
10, 11
(Narey, 2009).
Interpretation
(Unsworth, 2003, cited in Neville, 2006).
Preferring
13,14
Showing
(Kress, 2003).
Multimodal
15,16
Interest
(Tüzel, 2012).
Structures
17
(Tüzel, 2013).
49
Method
Research Design
Designed in a survey model, the scale aimed to develop a multimodal literacy
scale for prospective teachers. In survey models, the individual or subject of the
study is defined as is under its own circumstances (Karasar, 2013).
Research Sample
Convenience sampling was used in the research. The study group was comprised
of 392 undergraduate students who attend several departments in the Faculty of
Education of Adnan Menderes University. Comrey and Lee (1992) highlight the fact
that 300 and above as the number of specimens suitable for data analysis in survey
development. A test-retest reliability study was conducted on 61 prospective
teachers.
Survey Development Process
While developing a multimodal literacy scale, researchers reviewed relevant
literature and contacted domestic and foreign academicians who work on the subject.
A repository of 45 items was produced in accordance with the opinions received.
Thirteen articles found to be unclear, incomprehensible, ambiguous, or included
more than one statement were omitted from the repository in accordance with the
opinions, assessments, and evaluations of linguistics experts and specialists in this
field. A 32-item form was formulated for trial. Nineteen of the items on the form are
affirmative statements and 13 are negative. Before the analyses, negative statements
were scored by reversing the scoring system. The statements in the scale items were
graded with a 5 point Likert scale (1: Not valid for me at all – 5: Absolutely valid for
me).
Data Analysis
We resorted to the views of academicians who are experts in this subject for
content validity. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (CFA) were applied for structure validity. Using EFA proved that the scale
has a meaningful structure, and how many factors comprise the items in the scale
was determined. CFA was applied to test the compatibility of the model formulated
in EFA. The efficiency of the model was evaluated by examining the compatibility
and error indexes obtained with the help of CFA. Internal consistency and test-retest
methods were applied to determine the reliability of the scale. Cronbach Alpha
values for the whole test and for each of the factors that comprise it were calculated
for internal consistency, and the Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated for the
reliability of the test-retest, which was used to determine the consistency of the scale.
Corrected item total correlation was calculated for each item and t-test was applied
to test whether or not the items can discriminate upper and lower groups of 27% for
items analysis. SPSS 17.0 and LISREL 8.80 package software was used for the validity
and reliability analyses of the Multimodal Literacy Scale.
50
Results
Exploratory Factor Analysis
First, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was applied to prove the structure
validity of the developed scale. To this end, we tested if the data are appropriate for
factor analysis; the test results of Kaiser Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and the Barlett Test of
Sphericity were examined. A KMO value of .80 or over means that the size of the
sample is perfect and a significant chi-square test means that it displays a
multivariate normal distribution (Tavşancıl, 2010). The KMO value of the scale was
calculated as .897, and the statistical result of the Chi-square test, as a result of the
Barlett Test, proved to be significant in the analyses carried out (χ2 = 232.004, sd: 136,
p<.001). In light of these findings, the data used in the study are suitable for the
factor analysis.
According to the results of the primary EFA applied on the study data, the scale
is comprised of 7 factors. Some of the factors obtained through the varimax axis
rotation technique were omitted from the scale because they had fewer than 3 items
(Comrey & Lee, 1992). The remaining 17 items were found to be comprised of 3
factors as a result of the analyses conducted. The eigenvalues of these factors are
shown below:
Figure 1. Scree-plot Graphic of Multimodal Literacy Scale
Figure 1 shows there are 3 factors whose eigenvalues are more than 1 (Kaiser,
1960). After the variance explanation rates and varimax axis rotation techniques were
applied, the factor loads of the items found in those items are presented in Table 2.
51
Table 2.
EFA Results of the Multimodal Literacy Scale
Items
28. I organize my thoughts systematically in my
presentations thanks to various visual elements (such as
tables and graphics).
18. I prepare an interactive presentation making use of
music, visuals, and animations.
29. Using various elements (such as music and images)
in my presentations makes it easier to make my point.
22. I use visuals such as graphics, tables, pictures, and
photographs in my writings.
26. I express myself more explicitly in environments in
which writing, sound, and images exist together.
10. I relate various visual and verbal information on
various media tools to each other.
11. I interpret the information that I gather from
numerous resources.
5. I can decide whether or not content presented on
various media (newspaper, TV, social media, etc.) is
true.
15 I relate the information to which I have access using
visual and auditory elements.
7. I pay attention to the body language of the
individuals I am listening to.
24. I use body language that is in harmony with the
words I choose when speaking.
8. I can realize how visual, auditory, and written
elements influence individuals.
12. I get bored in communication in which written,
auditory, and visual elements are used together.
14. I get distracted in electronic environments in which
visual, auditory, and written elements are used
together.
16. The use of visual, auditory, and written elements
together leads to laziness of the mind.
9. I do not like trying to interpret images, sounds,
graphics, and writings simultaneously.
19. I only believe in the power of verbal expression
when sharing my thoughts.
Factor
1
Factor
2
Factor
3
.790
.751
.734
.720
.650
.732
.690
.676
.661
.605
.551
.433
.753
.752
.713
.651
.596
According to the EFA results in Table 2, the scale of 17 items is made up of 3
factors and can explain 52.63% of the total variance. The variance explained by the
factors should be 50% or over in Exploratory Factor Analysis (Erkuş, 2012). The first
factor, comprised of 5 items, explains 33.71% of the total variance, and factor load
52
value ranges between .650 and .790. The second factor, whose factor load values
range between .433 and .732, explains 11.17% of the total variance and is comprised
of 7 items. The third factor, which explains 7.74% of the total variance, is comprised
of 5 items and has factor loads ranging between .596 and .753. After the items that
make up the factors have been examined, the first, second, and the third factors were
named “Expressing Oneself Using Multimodal Structures”, “Interpretation of the
Contents Presented in Multimodal Structure”, and “Preferring Multimodal
Structure”, respectively.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
CFA was applied to verify the 3 factored structure of the Multimodal Literacy
Scale obtained through EFA. Factor distributions and values obtained through CFA
are presented.
Figure 2. Path Diagram of the Multimodal Literacy Scale
53
As can be seen in Figure 2, t values concerned with the ability of latent variables
to explain observed variables are displayed on arrows. Parameter predictions are .05,
significant if t values exceed 1.96 and .01 significant if t values exceed 2.56 (Raykov &
Marcoulides, 2008). Within this scope, all of the items have a .01 significance level, as
can be seen in Figure 2.
Another value that needs to be examined is p value. This value gives clues about
the significance level of the difference between expected the covariance matrix and
the observed covariance matrix (χ2 value). Naturally, it is more favorable when the p
value is significant (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2008). As can be seen in Figure 2, p value
has a significance of .01. In addition, model fit and error indexes are presented in the
table below.
Table 3.
CFA Results of the Multimodal Literacy Scale
χ2
df
p
175.77
116
.00
χ2
/df
1.51
RMSEA
GFI
AGFI
RMR
SRMR
NFI
NNFI
CFI
IFI
.036
.95
.93
.042
.038
.97
.99
.99
.99
An important variable that needs to be examined in CFA is χ2 model fit statistics.
This value is assessed in relation to the degree of freedom. Perfect model fit is
reached if χ2/sd ≤ 2 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Table 3 shows that this value is 1.51
in the developed scale. This value is proof of the perfect model fit of the scale.
The fact that the RMSEA value, which is less sensitive to sample size and more
sensitive to the relationship between errors, is less than .05 is an indication of perfect
model fit (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993). When the RMSEA value obtained from the
scale (.036) is examined with the help of the analyses conducted within this
framework, we can see that a perfect model fit index was obtained.
When the other model fit indexes in Table 3 are examined, GFI=.95 and AGFI=.93
are calculated. GFI and AGFI indexes above .95 correspond to perfect model fit,
while values above .90 means a good enough model fit (Sümer, 2000). In this
respect, GFI can be said to have perfect model fit and AGFI has a good enough
model fit. Standardized RMR and RMR values below .05 mean perfect model
fit(Brown, 2006). When Table 3 is examined, RMR=.042 and SRMR=.038 equations
can be seen. In this respect, RMR and SRMR can be said to have perfect model fit.
Last, when NFI, NNFI, CFI, and IFI model fit indexes are examined, we see that
NFI is .97 and NNFI, CFI, and IFT are .99. NFI, NNFI, CFI, and IFT values above .95
mean perfect model fit (Sümer, 2000). Within this scope, we can say that NFI, NNFI,
CFI, and IFT model fit indexes have perfect model fit. Overall, we can say that the 3
factor structure of the Multimodal Literacy Scale comprised of 17 items as a model is
confirmed.
54
Reliability Analysis
Cronbach Alpha coefficients belonging to each factor are presented in Table 4.
Table 4.
Reliability Results of the Sub-Factors of the Multimodal Literacy Scale
Factors
Cronbach-Alfa
Internal Consistency
Coefficient (α)
Expressing Oneself Using Multimodal Structure
.837
Interpretation of the Contents Presented in
Multimodal Structure
.746
Preferring Multimodal Structure
.762
According to the table, the reliability coefficient of each sub-factor is higher than
.70, which is the critical value (Kline, 1986; DeVellis, 2003). As a result of the
reliability studies conducted, the overall Cronbach-Alpha internal consistency
coefficient is identified as .875.
In order to calculate the test-retest reliability coefficient of the scale, it was
applied again to 61 prospective teachers 4 weeks after it was first applied. The
Pearson correlation coefficient between the points on both occasions was calculated
as .880. This outcome demonstrates that the scale produces consistent results on each
occasion.
Item Analysis
The findings of the item analysis of the test are presented in Table 5.
Table 5.
Item Analysis Results of the Multimodal Literacy Scale
Factors
Items
Expressing Oneself Using Multimodal
Structure
18
22
26
28
29
Corrected
Item-Total
Correlation1
.64
.62
.59
.70
.63
t
(Lower %27Upper %27)2
12.62***
13.86***
13.47***
13.82***
12.72***
55
Table 5. Continued
Interpretation of the Contents
Presented in Multimodal Structure
Preferring Multimodal Structure
1 n=392, 2 n1=n2=106
5
7
8
10
11
15
24
9
12
14
16
19
.47
.52
.25
.61
.59
.60
.47
.43
.59
.59
.59
.45
8.00***
9.39***
8.68***
11.86***
10.57***
14.39***
11.08***
7.90***
13.32***
14.05***
14.88***
11.18***
*** p<.001
The table shows that all items (except for item no. 8) have a corrected item-total
correlation above .30, which is the threshold value. Although the corrected item-total
correlation of item 8 was computed as .25, it was not omitted from the scale as the
other values computed were positive and the item is eligible for this scale.
Furthermore, Özçelik (2010) states that items with corrected item-total correlation
values between .20 and .30 are employable in such scales. In addition, one can see
that t values computed for lower and upper groups of 27% are significant (p<.001).
These results can be interpreted to indicate that the items in the scale have a high
validity rate and can discriminate between students with regard to their capabilities
of multimodal literacy.
Discussion and Conclusion
Most texts individuals encounter today are multimodal in structure; written,
visual, and auditory elements are used together. Students who spend most of their
time on social networks (such as YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter) or playing various
computer games gain experience in dynamic, non-linear, and interactive multimodal
environments. Alternatively, the dominance of paper-based verbal education at
schools results in a digital divide between school and daily life in this respect
(Kellner, 2000). Teachers, who prepare individuals for their future lives and who
should act as models, have to overcome this division by keeping pace with
advancing technology. Therefore, it is important that teachers possess multimodal
literacy skills. Many researchers argue that teachers should be able to: access various
texts, either paper-based or electronic-based (newspapers, brochures, websites,
books, Kindles, etc.); read and write such texts; produce texts that will be a part of
the virtual world for various media (such as social media, blogs); and design
interactive and dynamic media using Web 2.0 tools (Cuming, Kimber & WyattSmith, 2012; Doering, Beach & O’Brien, 2007; Turner, 2012, cited in Tüzel, 2013).
Tüzel (2013) conducted a quantitative study on the opinions of 61 prospective
teachers and concluded that prospective teachers have a low awareness level of
56
multimodal text structures and multimodal literacy education. In this study, a scale
designed to measure the multimodal literacy skills of future teacher was developed.
In this way, we can identify the multimodal literacy skills during their undergraduate education, whereby we can identify the prospective teachers without such
skills and they can be trained in this respect.
During the development process of the Multimodal Literacy Scale, validity and
reliability studies were conducted on the 32-item test form after the expert
evaluations. Content and construct validity were examined for validity studies. We
referred to academicians who are experts in their respective fields for content
validity. We applied EFA and CFA for construct validity. At the end of EFA, we
identified that the scale has a 3 factored structure that explains 52.63% of the total
variance. As a result of CFA, consistency index values were identified and it was
recognized that the 3 factor structured scale, made up of 17 items, was verified as a
model. EFA and CFA results demonstrated that the scale has a valid 3 factorial
structure. In order to determine the reliability of the scale, we calculated the
Cronbach Alpha internal consistency and test-retest reliability coefficients. In light of
the values obtained, the scale was concluded as reliable. During the studies of item
analysis, corrected item-total correlation of the items within 3 factors was calculated
and the t-test was used to determine if these items discriminate the 27% of the upper
and the 27% of the lower groups. These results can be interpreted to indicate that the
items in the scale have a high validity rate and can discriminate between students
with regard to their capabilities of multimodal literacy.
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Çok Katmanlı Okuryazarlık Ölçeği: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması
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Özet
Problem Durumu: Çağımızda bireylerin günlük hayatta karşılaştıkları metin
yapılarının birçoğu yazı, ses ve görsel unsurların bir arada kullanıldığı çok katmanlı
yapıdadır. Zamanlarının büyük bir bölümünü youtube, facebook, twitter gibi sosyal
ağlarda ve çeşitli bilgisayar oyunlarında geçiren öğrenciler dinamik, doğrusal
59
olmayan ve etkileşimli çok katmanlı ortamlarda deneyim kazanmaktadırlar. Bununla
birlikte okullarda kâğıt tabanlı söze dayalı eğitimin hâkim olması, okul ve günlük
yaşam arasında bu bağlamda bölünmüşlük yaşanmasına neden olmaktadır. Bireyi
hayata hazırlayan ve onlara iyi bir model olması gereken öğretmenler gelişen
teknolojiye ayak uydurarak bu bölünmüşlüğün önüne geçmeleri gerekmektedir.
Birçok araştırmacı da öğretmenlerin, kağıt tabanlı ve elektronik türden çeşitli
metinlere ulaşabilmesi, okuyup yazabilmesi; sanal dünyanın bir parçası olacak
iletileri çeşitli ortamlara yönelik üretebilmesi; Web 2.0 araçlarını kullanarak
etkileşimli ve dinamik multimedya ortamlar tasarlayabilmesi gerektiğini
savunmaktadırlar. Derste çok katmanlı metinlerin kullanımıyla birlikte, öğrencilerin
ders işleme sürecinde bilişsel becerilerini daha yoğun kullandıkları, daha katılımcı ve
üretken olduklarını belirttikleri görülmüştür. Eğitim ortamlarında çok katmanlılığa
yer verilmesi öğrencilerin bireysel özelliklerine göre ya da baskın zekâ alanlarına
göre öğretim yapılması açısından önem taşımaktadır.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Öğretmenlerin çok katmanlı okuryazarlık becerilerine sahip
olması öğretmen eğitimi açısından önemli bir unsur olarak görülmektedir. Bu
çalışmada öğretmen adaylarının çok katmanlı okuryazarlık becerilerini ölçmeyi
amaçlayan bir ölçek geliştirilmiştir.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Bu araştırmada öğretmen adaylarına yönelik çok katmanlı
okuryazarlık ölçeğini geliştirmek amaçlandığı için araştırma tarama modeline göre
desenlemiştir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Eğitim
Fakültesi’nin çeşitli bölümlerinde öğrenim gören 392 lisans öğrencisi
oluşturmaktadır.
Çalışmaya temel teşkil eden veriler, öğretmen adaylarının çok katmanlı okuryazarlık
becerilerini belirlemek amacıyla hazırlanmış bir ölçekle toplanmıştır. Madde havuzu
alanla ilgili literatür taramasına ve uzman görüşlerine başvurularak belirlenmiştir.
Alınan görüşler doğrultusunda 45 maddelik bir madde havuzu oluşturulmuştur.
Alandaki uzmanların yanı sıra, dil ve ölçme değerlendirme uzmanlarının görüşleri
doğrultusunda açık ve anlaşılır olmayan, muğlak olan ve birden fazla yargı içeren
madde havuzundaki 13 madde çıkarılmış ve 32 maddelik denemelik form
oluşturulmuştur. Ölçeğin geçerliğini belirlemek için kapsam ve yapı geçerlikleri
incelenmiştir. Kapsam geçerliği için konu ile ilgili uzman akademisyenlerin
görüşlerine başvurulmuştur. Yapı geçerliği için Açımlayıcı Faktör Analizi (AFA) ve
Doğrulayıcı Faktör Analizi (DFA) uygulanmıştır. AFA’da ortaya konulan modelin
uygunluğunu test etmek için DFA yapılmıştır. Ölçeğin güvenirliğini belirlemek için
iç tutarlık ve test-tekrar test yöntemleri uygulanmıştır. Güvenilirlik çalışmaları
sonucunda, tüm ölçeğin Cronbach-Alfa iç tutarlılık katsayısınında .875 olduğu
belirlenmiştir. Test-tekrar test güvenirlik katsayısını hesaplamak amacıyla ilk
uygulamadan 4 hafta sonra ölçek, 61 öğretmen adayına tekrar uygulanmıştır.
Ölçeğin her iki uygulamasından elde edilen puanlar arasındaki Pearson korelasyon
katsayısı .880 olarak hesaplanmıştır.
Araştırmanın Bulguları: Geliştirilen ölçeğin yapı geçerliğini kanıtlamak amacıyla ilk
olarak Açımlayıcı Faktör Analizi (AFA) uygulanmıştır. Bunun için öncelikle verilerin
60
faktör analizine uygun olup olmadığı test edilmiş ve Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) ile
Barlett Küresellik testleri sonuçları incelenmiştir. Yapılan analizler sonucunda
geliştirilen ölçeğin KMO değeri .897 olarak hesaplanmış ve Barlett testi sonucu elde
edilen Ki-Kare test istatistiği sonucunun anlamlı olduğu görülmüştür (  =
2
2232.004, sd: 136, p<.001). Bu bulgular doğrultusunda araştırma verilerinin faktör
analizi için uygun olduğu söylenebilir. Yapılan analizler sonucunda ölçekte geriye
kalan 17 maddenin 3 faktörde toplandığı ve toplam varyansın %52.63’nün
açıklandığı görülmektedir. Faktörleri oluşturan maddeler incelenerek, birinci faktör
“Çok Katmanlı Yapıyı Kullanarak Kendini İfade Etme”, ikinci faktör “Çok Katmanlı
Yapıda Sunulan İçeriği Anlamlandırma” ve üçüncü faktör “Çok Katmanlı Yapıyı
Tercih Etme” şeklinde isimlendirilmiştir. Geliştirilen Çok Katmanlı Okuryazarlık
Ölçeğinin AFA sonucunda elde edilen 3 faktörlü yapısını doğrulamak amacıyla DFA
uygulanmıştır. İncelenmesi gereken değerlerden biri p değeridir. Bu değer beklenen
kovaryans matrisi ile gözlenen kovaryans matrisi arasındaki farkın (  değerinin)
2
manidarlığı hakkında bilgi verir. Doğal olarak p değerinin anlamlı olması arzu edilen
bir durumdur. P değeri .01 düzeyinde anlamlıdır. Eğer
 2 /sd ≤ 2 ise mükemmel
uyum anlamına gelir. Geliştirilen ölçekte bu değerin 1.51 olduğu görülmektedir. Bu
değer modelin mükemmel uyum gösterdiğinin kanıtıdır. Ayrıca tablo incelendiğinde
uyum ve hata indekslerinin mükemmel uyuma sahip olduğu görülmektedir. Bu
çerçevede, ölçeğin 17 maddeden oluşan 3 faktörlü yapısının bir model olarak
doğrulandığı söylenebilir.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Bireyleri çok katmanlı okuryazar kılabilmek için
en önemli görev öğretmenlere düşmektedir. Bunun için öncelikle öğretmenlerin bu
yeni okuryazarlık anlayışını derslerine entegre edebilmeleri için konu ile ilgili yeterli
olmaları gerekmektedir. Çok katmanlı okuryazarlık öğretimi ile ilgili yapılan
çalışmalarda öğretmen adaylarının çok katmanlı okuryazarlık öğretimine ilişkin
farkındalık düzeylerinin düşük olduğu sonucuna ulaşmıştır. Bu çalışmada da
gelecek nesillerin eğitiminde önemli rol oynayacak olan öğretmen adaylarının çok
katmanlı okuryazarlık becerilerini ölçmeyi amaçlayan bir ölçek geliştirilmiştir. Yapı
geçerliği için uygulanan AFA sonucunda ölçeğin 3 faktörlü bir yapıda olduğu
bulunmuş ve DFA sonucunda da ölçeğin bu yapısının bir model olarak doğrulandığı
görülmüştür. Ölçeğin güvenirliğini belirlemek için Cronbach-Alfa iç tutarlık ve testtekrar test güvenirlik katsayıları hesaplanmıştır. Bulunulan değerlere göre ölçeğin
güvenilir olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır. Yapılan analizler sonucunda geçerli ve
güvenilir olduğu saptanan ölçek ile öğretmen adaylarının çok katmanlı okuryazarlık
becerilerinin lisans eğitimlerinde belirlenebileceği düşünülmektedir. Dolayısıyla bu
beceriye sahip olmayan öğretmen adaylarının tespit edilerek bu yönde çalışmalar
yapılması beklenmektedir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Çok katmanlı okuryazarlık, ölçek geliştirme, geçerlik, güvenirlik
Learning Environments Designed According to Learning
Styles and Its Effects on Mathematics Achievement*
Ayşen ÖZEREM**
Buket AKKOYUNLU***
Suggested Citation:
Ozerem, A., & Akkoyunlu, B. (2015). Learning environments designed according to
learning styles and its effects on mathematics achievement. Eurasian Journal of
Educational Research, 61, 61-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2015.61.4
Abstract
Problem Statement: While designing a learning environment it is vital to
think about learner characteristics (learning styles, approaches,
motivation, interests… etc.) in order to promote effective learning. The
learning environment and learning process should be designed not to
enable students to learn in the same manner and at the same level, but
rather designed by giving thought to students’ existing learning styles.
Purpose of the Study: The aim of this study is to examine primary students’
and inspectors’ opinions on different learning environments designed
according to students’ learning styles and its effects on students’
achievement.
Method: Fifty-five seventh grade students and seven inspectors constituted
the research sample. The data were collected through an open-ended
questionnaire; a mathematics achievement test and the Pat Wyman
Personal Learning Style Inventory were used as data collection tools in the
research. Since the group consisted of less than 30 participants, the
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for Paired Samples was used.
Findings and Results: The difference of pre-post test results of visual
auditory learners, auditory-kinesthetic learners, and visual-auditory
learners are statistically significant. When the ranked average of different
grades and their sums are considered, the observed difference is in
* This article has been produced from the doctorate thesis supervised by Prof. Dr. Buket
Akkoyunlu at the Division of Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning and
Economics, Graduate School of Educational Sciences, Near East University.
** Dr., Near East University, [email protected]
*** Corresponding Author: Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of
Computer Education and Instructional Technology, [email protected]
62
Ayşen Özerem & Buket Akkoyunlu
positive ranking, meaning it is in favor of post-test results. According to
these results, different learning environments designed for visualauditory-kinesthetic learners have a positive effect on student grades. The
majority of the students stated that the aforementioned activities used in
the mathematics lesson could also be used in other school subjects.
Conclusions and Recommendations: Student responses emphasized that
learning environments should be designed according to student learning
styles. Inspectors underlined that learning styles designed according to
students’ individual learning styles may increase student success. In
addition, inspectors thought that some of the advantages of designing
learning environments according to students’ learning styles included an
opportunity to learn fairly, an increase in student motivation towards the
lesson, and enabling students to learn at their own pace. In the upcoming
studies, student behaviors and motivations towards environments
designed according to students’ learning styles will be analyzed.
Keywords: Learning styles, achievement, students' opinions
Introduction
Learning is a very complex process. One’s general ability, cognitive process,
emotions, motivation, developmental characteristics, readiness, previous
experiences, social environment, and the culture of his/her community are variables
that affect the process of learning. Affected by so many factors, individuals have
different learning processes.
In a learning environment there are many stimuli created by the teacher. A
student collects the information that s/he chooses from among these stimuli.
Additionally, every student might have different senses s/he prefers to use. When
one student tries to learn by listening to the teacher, another might be interested in
the behaviors of the teacher or the script and pictures of the book open in front of
him/her. Every student has a different strategy of coding information to their longterm memory. Some try to learn by giving meaning to them at once, whereas some
try to learn by repeating. Some students can remember what they learned easily and
quickly. Conversely, some have difficulty remembering and organizing what they
know. Some students like learning in groups, and some might find it disturbing
(Erden & Altun, 2006).
Researches on educational sciences have shown that there are learning
differences among students and the only way for learning to take place in the proper
sense is to find an individual’s learning style and arrange the learning environment
accordingly. Learning differences have affected learning and teaching processes,
individualizing learning processes and taking these learning differences into the
center of learning. Students have their own methods of obtaining information and
processing it: while some focus on data and operations, others are better at theories
and mathematical models. For some, written and verbal explanations are more
63
effective for others it can be visual elements like drawings, shapes, and graphics.
Some learners prefer interactive environments, while others might prefer working
individually. All of these differences in learning preferences are signs of their
different learning styles (Felder, 1996).
The learning style of an individual not only shows how s/he learns but also gives
information about how to design a learning environment. Although all the students
in a class are at the same age, at the same developmental phase, and offered mutual
chances by the teacher, different behaviors, learning styles, and achievements in a
class can be observed. Dwyer (1996) emphasized that no matter the learning
environment, students’ learning styles should be taken into consideration while
designing the learning process. Many of the researches underlined the importance of
identifying students’ learning styles and how helpful this can be in preparing the
learning/teaching environment (Boydak, 2001; Claxton & Murell, 1987). In school
learning, if the learning environment is designed according to student learning
styles, their academic achievements increase (Erden & Altun, 2006).
Learning Styles
There are many definitions of learning styles in the literature. Shuell (1986)
explained that learning styles are the different ways used by individuals to process
and organize information or to respond to environmental stimuli. Jensen (1998)
defined learning style as a way of thinking, comprehending, and processing
information. Keefe and Ferrell (1990) underlined learning style as the pattern of
cognitive, emotional, and physiological characteristics affected partially by
individuals’ way of perceiving, interacting with, and reacting to learning
environments. According to Dunn and Dunn (1993, learning style is a path that may
vary from one person to another, which starts with concentration and continues
when information is received and located in the mind. Jensen (1998) defined learning
style as a way of thinking, understanding, and processing data. Wyman (2006)
defined learning styles as an individual’s different way of receiving and processing
information. If an individual knows his/her learning style, s/he can upgrade his/her
learning level to the maximum, which can result in lifelong learning success. Wyman
(2006) divided learning styles into three categories: audio, visual, and kinesthetic.
According to Wyman, if a student’s learning is identified and arrangements are
made, the student’s success can be enhanced. The most important thing while
making necessary adjustments is preparing the learning environment to be suitable
for each learning style.
Analysis of the various definitions concludes that every individual has a unique
learning style. Even though they are learning in the same environment, for the same
duration, and they are internalizing the same facts and events, their approaches can
be different. Although learning styles are not permanent or fixed components, it
takes time. Because of this, it is easier and more effective to arrange the classroom
environment, learning materials, and learning styles related to the learning styles,
rather than expecting students to adapt to the existing system. Learning styles play a
vital role in an individual having an effective learning life. As a result, it is a
64
necessity to design learning environments suitable for the individuals (Hood, 1995).
As Cela, Sicilia, and Sánchez-Alonso (2015) underlined, learning styles influence
different learning environments, such as social networks in an e-learning class.
Learning Environment
A learning environment has many meanings according to the way it is used.
Besides its definition as an indicator of learning task (Tynjala, 1999), psychosocial
environments in class (Henderson, Fisher, & Fraser, 2000), and virtual environments
formed with computer and internet technologies (Fulkerth, 2002), it is also used in a
very wide range of ways. Studies on learning environments focus on behavior
management, classroom rules and discipline, motivation of students, teaching
methods, the set-up of classroom tools (tables, desks, etc.), and even the color of the
classroom (Chesebro & McCroskey, 2002; Slavin, 2000; Snowman & Biehler, 2003).
Learning environment the surroundings that make it possible for the learner to find
solutions to their problems and to have access to the materials to help them achieve
their goals. To make lifelong learning possible, the experiences in the learning
environment are crucial. These experiences are formed of the interaction between the
learner and the learning environment. The role of the interaction with sensory
stimulants (tools and materials) is very important in a learning environment
designed for learners. In today’s educational concept, the insight of learner-centered
education not only enables materials to be designed according to students’ different
learning characteristics, but also enhances the efficient learning environments with
the help of the developed technology. Learning environments designed according to
students’ needs improve student motivation and success by using a variety of
materials. In this context, when instructional technologies are analyzed, they can be
classified as visual environments, auditory environments, or both. As Vinales (2015)
mentioned in her study, the learning environment is a key factor for student
learning. It provides crucial exposure for the students and helps students develop
their repertoire of skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors in order to meet 21st
century competencies.
Designing the learning environment is a complicated process including many
different variables. Unless a learning environment is constructed in advance, it is not
only inadequate in learning goals but also an environment without control. In order
to avoid chaos in the learning environment, either the teachers or the instructional
designers should prepare and check it in advance (Wilson, 1995). Instructional
designers cannot design a learning environment that can be applied to every kind of
learning. This is not possible even though the characteristics of learning and the
learner are taken into consideration. During the learning process, learners use more
than one sense: they use visual and auditory information, perceive data from the
outside, choose the meaningful data, and combine new data with existing data.
Besides, learners with different learning styles activate the aforementioned mind
processes. These experiences can be acquired by interacting with the learning
environment (Bolliger, 2004). Studies have shown that learning environments that
consider learner characteristics affect academic success in a positive way (Chen &
65
Duh, 2008; Dascalu, Bodea, Moldoveanu, Mohora, Lytras, & de Pablos, 2015;
Millwood, Powell, & Tindal, 2008).
The Aim of the Study
While designing the learning environment, it is vital to think about learner
characteristics (learning styles, approaches, motivation, interests, etc.) in order to
promote permanent and effective learning. Multimedia environments address more
than one sense and teach by giving importance to individual differences, which
increase success and make permanent learning possible. Dwyer (1996) mentioned
that learning environment and learning process should be designed not to enable
students to learn in the same manner and at the same level, but rather should be
designed by giving thought to students’ existing learning styles. The aim of the study
is to examine primary school students’ and inspectors’ opinions on different learning
environments designed according to students’ learning styles and its effects on
students’ mathematics achievement. Therefore, this study seeks the answers to the
following questions:
a. What are the learning styles of the students?
b. Is there a difference between mathematics pre- and post-test results of students
who have different learning styles (visual-auditory, auditory-kinesthetic, and visualauditory–kinesthetic)?
c. What are the students’ opinions about learning environments designed
according to students’ learning styles?
d. What are the inspectors’ opinions about learning environments designed
Method
Research Design
The study is a one-group pre-test – post-test design. There is a single selected
group under observation, with careful measurement done before applying the
experimental treatment and then measuring after (Gay, 1987). In the one-group pretest – post-test design, a single group is measured or observed not only after being
exposed to a treatment of some sort, but also before (Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun,
2012). In this design, the effect is taken to be the difference between the pre-test and
post-test scores.
Research Sample
The convenience sampling method was chosen for this study. Convenience
sampling is a statistical method of drawing representative data by selecting people
because of the ease of their volunteering or selecting units because of their
availability or easy access (Lavrakas, 2008). For this study, the convenience sampling
method was chosen because the subjects were readily available for the researcher, as
well as other research advantages. The researcher was a mathematics teacher of the
study group, and she designed the learning environment in their mathematics
66
lessons. This sampling method was also useful in documenting that quality of the
designed learning environment for the research (Lavrakas, 2008). However,
convenience sampling has limitations. The most obvious criticism about convenience
sampling is that it is not representative of the entire population. It has limitations in
generalization and inference making about the entire population. Since the sample is
not representative of the population, the results of the study cannot speak for the
entire population.
Fifty-five seventh grade students and seven inspectors constituted the research
sample. 56.5% of the students were girls and 43.6% were boys. 47.3% of the students
had a visual auditory learning style, 23% had auditory kinesthetic, and 29.1% had
visual auditory kinesthetic. Four of the inspectors were male and three were female,
with seven years of work experience in the field.
The data for the study were collected through open-ended questionnaires, the
Mathematics Achievement Essay Test, and the Pat Wyman Personal Learning Style
Inventory.
Open-ended questionnaires: The researchers developed open-ended questionnaires
for students and inspectors in order to examine their opinions on learning
environment. The student questionnaire had four questions: “What do you think
about the Transformation subject?”, “Did you have any trouble during the course?”,
“If so, what was it?”, and “Would you like to be taught the same way in other
courses? Why?”. The inspector questionnaire had three questions: “Do you think
students’ achievements would increase if learning environments were designed
according to student learning styles?”, “Why?”, and “What are the advantages of
learning environments designed according to student learning styles?”. Questions
were prepared and sent to subject specialists, then were redesigned according to
their suggestions.
Mathematics Achievement Essay: A Mathematics Achievement Essay on the
Transformation unit was prepared to define students' mathematics achievement;
these were used as pre- and post-test. The achievement test aimed to ask questions
that triggered students’ interpretation, analysis, arguments, and evaluation skills.
The exam consisted of 10 questions of increasing difficulty (knowledge,
interpretation, application, and analysis). The questions were designed according to
their difficulties; in other words, the difficult questions were graded with a higher
score. The test was conducted on fifty-two 8th grade students who had already been
taught the unit for testing the reliability and validity of the essay. The test - retest
method and inter rater reliability were used for reliability. The essay was given to the
group as pre- and post-test in four weeks. The correlation coefficient was found to be
α=.79. For inter rater reliability, three different examiners graded the ten questions
independently and the correlation coefficient changed between 0.89 and 0.94, which
was quite high. Kendall's coefficient of concordance was used to test inter-rater
reliability, which was found as .52 (χ2= 315.16, sd=3, p<.05). Criteria validity was
67
used to test the validity, and 8th grade students’ essay scores were compared to their
mathematics report marks and the correlation between them was found to be .61.
Pat Wyman Personal Learning Style Inventory: The Pat Wyman Personal Learning
Style Inventory was used to identify students’ learning styles and was developed by
Pat Wyman (1998). The Learning Style Inventory consists of 36 questions. Students
check the statements he/she agree with. The Pat Wyman Personal Learning Style
Inventory was adapted into Turkish by Erdem & Akkoyunlu (2006) and its
validation and the alpha reliability coefficient were calculated. The reliability of the
scale was .73.
Data Analysis
The data was analyzed using SPSS (The Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences). Since the group consists of less than 30 participants, the Wilcoxon Signed
Rank Test for Paired Samples was used.
Implementation of the Process
First, daily lesson plans were prepared according achievements in the
Transformation unit. The learning styles of students were defined and learning
environments were designed considering their learning styles. Transformation
Geometry was chosen because it is taught in schools only by using written
documents and tracing paper; in addition to this, it was important to thoroughly
investigate how auditory, kinesthetic, and visual learners learn. Moreover,
Transformation Geometry can develop students’ geometry experiences,
imaginations, thinking abilities, and spatial skills. With the help of Transformation
Geometry, students not only associate mathematics and art, but also understand the
importance of mathematics and its application to our daily lives. For instance, when
students look at a rug and its repeated and rotated patterns, they can look at their
environment from another perspective. Because of this, Transformation should be
taught to students at very early ages; the fact that reflection and rotation can be
observed in many natural constructions and natural appearances should be
emphasized.
Studies show that Transformation geometry can develop students’ abstract
concepts such as consistency, symmetry, analogy, and parallelism and can help to
improve their three-dimensional thinking abilities (Flanagan 2001; Hannafin,
Truxaw, Vermillion, & Liu, 2008). The objects used in the activities were chosen as
suitable for the subject matter and the age group. Students were given the
opportunity to actively innovate in the given activities and there was an attempt to
widen their previously acquired knowledge. Instead of giving students ready shapes,
they were encouraged to design their own shapes, analyze them, and make
comments about the activity. Both individual and group activities were used. Most of
the prepared activities were presented in PowerPoint, supported with colorful
pictures, animations, and voice effects.
68
Findings
What Are Student Learning Styles?
The students’ learning styles were identified by the Pat Wyman Personal
Learning Style Inventory. According to Table 1, most of the students have visualauditory learning styles. 47.3% of the students have visual-auditory, 23.6% have
auditory-kinesthetic, and 29.1% have visual-auditory-kinesthetic. When distributions
of learning styles are analyzed, the majority of students are found to be visualauditory learners and the proportions between auditory-kinesthetic and visualauditory-kinesthetic are very close.
Table 1.
Distribution of Students’ Learning Styles
Learning Styles
Visual-Auditory
Auditory-Kinesthetic
Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic
Total
N
28
13
14
55
%
47,3
23,6
29,1
100
Is There a Difference Between Mathematics Pre- And Post-test Results of Students Who
Have Different Learning Styles (Visual-Auditory, Auditory-Kinesthetic, and VisualAuditory-Kinesthetic)?
The pre- and post-tests scores of students’ who had different learning styles
(Visual-Auditory, Auditory-Kinesthetic, and Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic) were
calculated separately (Table 2). As seen in Table 2, there is a difference between
students’ pre- and post-test results. The mean score of students who have visual
auditory learning styles in pre-test is 9.72 and 27.30 in the post-test. The mean score
of students with auditory kinesthetic learning styles in pre-test is 9.09 and 28.23 in
the post-test. The mean score of kinesthetic learners is 9.53 in pre-test and 27.03 in
post-test.
Table 2.
The Pre- and Post-Tests Scores of Students According to Their Learning Styles
Pre-test
Std
Post-test
Learning styles
N
Mean
deviation
Mean
Visual-Auditory
28
9,72
7,01
27,30
13
9,09
8,50
28,23
Visual-Auditory14
9,53
8,25
27,03
Kinesthetic
Total
55
9,52
7,55
27,46
Std
deviation
6,18
7,04
5,15
6,06
69
The difference between the pre-post test results of students who have different
learning styles are statistically tested and presented in Table 3. Since the group
consists of less than 30 participants, the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for Paired
Samples was used.
Table 3.
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for Paired Samples for the Significance of Pre-Post Test Result
Differences of Visual - Auditory Learners
Visual-Auditory
Post-test – Pre-test
n
Mean Rank Sum of Ranks
Negative Ranks 1
1
1
-4,600*
.000
Positive Ranks
27
15
405
Tries
0
Total
28
Negative Ranks 1
1
1
-3,110*
.002
Positive Ranks
12
7,5
90
Tries
0
Total
13
Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic
Negative Ranks 0
0
0
-3,297*
.001
Positive Ranks
14
7,5
105
Tries
0
Total
14
*Related to Negative Ranking Base.
The difference of pre-post test results of visual auditory learners are statistically
significant (z=-4.600; p<.05). When the ranked average of different grades and their
sums are considered, the observed difference is positive, meaning it is in favor of
post-test results. According to these results, different learning environments
designed for visual-auditory learners have a positive effect on student grades.
The difference of pre-post test results of auditory-kinesthetic learners are
statistically significant (z=-3.110; p<.05). When the ranked average of different grades
and their sums are considered, the observed difference is positive, meaning that it is
in favor of post-test results. According to these results, different learning
environments designed for auditory-kinesthetic learners have a positive effect on
student grades.
The difference of pre-post test results of visual auditory kinesthetic learners are
statistically significant (z=-3.197; p<.05). When the ranked average of different grades
and their sums are considered, the observed difference is positive, meaning that it is
in favor of post-test results. According to these results, different learning
environments designed for visual-auditory-kinesthetic learners have a positive effect
on student grades.
70
What Are the Students’ Opinions About the Learning Environments Designed According to
Students’ Learning Styles?
A questionnaire including three open-ended questions was prepared to
determine student opinions on learning environments designed for their different
learning styles. Students’ responses are presented in Table 4 about the designed
learning environments for different learning styles.
Table 4.

























Students’ Responses about the Designed Learning Environments for Different Learning
Styles
Q1: What do you think about the way the Transformation subject is taught?
It was very good and educational. (E.T)
We did good instructional activities. (S.K)
I think it contributed to our learning (D.B)
The way the teacher taught was very good. (N.O)
It was very good. I had so much fun. (I.O)
The time flew, it was very clear. I learned a lot (O.Y)
It was a good lesson. The way the lesson was taught was fun. (S.S)
It was good. You baffled us. (S.B.O)
It was fun, we learned better by drawing, writing, and then doing activities. (O.M.A)
Because Transformation is more of a visual subject and our learning styles were
taken into consideration the lesson was taught better. (E.G.S)
Q2: Did you have any difficulties during the lesson? If so, what were they?
I did not face any difficulties; I had so much fun. (D.B)
I did. I could not do some of the shapes or I did them incorrectly and our teacher
could not help me because of the intensity of the lesson. (İ.E.S)
The time was limited; I think the time was not enough for all the activities. (E.G.S)
It is a very good and entertaining subject; with the way our teacher taught and the
activities, I understood it very well. (A.A)
Q3: Would you like these activities to be used in other lessons? Why?
Yes, it would be fun. (E.T)
Yes, definitely, I can learn in an easier way. (S.K)
Yes, I can still remember it. (B.A)
Yes, the subjects can be learned better. (I.O)
Yes, because these activities helped me to learn the subject better. (O.Y)
No, because I think these activities are not suitable for all lessons. (A.A)
Yes, because we can revise more. (I.O)
Yes, because the lessons would be more fun and it can increase our love of school.
(E.R)
Yes, because the lessons are more entertaining. (D.K)
Yes, because the activities are more memorable; since we have fun while learning the
motivation is higher. (E.G.S)
Yes, it can help us remember, keep us motivated, have fun, and to look forward to
the lesson. (A.A)
71
Analysis of responses for question 1 show the students they are generally
appreciative of the presentation of the lesson. According to student feedback, it is
understood that Transformation was taught in an entertaining way, including many
different kinds of activities. The students expressed that teaching the lesson by
considering student learning styles contributed to a better learning and
comprehension of the subject (Table 3).
Analysis of responses to question 2 show some of the students thought that the
time was not enough; some said that because of the classroom intensity they could
not get enough attention from the teacher. In addition, other students said that the
teaching style and supporting the lesson with different activities helped the lesson to
be understood (Table 3).
The majority of the students said that the aforementioned activities used in the
Mathematics lesson could also be used in other lessons. Other findings from this
study include that these activities revised the lesson, enabled students to better
understand the subject, and increased their motivation. Since the lesson was
enjoyable, it made the students like Mathematics and made the lesson entertaining.
The student responses emphasize the importance of creating entertaining learning
environments.
What Are the Inspectors’ Opinions About the Learning Environments Designed According
to Students’ Learning Styles?
A questionnaire of three open-ended questions was also prepared to learn
inspectors’ opinions on learning environments designed for different learning styles.
The inspector responses to questions on learning environments designed for
different learning styles are presented in Table 5.
Table 5.
Inspectors’ Responses about the Designed Learning Environments for Different Learning
Styles
Q1: Do you think learning environments designed for different learning styles can
improve students’ achievement?
I1: Yes, every student has a different way of learning. It has to be designed.
I2: Yes, because every student is different and every student has different verbal and
mathematical intelligence.
I3: Yes, if multiple intelligence theory is taken into consideration, it proves it.
Individual learning methods vary.
I4: Yes, since multiple intelligence theory is individual differences, when a learning
environment is designed accordingly to learning styles success will be improved.
I5: For learning styles, what students learn is less important than how they learn. For
permanent learning, how students learn is an important factor to increase student
success.
I6: Yes, because every student has a different learning style and pace. If learning
environments are designed according to students’ individual needs, both perception
and success will increase.
I7: Learning environments designed according to learning styles increases student
72
success. Every human being has different perception characteristics. Environments
designed suitable for individual differences will increase student success.
Q2: In your opinion, what are the advantages of designing learning environments
according to student learning styles?
I1: There will be a fair learning environment in class. But these styles are not
applicable to crowded classes. It might cause lesson loss. Daily lesson plans and
preparations should be done.
I2: When individual differences are taken into consideration, it is an advantage. It
increases success.
I3: It increases success; it helps the students and the teacher to teach and learn in a
happy way. It increases student motivation towards the lesson. It forms a fair
learning environment.
I4: It helps to increase success. Learning can take place sooner. It increases student
motivation to the lesson. It causes a fair learning environment.
I5: When learning environments are designed according to learning styles, each
student can learn according to their needs and pace. It is also advantageous for the
teacher to learn about his/her students when teaching tools, methods, and
techniques are designed according to students’ learning styles.
I6: It might help the students to have a positive attitude about the topic and learn
significantly. They will not suffer the difficulties of being a stranger in class since
his/her needs and expectations are fulfilled and their significant learning and success
will increase related to all of the reasons above.
I7: Since the classroom environment is designed according to their individual
characteristics, it will ease their perception. This will increase student success.
Q3: What are possible challenges when learning environments are designed
I1: Lack of knowledge, physical environment, inexperience, crowded classrooms,
curriculum.
I2: The time can be inadequate. Because the education is part time. Classes that are
crowded might cause problems.
I3: Crowded classes, curriculum, time, equipment, the time teacher needs to prepare
the lesson and materials.
I4: Physical environment, crowded classes, the education is not full time, the
adaptation of the curriculum, time deficiency, needed equipment, and inadequate
number of teachers.
I5: Financial problems, missing knowledge, the school, teachers, and the authorities
lack of knowledge towards student care and needs to design a suitable environment
for their learning styles.
I6: Financial issues, the teachers and school authorities not in the level of
understanding learning styles of students, the crowded classes, more preparation, it
needs sacrifice and more work, in a real sense it is not applicable 100% to all classes.
I7: Firstly, it brings financial problems to the surface. It not only causes time loss to
design the environments according to each of the individual’s needs but also it
requires more preparation.
The inspectors’ opinions on designed environments according to students’
learning styles show that this application can increase student success. All of the
interviewed inspectors emphasized the importance of individual differences and
73
multiple intelligence as a basis for different types of learning. The importance was
emphasized on students learning in the most suitable environments according to
their learning styles; one of the inspector’s emphasis on retention of the learning also
captured attention. This inspector emphasized that learning styles focus on how
students learn in this context, and that success and retention in learning can increase
related to this.
Analysis of the inspectors’ opinions on the second question shows that some of
the advantages of designing a learning environment by giving thought to students’
learning styles include the interest and motivation towards the lesson will increase
and it gives students the chance to learn at their own pace. In addition, it was also
stated that when classrooms are designed according to students’ learning styles,
teachers have the opportunity to get to know their students better and can control the
learning and teaching process better. Therefore, as Bozkurt (2013) underlined,
teachers should be aware of which learning style their students have. Another
advantage mentioned was the students’ positive attitudes towards the lesson and its
positive effect on significant learning. Some of the advantages suggested by the
inspectors can be emphasized as individual differences. At this point, if expectations
and needs of students towards learning are taken into consideration, it can have
positive effects on the learning/teaching process. Moreover, to be able to give
thought to these expectations, needs can be stated as the most concrete indication of a
fair learning/teaching environment to be provided.
Analysis of the inspector responses to question three show the possible
difficulties suggested by the inspectors include teachers and authorities missing
information, an inadequate physical environment, crowded classes, the intensity of
the curriculum, inexperienced teachers, and time and financial problems. At this
point, the inadequacy of time and knowledge about lesson content stand out in
preparing materials according to learning styles of students.
According to these findings, teachers should be supported with in-service
training and guidelines are needed to be able to prepare lesson content, taking
learning styles into consideration. Even though these needs are fulfilled, teacher
awareness and motivation should be increased. A possible resistance against teacher
time and self-sacrifice might cause a negative effect not only on lesson designs
suitable for different learning styles but also for the learning/teaching process. In
addition to this, overcoming financial and equipment inadequacies can eliminate an
obstacle of designing lessons according to learning styles.
Discussion
This study shows that the difference between pre-post tests results of learners
with different learning styles are statistically significant in favor of post-test results.
Many of the studies on designed learning environments related to student learning
styles show a relationship between learning styles and student success (Cano-Garcia
& Hughes, 2000; Collison, 2000; Boatman Courtney & Lee, 2008). Moreover, studies
74
on learning styles showing a positive effect on student grades, more effective
teaching taking learning styles into consideration, the positive effect of learning
environments designed according to learning styles, and suitable teaching
approaches support the conclusion of the research. (Grasha & Yangarber-Hicks, 2000;
Wood, 2002).
Students’ opinions on learning environments designed for different learning
styles show that they generally appreciate the presentation of the lesson. According
to student feedback, it is understood that Transformation was taught in an
entertaining way and included many different kinds of activities. Mathematical
concepts, to be explained and presented using mathematical language, depend on
this development. Because of this, giving concrete examples from their surroundings
can contribute to their imagining abstract structures. A similar approach is also
applicable to other well-known disciplines or readiness and relating it to new
concepts. For these reasons, in each process of this study, creating the ability to form
relations between facts and concepts was considered important. Students found
mathematics and daily life relationships meaningful in designed learning
environments according to learning styles. It seems like it created curiosity towards
learning. When students commented on whether or not they had difficulties during
the lesson, some of the students stated that the timing during the lesson was not
enough; others said they could not get enough support from the teacher due to the
intensity of the lesson. Introducing different learning environments is actually more
time consuming than traditional environments. The process progresses with
activities such as interactive presentations, student presentations, and visuals. The
majority of the students stated that the aforementioned activities used in the
mathematics lesson could also be used in other school subjects. Student responses
emphasized that learning environments should be designed according to student
learning styles.
The inspectors’ opinions on designed learning environments for different
learning styles showed that designed learning styles according to students’
individual learning styles might increase student success. The inspectors thought
that some of the advantages of designing learning environments according to
students’ learning styles was that they created an opportunity to learn fairly,
increasing student motivation towards the lesson and enabling students to learn at
their own pace.
This study aimed to learn students’ and inspectors’ opinions on designed
environments for their learning styles and its effect on student grades, and showed
that this positively affects student grades. Not only the students’ but also the
inspectors’ opinions on this application support these findings.
Suggestions
The studies on finding learning styles at the primary education step can support
student achievement and can also avoid negative student attitudes towards some of
75
the lessons. The findings of the study and suggestions developed for further studies
are listed below. Teachers can be encouraged to get in-service training to set
strategies related to individual learning styles and to be able to determine student
learning styles.
Different learning environments, designed and supported taking learning styles
into consideration, for the geometry subject of Transformation can also be used on
other subjects that students have difficulty understanding. In upcoming studies the
student behaviors and motivations towards designed environments according to
learning styles can be analyzed.
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Öğrenme Stillerine Gore Tasarlanan Öğrenme Ortamları ve Matematik
Başarısına Etkisi
Atıf:
Ozerem, A., & Akkoyunlu, B. (2015). Learning environments designed according to
learning styles and its effects on mathematics achievement. Eurasian Journal of
Özet
Problem Durumu: Öğrenme ortamları tasarlanırken, öğrenme stilleri, öğrenme
yaklaşımları, motivasyon ve ilgiler gibi öğrenen karakteristiklerinin göz önünde
bulundurulması etkili öğrenmeler için büyük önem arz etmektedir. Öğrenme
ortamları ve öğrenme süreçleri öğrencilerin eşit koşullarda öğrenmelerini
sağlayabileceği gibi, öğrenme stilleri de göz önüne alındığında onlara daha zengin
öğrenme süreçlerinin yasatılabileceği söylenebilir. Farklı öğrenme ortamları, çeşitli
kaynaklar ile öğrenme-öğretme ortamlarını daha çok duyuya hitap eden cevreler
haline getirerek, öğrenci motivasyon ve başarısını da artırmaktadır. Birden fazla
duyu organına hitap eden öğrenme ortamlarının düzenlemenin, öğrenmenin
başarısını artırdığını belirten araştırmalarda bunun nedenleri; gerçek yasama
yakınlık, kalıcılık, dikkat çekicilik ve esnek öğrenme ortamları ile açıklanmaktadır.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Yapılan çeşitli tanımlamalar incelendiğinde, öğrenme stillerinin
her bireyin kendisine özel olduğu sonucu ortaya çıkmaktadır. Aynı ortamda, aynı
zamanda, aynı olgu ve olaylar içselleştirilerek öğrenilirken bile, her bireyin
yaklaşımları farklı olabilmektedir. Öğrenme stilleri sabit ve değişmez unsurlar
olmamakla birlikte, değişmelerinin zaman alacağı söylenebilir. Bu bağlamda bu
çalışmanın amacı, ilköğretim öğrencilerinin ve müfettişlerin, öğrenenlerin öğrenme
stillerini dikkate alarak tasarlanan ortamlara ilişkin görüşlerini belirleyebilmek ve bu
ortamların öğrenci başarısındaki etkisini araştırmaktır.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu 55 ilköğretim 7. sınıf öğrencisi
ve 7 müfettiş oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak, öğrenci ve
öğretmenlere yönelik acık uçlu sorulardan oluşan birer görüşme formu, matematik
başarı testi ve Pat Ayman Kişisel Öğrenme Stili Envanteri kullanılmıştır. Pat Ayman
Kişisel Öğrenme Stili Envanterinin güvenirlik katsayısı α= .73 olarak hesaplanmıştır.
Başarı testinde, öğrencilerin düşünce sistemlerini harekete geçirecek bilgiyi
kullanma, yorumlama, analiz etme, çıkarımda bulunma ve değerlendirme, güncel
hayatla ilişkilendirme ve problem çözme becerilerini kullanmalarını gerektiren
sorular sorulması hedeflenmiştir ve test, basitten karmaşığa doğru giden 10 soru ile
sınırlandırılmıştır. Sorular zorluk derecesine göre planlanmıştır, başka bir deyişle,
zorluk derecesi yüksek olan sorulara daha fazla puan verilmiştir. Araştırma
kapsamında, öncelikle öğrencilerin öğrenme stilleri belirlenmiş, daha sonra
Donuşum konusu ile ilgili olarak, öğrencilerin öğrenme stillerine göre öğrenme
ortamları düzenlenmiştir. Donuşum geometrisi konusu okullarda sadece yazılı
dokumanlar ve aydınger kâğıdı yardımıyla anlatıldığı ve işitsel, kin estetik ve görsel
öğrenen öğrencilerin nasıl öğrendiklerini derinlemesine araştırma yapılmasının
79
önemli görüldüğü için bu konu seçilmiştir. Verilerin analizi için, grup büyüklükleri
30’dan küçük olduğundan İlişkili Ölçümler İçin Wilson Isa retli Sıralar Testi
kullanılmıştır.
Araştırmanın Bulguları: Araştırma bulguları, öğrencilerin % 47,3’unun Görsel – İşitsel,
% 23,6’sının İşitsel – Kin estetik, % 29,1’i Görsel – İşitsel – Kin estetik öğrenme
stillerine sahip olduğunu göstermiştir. Öğrencilerin öğrenme stillerine göre
dağılımları incelendiğinde öğrencilerin çoğunluğunun Görsel – İşitsel öğrenen
olduğu, İşitsel – Kin estetik öğrenenler ile Görsel – İşitsel – Kin estetik öğrenenlerin
oranlarının birbirine yakın olduğu görülmüştür. Görsel – İşitsel öğrenme stiline
ilişkin on test ve son test puanları arasındaki farkın istatistiksel acıdan anlamlı
olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır (z=-4,600; p<.05). Ayrıca İşitsel – Kin estetik öğrenme
stiline ilişkin on test ve son test puanları arasındaki farkın istatistiksel acıdan anlamlı
olduğu görülmüştür (z=-3,110; p<.05). Aynı şekilde Görsel – işitsel – Kin estetik
öğrenme stiline ilişkin on test ve son test puanları arasındaki farkın istatistiksel
acıdan anlamlı olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır (z=-3,197; p<.05). Öğrencilerin acık uçlu
sorulara verdikleri yanıtlar incelendiğinde, öğrencilerin dersin isleniş bicimi ile ilgili
genel olarak memnuniyetlerini dile getirdikleri görülmüştür. Öğrencilerden gelen
dönütler doğrultusunda Donuşum konusunun eğlenceli bir şekilde anlatıldığı ve
farklı türden etkinlikleri barındırdığı bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. Dersin öğrenme
stillerini dikkate alan bir bicimde islenmesinin konunun daha iyi anlaşılmasına katkı
getirdiğini ifade edilmiştir. Öğretmenin sınıf içindeki ders anlatım seklinin ve dersin
farklı tur aktivitelerle desteklenmesinin konunun anlaşılırlığını sağladığı
belirtilmiştir. Öğrencilerin büyük çoğunluğu, matematik dersinde kullandıkları söz
konusu etkinliklerin başka derslerde de kullanılabileceğini belirtmişler ve bu
etkinliklerin dersi pekiştirdiğini, daha iyi anlamalarına imkân verdiğini, sınıf içi
motivasyonun yüksek olduğunu ifade etmişlerdir. Elde edilen bu bulgular alan
yazında var olan diğer araştırma sonuçlarıyla da örtüşmüştür.
Müfettişlerle yapılan görüşmelerde, öğrenme stillerine göre düzenlenen öğrenme
ortamlarının öğrenci başarısını arttıracağına ilişkin görüşlerin ağırlık kazandığı
görülmektedir. Görüşme yapılan müfettişlerin tamamı bireysel farklılıklar vurgusu
yapmakta ve çoklu zekâ kuramını farklı türdeki öğrenmeler için dayanak olarak
göstermektedirler. Ayrıca müfettişler öğrenme stilleri göz önüne alınarak tasarlanan
derslerde öğrenci başarının artacağını, adil öğrenme olanağının sağlanacağını, derse
yönelik ilgi ve motivasyonun artacağını ve öğrencilerin kendi hızlarında
öğrenmelerine fırsat tanınacağını ileri sürmektedirler. Müfettişler, öğrenme ortamları
düzenlenirken öğrenme stillerinin dikkate alınması sırasında yaşanabilecek olası
zorluklar arasında, öğretmenlerin ve yöneticilerin bilgi eksiklerini, fiziki ortamların
yetersizliğini ve kalabalık sınıfları, ders müfredatlarının yoğunluğunu,
öğretmenlerin deneyimsizliğini, zaman ve maliyet yetersizliklerini göstermişlerdir.
Bu noktada öğretmenlerin ders içeriklerini, öğrenme stillerini göz önüne alarak
hazırlayabilmeleri bakımından zaman ve bilgi yetersizlikleri öne çıktığı söylenebilir.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Araştırmadan elde edilen bulgular ve sonuçlar
doğrultusunda, öğretmenlerin öğrencilerinin öğrenme stillerini belirleme ve stil
özelliklerine uygun öğrenme stratejileri belirleme konusunda hizmet-içi eğitim
80
almaları önerilebilir. Ayrıca, bu çalışma tek çalışma grubu ile yürütüldüğü için,
birden fazla çalışma grubu ile farklı araştırmaların yürütülüp, elde edilen sonuçların
karşılaştırılmasının daha etkili sonuçlar üretebileceği söylenebilir. Bu bağlamda
geliştirilen farklı öğrenme ortamları ile geleneksel öğrenme ortamları arasındaki
farkın incelenmesinin de alan yazına katkı getireceği ileri sürülebilir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Öğrenme stilleri, başarı, öğrenci görüşleri
Investigating Opinions of Mothers on Different
Socioeconomic Status in Terms of Perceived Maternal Styles1
Esra ÇALIK VAR *
Şükran KILIÇ **
Hatice KUMANDAŞ ***
Suggested Citation:
Calik-Var, E., Kilic, S., Kumandas, H. (2015). Investigating Opinions of Mothers on
Different Socioeconomic Status in Terms of Perceived Maternal Styles.
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 61, 81-98.
Abstract
Problem Statement: There are various environmental factors such as culture,
socioeconomic status, family patterns, parental personality, family size,
and education system among others, which affect development of
individuals. Especially in the childhood period, parenting style is an
important variable in forming physical, emotional, cognitive, and social
development. Parenting style affects the capacity of children to interact
with others, psychological wellbeing, and life skills; therefore, parenting
style has increasingly been recognized for its importance in fostering
children’s social, emotional, and cognitive areas of development. In the
literature, there are different types of categorizations of parental style,
however, most the acceptable parenting styles are described as
democratic, authoritative, and permissive.
Purpose of the Study: The aim of this study is to investigate perceptions of
the parenting styles of mothers who have children between 2-6 years old,
depending on their socioeconomic status (upper, middle, or lower).
Method: In this study, a quantitative research method was used as the
research design to collect and analyze the interpretations and meanings of
mothers’ perceptions for maternal style from their responses. In
1
This study was submitted in EJER 2014 (I. International Eurasian Educational Research
Congress) in 24-26 April, Istanbul, Turkey.
* Corresponding author: Assist. Prof. Dr. Yildirim Beyazit University, Faculty of Health
Sciences, Department of Social Work, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected].
** Assist. Prof. Dr. Aksaray University, Faculty of Education, Department of Early Childhood
and Education, Aksaray, Turkey, [email protected].
*** Assist. Prof. Dr. Artvin Coruh University, Faculty of Education, Department of Educational
Measurement and Evaluation, Artvin, Turkey, [email protected].
82
Esra Çalık Var, Şükran Kılıç & Hatice Kumandaş
determining the research group, purposive sampling is a type of nonprobability sampling technique has been applied. In this respect, within
the research process, 20 mothers from upper, middle, and lower
socioeconomic levels have been selected and interviewed by using a semistructured interview form generated with regards to Baumrind’s parental
model. Interviews were analyzed by content analysis and descriptive
analysis.
Findings and Results: Finding of analyses were held separately according to
socioeconomic level. It was researched whether perceived maternal styles
differ depending on SES or not. Mothers from upper socioeconomic level
reflect a democratic parental style. Mothers from all socioeconomic levels
emphasise that there are rules for children to obey but only mothers in
upper socioeconomic level make rules together with children. All of the
mothers in upper and middle socio-economic levels and some of mothers
in the lower socioeconomic level report to explaining emotions toward
behaviours of their children. But when opinions of mothers are examined,
it is seen that they do not use "I language" to express their emotions.
Conclusion and Recommendations: Findings of the present study are thought
to be crucial in explaining maternal styles over Baumrind’s parenting
styles based on the dimensions—unlike the other studies in literature—in
the early childhood period based on the SES of mothers. For further
studies, it can be recommended that parental style should be evaluated
based on the parenting socialisation, practices, and beliefs, and
furthermore, in preparing and implementing parent-education.
Keywords: parenting, parental education level, parental income, qualitative
research model.
Introduction
The research focused on the reflection of relationships between the caregiver and
children based on the children’s behaviour, which has been studied in terms of how
and in which way parental styles affect the children’s development. The reasons for
the differences of why the relationship between children and parents becomes
different from parent to parent, and whether these differences have important results
for children or not, are still presented as problems. Moreover, the variables of
parental styles are discussed in the literature (Cowan, Powell, & Cowan 1997;
Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Revealing the relationship between the culture,
educational level, parental structure, socioeconomic level, and parental style, has
supported the researchers in determining the developmental process of the children.
According to September, Rich, and Roman (2015) parenting is paramount to
foster quality parent–child interaction. Before describing the paring style, clarifying
the concept of parenting is more understandable, which is defined as a specific
behaviour that a parent chooses to use in his/her child’s care, raising, and education
(Doinita & Maria, 2015). Parenting styles are described as a psycho-social structure
83
that involves the strategies that families use in raising children, which are shaped by
the behaviours of parents, children, culture, and behaviour patterns that the parents
learned from their own family (Santrock, 2007). Baumrind (1991), by observing
practices of parents towards their children, described three parenting styles:
authoritative, democratic, and permissive. Maccoby and Martin (1983) stated that
Baumrind (1996) has explained those styles on dimensions of responsiveness and
demandingness.
The dimension of responsiveness originated from an etiology perspective,
representing reciprocal formation of behaviours between the child and caregiver for
the sake of harmony (Bowlby, 1982). Responsiveness is the families’ ability to
respond to the demands and needs of children in an accepting and supportive way
by supporting the individuality and assertiveness of the child (Greenberg, Cumming,
& Cicchetti, 1990). Baumrind (1967) has explained responsiveness through the subconcepts of warmth, open-communication, and care.
Warmth is the family’s ability to assert the love they feel towards their children
sentimentally; emotion and empathy within the family motivates the child’s
attendance to collaborative strategies and supports the children’s development of
internalized moral orientation (Eisenberg, 1992). Despite being warm and
affectionate, families may apply a strict discipline in response to their child’s
insistence and negative behaviours, which may ruin the cohesiveness within the
family (Grusec & Lytton, 1988). Families that do not demonstrate warmth may
punish or judge children when they need support and approval, and this may affect
negatively the children from presenting positive social behaviours and adaptation
skills (Dix, 1991). Another sub-concept Baumrind (1996) has used to explain
responsiveness is open-communication whereby parents’ transfer of messages to the
child occurs in direct, comprehensible, and clear statements (Eisenberg, 1992).
Parents using open communication, compared with parents using power-oriented
language, help children internalise rules and values within the home more, and
stronger communication is effected in this way, where the child can make
connections between their behaviours and their thoughts (Hoffman, 1983).
Care, which is the basis of the mother-baby attachment, means meeting both
physical and emotional needs of the child since the birth (Halverson, 1995). It is
supporting the child’s cognitive and emotional development by the way of care,
giving the message of acceptance, love, and approval (Crockenberg & Litman, 1990).
While parents are practicing the physical care of their children, an emotional
interchange comes out and this interchange affects children’s development in a
positive way (Halpeny, Nixon, & Watson, 2010). Another basic dimension that
Baumrind (1996) used together with responsiveness while explaining parenting
styles is parental demandingness, which is the degree of parents’ expecting of mature
and responsible behaviours from their children. Demanding parents who set high
and realistic goals to their children, instead of direct interference of the child’s
behaviour, face children with their own behaviours by the way of monitoring and
supervising, which thereby prevents conflicts (Hoff, Laursen, & Tardif, 2002).
Parental control is the process of guiding the child towards goals chosen by parents,
84
such as changing immature expressions, preventing dependent or hostile behaviours,
and increasing the compliance to meet standards that parents set forth. Within a
well-established home environment, there are consistent expectations, and clear and
stated rules. Identified responsibilities and close-monitoring behaviours (such as
behaviour of having information about the child’s activities) support the child’s selfregulation and being organised (Baumrind, 1996).
On the basis of these dimensions, democratic parenting is the leading parenting
styles outlined by Baumrind (1966; 1967; 1991; 1996). Democratic parents use
concepts like warmth, responsiveness, tolerance, and discipline in a way to support
the development of the child. They are also demanding and responsive at a high
level. They openly communicate with their children, adopt teaching and disciplining
ways within a cause and effect relationship, make expectations appropriate to their
children’s developmental level, expect responsible behaviours while supporting the
child’s autonomy, and ensures that the child is aware of both his/her own rights and
other family members’ rights (Baumrind, 1996).
According to Maccoby and Martin (1983), authoritative parents demonstrate high
control and low emotional warmth, applying rigid rules in response to children’s
demands, and do not argue these rules with children. Baumrind (1996) has classified
parents as authoritative if they are high in control and maturity expectation, and low
in the other two dimensions. According to Baumrind (1991), authoritative parents
focus on the obedience of rules and hierarchy while expecting their demands to be
met unconditionally and avoid verbal communication with their children. Permissive
parents do not put borders on their children, rarely apply discipline, and allows the
child full freedom; their demands about their children’s behaviours are under
expectation and their tolerance level can be as much as neglect (Baumrind, 1966;
1967).
When the literature on parenting styles is reviewed, there are many research
studies referring to effect and importance of socioeconomic status on parenting styles
(Barber & Harmon, 2002; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Income, education, and job status
are seen as the most important aspects of social class or socioeconomic status (SES)
(Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). Families who have high SES can support children’s
development, reach different sources to increase children’s knowledge, make
investments for their children to be more skilled and successful, and make better
conditions of nutrition (Conger & Dogan, 2007). It is argued that parents in rural
areas or low SES residential areas apply more authoritative styles, use more physical
punishment, expect obedience from children, do not establish cause-effect
relationship between the child’s behaviours and punishments, and do not make
reasoning together with their children (Hoffman, 2003). Besides these findings,
parents with higher SES have more consistent parenting practices like less
punishment, less strict rules, and have more open communication (Deckers, Falk,
Fosse & Schildberg-Horisch, 2015). Research focusing on reflections of motherhood
styles according to socioeconomic status has been thought to be an important
contribution to literature.
85
The early childhood period has been recognised to be the most crucial trajectory
to long-term social, emotional, and cognitive development (September et al., 2015).
The relationship between parenting behaviours and the development of the child has
been the subject of many studies (e.g., Belsky, 1984). As Scarr and MacCartney (1983)
stated, younger children are more affected by their parents than by the older
children. There are important evidences demonstrating how the home environment
affects development of children in the early childhood years (Bradley & Corwyn,
2002). The aim of this study has examined the perception of parenting styles of
mothers of 2-6 year olds, according to upper, middle, and lower SES.
Method
Research Design
In this study, a case study, which is one of qualitative study models, was used.
The case study was described as a method dealing with different situations where
personal interests are placed in and based on different sources about the evidence
(Kohlbeacher, 2006).
Research Sample
In determining the study group, purposive sampling that has a no-probability
sampling was used. Purposive sampling enables the detailed working on situations
in which important and substantial information exists in qualitative studies (Patton,
1987). In this respect, within the research process, mothers who have children aged
between 2-6 years old who were accessible to researchers have been chosen and then,
20 mothers from upper, middle, and lower SES out of the determined group were
further chosen and interviewed. In classifying mothers according to SES, variables
used in previous studies to determine SES like income, educational level, and
participation in social activities have been taken into account. SES of mothers
according to the variables determined is given in Table 1. Participants are identified
with the letter “G”.
86
Table 1.
Distribution of mothers in terms of SES
SES
Variables
Family’s
income level
per month
Lower
903TL or less
903TL - 1.807TL
high school
University
Participating
in social
activities
(at least)
Once a year
Housemaker
Job status
G8---G13
G14---G20
G1,G2,G5,G7
-----
-----
G3,G4, G6
G9, G11
-----
-----
G8,G10,
G12,G13
G14---G20
Once a week
Once a month
Retired
Working
Upper
G1--- G7
1.807TL or more
Primary school
Educational
level
Middle
G8
G2,G3,G5
G1,G4,G6,G7
G1,G2,G4,
G6,G7
----G3,G5
G10
G9,G11,
G12,G13
G15,G16,G18,
G19,G20
G14 ,G17
-----
G14
----G8,G9,G10,
G11,G12,G13
----G15,16,G17,G18,
G19,G20
Distribution of mothers according to SES is as follows: seven are in the lower
(35%), six are in the middle (30%), and seven are in the upper (35%) SES levels.
Monthly income of mothers in lower SES is 2000 TL or less, and most of them have
graduated from primary school and are unemployed. Monthly income of mothers in
the middle SES is between 903-1.807 TL and they are mostly university graduated
and employed. Mothers in the upper SES have a monthly income of 1.807 TL or
more, are university graduated, and employed. Furthermore, in terms of
participating in social activities, mothers in lower and middle SES participate in
activities 1-2 times per year; however, mothers in upper SES participate in activities
mostly once a week.
A semi-structured interview form has been generated regarding dimensions of
discipline/control strategies, care and warmth, communication, and expectation of
maturity, describing democratic, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles
(Baumrind, 1966; 1991).
Data Analysis
Interviews were analysed by content analysis and descriptive analysis. Results of
analyses were held separately, according to SES, and it was first researched whether
87
perceived motherhood styles differ depending on SES or not. Content analysis was
conducted via NVIVO program.
Results
Mothers’ who were interviewed shared opinions related to motherhood styles,
investigated under six basic themes. There are sub-themes of discipline/control
strategies, warmth, care, communication, and expectation of maturity. Opinions of
mothers’ discipline and control were summarized in the following Table 2.
Table 2.
Opinions of mothers about discipline and control
Lower
SES
Middle
G3
G8
G1, G2,
G4, G7
G9, G11,
G14, G15
G5, G6
G10, G12,
G13
G19
Physical violence
Shouting loudly
Threatening with something scary
G1, G7
G1, G4
G7
G9, G11
G10, G13
G9, G13
Talking to negotiate
G3, G5,
G8, G10,
G2, G6
G9, G11
G18, G19
---
G11, G13
G18, G20
G16,
G17,G19
G14
G20
G15
Opinions of Mothers
Whether there
are rules child
should obey or
not and
manners of
rulemaking
Response of the
mother when
child is not
obeying the
rules
Establishing rules with
my child
Yes, there
are rules
Establishing rules by
myself
Establishing rules with
my spouse
Warning or punishing if the
behaviour continues
Depriving of something desirable
Not controlling if environment is ok
Control/Tracing Not controlling within house
Controlling in specific situations
Controlling if doing something
wrong
G5,G6
G7
G2, G4
G8, G10,
G13
G12
---G9, G11
G1
G10
Allowing asking of questions and
wondering
Letting ask questions but providing
exploration under control
Letting question and exploring
when there is not a risk of harm
G2, G3,
G5, G6
G8, G10,
G12
G4,G7
G11, G13
G1
G9
Following or tracing continuously
Allowing child
to question and
explore
G3
Upper
G16,
G17,
G18, G20
G14
G15
G14
G16, G17
G19, G20
G16, G17
G19
G14,G15,
G18, G20
---
88
As shown in Table 2, mothers from all SES groups emphasise that there are rules
for children to obey but only mothers in upper SES make rules together with their
children. In this respect, it can be said that rulemaking manners of mothers in upper
SES suits the democratic manner. When mothers’ behaviour towards situations in
which children do not obey rules is examined, upper SES mothers seem to be more
democratic while lower and middle SES mothers’ attitudes are alike. Opinions of
some mothers related to findings are as follows:
G2: “I have twins and there are rules my children must obey. I put these rules
observing their behaviours of each other. When they don’t obey, I tell them why
these rules should be obeyed—without blaming them—I give punishment if their
behaviour continues…”
G8: “Should obey rules like eating on the table, tidying up. I made rules talking to
my child, with suggestions. We have rules, because we work and have limited time.
Therefore, I tell why we must obey the rules…usually my child obeys the rules, if
s/he doesn’t and then I tell them reasons and s/he becomes persuaded. S/he doesn’t
make me tired of this…”
G9: “…Of course there are rules. I set up rules especially when s/he makes
something negative. I punish when s/he doesn’t obey rules. Sometimes I make
him/her afraid saying, ‘if you don’t eat, police will come and take you’ or if I can’t
keep patience, sometimes I slap him/her.”
G18: “There are general rules to obey. We set rules together, talking to our child
and explaining the reasons of rules… I warn when s/he doesn’t obey, but if [the bad
behaviour] continues, I punish or don’t give a toy s/he likes, or don’t let him/her
make an activity s/he likes…”
When the opinions of mothers about controlling behaviours are examined, it is
seen that mothers in the middle and upper SES groups have a tendency to control
their children continuously but mothers in lower SES control less. Opinions of some
mothers on this subject are as follows:
G4: “…I control in specific times especially when we are outside or eating. At
other times, I don’t control much...”
G13: “I usually keep an eye on, I often control...”
G16: “… I sometimes act paranoid, controlling continuously. I feel like s/he will
harm him/herself or s/he will get in trouble when my eyes are not on...”
Another finding of the study is that most of mothers say that they let their child
question and explore freely. This does not differ much depending on SES. Mothers’
opinions about care and warmth towards their children are summarized in Tables 3
and 4.
89
Table 3.
Opinions of mothers about care
SES
Care
Organizing daily
routine (eating,
sleeping,
cleaning)
Always
Sharing the task
of organizing
daily routine
Only the mother
Lower
Middle
G2, G3,
G4,G6
G8,G10,G11
Sometimes
G1,G5,G7
Never
-G1,G3,G4,
G5,G6,G7
--G2
Only the father
Parents together
G9,G12,
G13
--G9,G10,
G11,G13
--G8,G12
Upper
G16,G18,G19,
G20
G14,G15,G17
--G14,G15,
G18,G19,G20
--G16,G17
Related to care, mothers in all SES groups stated that they give importance to the
care of their children, that they feel proficient in childcare, and that they have most of
the responsibility in organizing daily routine. Some of the mothers’ opinions related
to this finding are as follows:
G4: “… I pay attention to sleep and eating hours in daily routine. I especially care
about eating because it’s my responsibility. I feel usually proficient in dealing with
my child and providing care…”
G12: “I can’t keep to eating and sleeping routine especially when we are on a
visit. I may have a deficit in this but I think I took care of my child…”
G15: “I can’t keep regularly all the time. Sometimes something fails. I do my best
but sometimes I can’t keep up, I sometimes have insufficiently…”
Table 4.
Mothers’ opinions about warmth
Warmth
Opinions
Warmth style of
mother when
child
demonstrates
positive manner
I hug, cuddle,
and kiss
In which
conditions
demonstrated
more warmth
Rate of using kind
words
I say nice words
or I praise
When s/he
behaves well
When I want
When going out
and coming in
In all situations
Lower
SES
Middle
G1,G2,G4
G6,G7
G8,G9,G11,
G12,G13
G3,G5
G10
G14,G17
G2,G3
G8,G11
G12
G1,G4,G6
G9,G10
G16,G17
G18,G20
G14,G15,
G16,G18
G4,G5
G8,G13
G20
---
-G8,G10,
G11,G12
G16
G15,---G20
Upper
G15,G16
G18,G19
G20
Always
G2,G3,G6
When needed
(sometimes)
G1,G4,G5,
G7
G9,G13
G14
---
---
---
Never
90
As shown in Table 4, mothers state that they show warmth to their children
verbally, physically, and emotionally. Distribution of opinions depending on the SES
variable is not different much. Mothers state that they hug, kiss, and cuddle their
children. In addition, they tell showing warmth when their children show desired
behaviours.
In line with the aim of research, the opinions of mothers about communicating
with their children are summarized in Table 5.
Table 5.
Opinions of mothers about communication
Opinions about communication
Shares everything with me
easily, like an adult
Our communication is fine but
sometimes do not want to share
everything
Communication
with child
We sometimes don’t communicate
well; we
sometimes yell at each other
When I put rules s/he doesn’t like,
s/he doesn’t communicate with me
Child’s expressing
of opinions about
rules/
responsibilities
Mother’s
expressing of
emotions toward
child and
behaviours
SES
Lower
Middle
Upper
G3,G4,
G5
G8,G11,
G12
G16,G18
G2,G6
G13
G17,G19,
G20
G1
G9
G15
---
G11,G10
---
S/he says, “I don’t love you, I want
another mother”
Because I encourage him/her to
express opinions, expresses
comfortably
G7
G9
G14
G2,G4,
G7
G8,G10,
G13
G16,G17,
G18,G19,
G20
Although s/he expresses opinions
generally, sometimes insist on not
obeying rules but doesn’t tell reason
G3,G5,
G6
G9
G15
G1
G11
G14
---
G12
---
G2,G3,
G4,G5G
6
G9,G10,
G11,G12
,
G13
Doesn’t tell opinions generally.
I encourage him/her to express
opinions but s/he tells them when
s/he wants.
I say directly what s/he did
(‘you made me sad’, ‘you
misbehaved’)
I descend to his level, make
eye contact and try to use ‘I’
language (‘I feel happy/sad
when you…’)
I don’t say
---
G1,G7
G8
----
G14,G15,
G17,G20
G16,G18,
G19
----
91
In the dimension of communication, mothers report that their communication
with their children is usually good; they encourage their children to communicate
but experience conflict about obeying rules. All of the mothers in upper and middle
SES and some of mothers in lower SES report to explaining emotions about the
behaviours of their children. But when opinions of mothers are examined, it is seen
that they do not use I language when expressing their emotions.
Mothers’ opinions of expectation of maturity from their children are summarized
in Table 6.
Table 6.
Opinions of mothers about expectation of maturity
Expectation of
Lower
maturity
Yes, behaves
Demonstrating
appropriate to
G1---G7
behaviours in
his/her age
accordance with
age
No, not appropriate
-to age.
I’m usually realistic
Realistic level of
expectation of
child’s behaviours
Sometimes I expect
more than what is
appropriate to
his/her age
G1---G7
---
SES
Middle
Upper
G8---G13
G14---G20
--
--
G8,G9,
G11,G12,
G13
G14,G15,
G17,G19,
G20
G10
G16,G18
Mothers in all SES groups report that their children behave appropriately for
their age. Related to this finding, the opinions of someone in the G1 group in the
lower SES was shared as follows: “… I think my child is behaving appropriately to
his/her age but in toilet cleaning, s/he demands help”. Additionally, mothers in the
middle and upper SES express that their children’s behaviours and their expectations
are realistic.
Studies of parenting style have many dimensions as discussed earlier. In this
study, dimensions of responsiveness and demandingness within parenting styles has
been taken into account and grounded and results of interviews have been evaluated
over these dimensions and related to maternal styles. Results of analyses show that
mothers in all SES groups emphasize that there should be rules for children but
usually mothers from upper SES put these rules together with children. According to
Baumrind (1996), democratic parents observe their children’s development process
and understand qualitatively different characteristics of developmental periods, and
interfere when necessary. These parents manifest expected standard of the child’s
behaviours clearly according to child’s developmental characteristics and needs.
92
When children with democratic parents force the limits, their parents shape
disciplining behaviours through systematic reinforcements and explanatory
feedback. In this respect, when the ruling styles and behaviours of SES mothers are
examined towards children when they are not obeying the rules, it can be said that
they show a democratic attitude. These findings seem to be in parallel with the
literature. For example, Yagmurlu, Citlak, Dost, and Leyendecker (2009) found that
Turkish mothers’ differing aims of socializing their children depend on education
and may be parallel with explaining and interpreting the present study, which
according to the mothers with high education level, demand less obedient
behaviours and give less punishment. Nevertheless, power-exerting child rearing
practices are common in families of low SES in big cities or in traditional families of
rural areas, and there is a relationship between the economic value of children in
traditional social structures in demanding obedience in child rearing practices
(Kagitcibasi, 1982).
In the present study, it is reported that mothers in middle and upper SES control
their children continuously while mothers in lower SES do not. This difference may
be interpreted as mothers of lower SES demonstrating a more permissive maternal
style. This finding is similar to Rosier and Corsaro (1993) who also found that
mothers in low SES households tend to encourage autonomy and individuality in
their children as a means of teaching their children developmental skills. In contrast
to these findings, Kagitcibasi (2000) states that parents living in urbanized and
industrialized societies have a permissive parenting style characterized with less
control parenting behaviour to support their children’s autonomy. The differences of
these studies show that more focus is needed on the relationship between cultural
differences and parenting style.
According to warmth and care, mothers of all SES reported that they give
importance to the care of their children, and that they feel proficient in childcare and
in the responsibility of organizing daily care. In addition, they showed physical and
emotional warmth to their children. These findings are supported in the literature
with Evans (1997) and Ozyurek and Tezel Sahin (2005), in which research shows that
mothers have been reported to deal with childcare more and childcare is perceived to
be main task of motherhood. Concordant with these findings, Kagitcibasi, Sunar,
and Bekman’s (2001) study on attention and interaction level of low-income mothers
with children aged 3-5 years old found that 62% of the mothers answered “never or
almost never and rarely” to the question: “How often you show full attention to
children?”
According to expectation of maturity, mothers in all SES groups reported that
their children behave appropriately to their age. This finding is not consistent with
the study of Mansbach and Greenbaum (1999) that found parents in high education
and income level expect maturity from their children at a level beyond their age.
These differences are interpreted because of cultural differences, gender, and
temperament of child.
93
Mothers reported that communication was important but they had problems in
how to communicate in conflict situations. In this respect, it can be asserted that
mothers of children aged 2-6 experience conflict related to opinions and beliefs on
their children’s developmental needs. It is suspected that mothers in upper SES have
basic communication skills like using “I language”, using eye-contact, and that they
reflect these skills in their child-rearing practices. This finding is supported by Chen
and Kennedy’s (2004) findings showing positive effect of open and individualoriented communication on child development. In the study, it is determined that
mothers from middle and upper SES try to continue communicating over rules of
open communication.
Findings of the present study are thought to be important in explaining maternal
styles over Baumrind’s parenting styles based on the dimensions—unlike the other
studies in literature—in the early childhood period according to the SES of mothers.
For further studies, it can be recommended that parental style should be evaluated
based on the parenting socialization, practices, and belief. Also, in preparing and
implementing parent-education programs, it is important to take into account SES,
culture, and existing parenting styles.
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Farklı Sosyoekonomik Düzeydeki Annelerin Algıladıkları Annelik
Stillerine İlişkin Görüşlerinin İncelenmesi
Atıf:
Calik-Var, E., Kilic, S., Kumandas, H. (2015). Investigating Opinions of Mothers
on Different Socioeconomic Status in Terms of Perceived Maternal Styles.
Özet
Problem Durumu: Anne baba stilleri çocukluk dönemi duygu ve davranışların
şekillenmesinde, çocuğun kişisel, sosyal ve akademik gelişimin desteklenmesinde
oldukça önemli bir değişkendir. Ev ortamının küçük yaştaki çocukları daha fazla
etkilendiğine yönelik araştırma bulguları, araştırmacıları anne babalık stilleri ve
çocuğun gelişimi arasındaki ilişkiyi ortaya koymaya çalışan araştırmalara
yönlendirmiştir. Anne baba stilleri, ailelerin çocuk yetiştirmede kullandıkları
stratejileri içeren, anne, baba ve çocuğun davranışlarıyla, kültürle ve anne babanın
kendi ailesinden edindiği davranış örüntüleriyle şekillenen psiko-sosyal bir yapı
olarak tanımlanabilir. Alan yazında anne babaların çocuklarına yönelik
uygulamaları, otoriter, demokratik, izin verici ve ihmalkar olmak üzere dört farklı
anne babalık stili başlığı altında tanımlanmıştır. Bununla birlikte liretatürde anne
baba stilleri tanımlarken, olgunluk beklentisi, disiplin stratejileri, iletişim, bakım,
süpervizyon, izleme, reddetme ve ceza gibi boyutlar da incelenmiştir. Anne babalık
stillerine ilişkin alanyazın incelendiğinde, pek çok araştırma anne babalık stillerinde
sosyo-ekonomik düzeyin etkisinden ve öneminden bahsetmiştir. Gelir, eğitim,
mesleki statüsü, sosyal sınıfın ya da sosyoekonomik statünün en önemli boyutları
olarak görülmektedir. Sosyo-ekonomik düzeyi (SED) gelir düzeyi yüksek aileler;
çocukların gelişimi için gerekli eğitimi, bilgiyi arttırabilen çeşitli kaynakları
sağlayabilmekte, uyarıcı açısından zengin bir çevre sunabilmekte, çocuklarına daha
yetenekli ve başarılı olması için yatırım yapabilmekte, iyi beslenme koşullarını
sağlayabilmekte, kuralları ve olaylar arasındaki neden sonuç ilişkilerini açık bir
iletişimle sağlayabilmektedirler. Kırsal bölgelerde ve büyük şehirlerdeki alt sed
yerleşim yerlerinde yaşayan anne babaların ise otoriter bir stil benimsediği, çocuktan
daha fazla itaat beklediği, yaşadıkları olaylara ve kontrol etmeye çalıştıkları
durumlara ilişkin neden sonuç ilişkisi kurmakta zorlandıkları alan yazına
yansımıştır. Bu doğrultuda çalışmanın annelik stillerinin çocuk gelişimine yönelik
yansımalarının sosyoekonomik düzey açısından incelemiş olmasının alan yazınına
önemli bir katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Bu araştırmanın amacı, sosyo-ekonomik düzeye (üst, orta, alt)
göre 2-6 yaş aralığında çocuğu olan annelerin anne babalık stillerine yönelik
algılarını incelemektir. Bu çerçevede ülkemizde annelik stillerinin sosyo-ekonomik
düzeye göre değişip değişmediğinin belirlenmesi gerekli olduğu anlaşılmaktadır.
97
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Araştırmada nitel araştırma yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Verilerin
çözümlenmesinde ise nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden içerik analizi yapılmıştır.
Araştırmada seçkisiz örnekleme yöntemlerinden amaçsal örnekleme ve uygun
örnekleme yöntemleri kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sürecinde 2-6 yaş aralığında çocuğu
olan 20 anneden görüş alınmıştır. Araştırmaya katılan annelerin yedisi (%35) alt,
altısı (%30) orta ve yedisi (%35) üst sosyoekonomik düzeye sahiptir. Alt
sosyoekonomik düzeydeki annelerin ailelerinin aylık gelir düzeyinin 2000TL ve
altında, çoğunlukla ilkokul mezunu ve çalışmayan bireyler olduğu görülmektedir.
Orta düzeydeki annelerin ise aylık gelir düzeyinin 2001TL ve 4000Tl arasında
değiştiği, çoğunlukla üniversite mezunu ve çalışan bireyler olduğu görülmektedir.
Üst düzeydeki annelerin ise aylık gelir düzeyinin 4001TL ve üzerinde olduğu,
üniversite mezunu ve çalışan bireyler olduğu görülmektedir. Bununla birlikte sosyal
etkinliklere katılma durumları açısından, alt ve orta sosyoekonomik düzeyde yer
alan annelerin çoğunlukla yılda bir iki kez sosyal etkinliklere katıldıkları, üst
sosyoekonomik düzeydeki annelerin ise çoğunlukla haftada bir sosyal etkinliğe
katıldıkları görülmektedir.Görüşmeler araştırmacılar tarafından hazırlanmış yarı
yapılandırılmış görüşme formu ile gerçekleştirilmiştir ve içerik analizi yoluyla
çözümlenmiştir. Analiz sonuçları sosyoekonomik düzeye (SED) göre ayrı ayrı ele
alınmış ve algılanan annelik stillerinin sosyo ekonomik düzeye göre farklılaşıp
farklılaşmadığı belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır.
Araştırmanın Buguları: Analiz sonuçlarına göre her sed düzeyinde anneler çocukların
uyması gereken kurallar olduğunu vurgulamaktadır ancak bu kuralları çoğunlukla
üst sed’deki annelerin çocuğuyla birlikte koydukları görülmektedir. Bu açıdan üst
sed’deki annelerin kural koyma biçimlerinin demokratik anne stiline uyduğu
söylenebilir. Kurallara uymadığında sergilenen davranışlar incelendiğinde ise alt ve
orta sed’deki ailelerin annelik stilleri benzerlik gösterirken üst sed’deki annelerin
demokratik bir tutum sergilediği ifade edilebilir. Çocuğu kontrol etme davranışları
açısından annelerin görüşleri incelendiğinde orta ve üst sed’deki annelerin
çocuklarını sürekli kontrole etme eğiliminde olduğu ancak alt sed’deki annelerin
daha az kontrol ettikleri sonucuna varılmıştır. Sıcaklık ve bakım boyutunda tüm
sed’de yer alan anneler çocuklarının bakımına önem verdiklerini, bu konuda
kendilerini yeterli hissettiklerini ve günlük düzeni ayarlamada sorumluluğun
çoğunlukla kendilerinde olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Ayrıca anneler çocuklarına
fiziksel ve duygusal olarak sıcaklık gösterdiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. İletişim stilleri
ve olgunluk beklentisi alt boyutunda ise anneler ve çocuklarla iletişimin genel olarak
iyi olduğu, onları iletişim kurma konusunda cesaretlendirdiklerini, ancak kurallara
uyma konusunda çatışma yaşadıklarını bildirmişlerdir. Üst ve orta sed’deki
annelerin tümü ve alt sed’deki annelerin bir kısmı çocuğun davranışına yönelik
duygularını çocuğa açıkladıklarını bildirmişlerdir. Annelerin tümü çocuğun yaşına
uygun davranışlar sergilediğini vurgulamakta, annelerin olgunluk beklentisinin
çoğunlukla çocuklarının yaşlarına uygun olduğu anlaşılmaktadır.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Bu bilgiler ışığı altında bu çalışmanın ülkemizde
annelik stillerinin çocuk gelişimine yönelik yansımalarının sosyoekonomik düzey
açısından incelenmiş olmasının alan yazınına önemli bir katkı sağlayacağı
98
düşünülmektedir. Bununla birlikte bu çalışmada erken çocukluk döneminde annelik
stillerinin çocukların gelişimsel çıktılarına olumlu bir etki oluşturabilmesi için okul
öncesi eğitim kurumlarının anneye ve çocuğa önemli bir destek kaynağı olduğuna da
işaret edilmektedir. Bu çalışmanın sonuçları değerlendirilerek ülkemizde
gerçekleştirilecek olan ailelere yönelik çalışmalarda anne baba eğitimlerine ağırlık
verilmesi önerilebilir. Bu gereklilik anne babaların ihtiyaçları ve çocukların gelişimsel
özellikleri dikkate alınarak spesifik başlıkları ve konuları içeren anne baba eğitimleri
ile karşılanmalıdır. Yapılması planlanan araştırmalar ve eğitim programlarının anne
babalık uygulamaları, sosyalleştirme hedefleri ve inanışlarını da içermesi
önerilmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Anne babalık, aile eğitim düzeyi, aile geliri, nitel araştırma
yöntemleri
The Effect of Identity Development, Self-Esteem, Low SelfControl and Gender on Aggression in Adolescence and
Emerging Adulthood
Ümit MORSÜNBÜL*
Suggested Citation:
Morsunbul, U. (2015). The effect of identity development, self-esteem, low selfcontrol and gender on aggression in adolescence and emerging adulthood.
Abstract
Problem Statement: Aggression seems to be an extensive and serious problem
among adolescents and emerging adults, negatively affecting both the victims
and the offenders. In adolescence and emerging adulthood, a lot of factors
affect aggression. In this study, five factors were examined: gender, life
periods, identity formation, low self-control and self-esteem.
Purpose of the Study: The aim of the study is to examine the relations between
identity dimensions, low self-control, self-esteem, gender and life period
(adolescence and emerging adulthood) with aggression.
Method: For this purpose, a structural equation model was developed and
tested. In this model, the dependent variable was aggression and the
independent variables were demographic variables (gender and life period),
identity dimensions, self-esteem and low self-control. Participants consisted of
240 adolescents (high school students—132 female and 108 male) and 244
emerging adults (university students—128 female and 116 male) and their age
was between 15-24 years old (mean age=18.99, SD=2.62). The Buss-Perry
Aggression Questionnaire, The Dimensions of Identity Development Scale,
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and The Low Self-Control Scale were used
to collect data.
Findings: Results of the overall fit indexes of the structural equation model
revealed that fit indexes are at acceptable levels. Results of this study showed
that life period, exploration in depth, ruminative exploration, self-esteem and
low self-control significantly predicted aggression. According to model
analysis, the best predictor of aggression was low self-control; the weakest
predictor of aggression was life period.
Corresponding author: Dr. Aksaray University, Department of Educational Sciences,
[email protected]
*
100
Ümit Morsünbül
Conclusion and Recommendations: The present study provides important
results. The first result is that aggression level changes according to life
period. The second is that low self-control, self-esteem and some identity
dimensions are crucial factors for aggression in adolescence and emerging
adulthood. The results of the study provide several important explanations
for counselors and educators. In order to reduce aggression, counselors,
educators and mental health practitioners should consider identity, selfesteem and self-control. When counselors and educators prepare school-based
intervention programs, they should consider the important predictors of
aggression.
Keywords: Problem behavior, adolescent, emerging adulthood
Introduction
Aggression seems to be an extensive and serious problem among adolescents and
emerging adults, and it negatively affects both the victims and the offenders (Arnett,
2000; Stein, Apter, Ratzoni, Har-Even & Avidan, 1998). Aggression has been defined
through different perspectives; however, the most accepted definition is a behavior
aimed at damaging others (Kassinove & Sukhodolsky, 1995). Aggression may be in
different forms: physical aggression (to damage others physically), verbal aggression
(to damage others verbally), anger (affective state of aggression), and finally, hostility
(cognitive dimension of aggression) (Fives, Kong, Fuller & DiGiuseppe, 2011).
In adolescence and emerging adulthood, a lot of factors (i.e., gender roles,
cultural norms, type of school, parental behavior, and conflict resolution skills) affect
aggression. In this study, five factors were examined: gender, life periods, identity
formation, low self-control and self-esteem. The basic constructions on adolescence
and emerging adulthood appear around identity development (Arnett, 2000; Erikson,
1968). For adolescents and emerging adults, identity development seems to be the
most important developmental issue. Marcia’s Identity Status Model is based on
Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Theory (1968), and the basic concepts of this
model have been used in many researches. Marcia (1966) proposed four identity
statuses based on exploration and commitment processes. They are achievement,
foreclosure, moratorium and diffusion identity statuses. Although the identity status
model has been used frequently, it has been criticized (Cote & Levine, 1988; van
Hoof, 1999) in some ways. The major criticism is that the identity status model
focuses on results of identity development. Recently, some new models have been
proposed to focus more on processes of identity development than outcomes of
identity development. Luyckx and colleagues (Luyckx et al., 2008a; Luyckx,
Schwartz, Goossens & Pollock, 2008b; Luyckx, Schwartz, Goossens & Soenens, 2008c)
proposed the Five-Dimensional Model of Identity Formation Model. This model has two
main arguments. The first is that the exploration process may not be usually adaptive
and the second is that the process of identity development should be investigated to
evaluate identity formation. In this model, different types of exploration and
commitment processes were defined. Respectively, commitment making shows the
degree to which individuals have made decisions about alternatives related to
identity. Identification with commitment shows the degree to which individuals
101
identify themselves with existing choices. Exploration in breadth shows the degree to
which individuals search for alternatives about identity. Exploration in depth shows
the degree to which individuals reevaluate their available commitments, and, finally,
ruminative exploration shows that individuals permanently search different
alternatives but the searching process isn’t concluded with commitment making.
That is, individuals become ‘‘stuck’’ in the exploration process. Studies have
demonstrated (Author, 2013; Crocetti, Schwartz, Fermani & Meuss, 2010; Luyckx et
al., 2008a; Schwartz et al., 2011) that ruminative exploration was positively related to
both aggression and risk behaviors, but two commitment dimensions were
negatively related to aggression and risk behaviors.
The low self-control theory proposed by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) has been
used in a lot of studies to explain crime and aggression. Low self-control is defined as
behaving impulsively, enjoying risk taking, preferring physical activities to mental
activities and being self-centered (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Ozdemir, Vazsonyi &
Cok, 2013). Studies have demonstrated (Britt & Gottfredson, 2003; Hay, 2001;
Ozdemir et al, 2013; Vazsonyi & Belliston, 2007) that low self-control is an important
predictor of crime, deviance and aggression. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990)
proposed that experiences in early childhood determine a child’s self-control and this
is relatively transferred to later life periods. According to Gottfredson and Hirschi
(1990), people who have low self-control are both impulsive and self-centered and
they show more aggressive behaviors. Several factors (i.e., family structure,
parenting behaviors) affect levels of self-control (Vazsonyi & Belliston, 2007).
Research has demonstrated (Gibbs, Giever, & Higgins, 2003; Ozdemir et al, 2013;
Vazsonyi & Belliston, 2007) that family processes and parental monitoring bring
about low self-control.
Another factor that affects aggression is self-esteem. Self-esteem is generally
defined as how the individuals feel about themselves (Rosenberg, 1965). Self-esteem
is an important psychological variable because it affects many parts of an
individual’s life (Kernis, 2003). Research has demonstrated (Bayraktar, Sayil &
Kumru, 2009; Donnellan, Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffitt & Caspi, 2005; Fergusson &
Horwood, 2002; Lowenstein, 1989; Rosenberg, Schooler, & Schoenbach, 1989) that
individuals with low self-esteem show higher externalizing problems such as
delinquency, antisocial problems and aggression. According to Rosenberg (1965),
individuals with low self-esteem have weak relations with society, and this gives rise
to more delinquency and aggression. Individuals with low self-esteem are generally
unhappy and dissatisfied with themselves (Kernis, 2003).
Gender may be an important factor that affects aggression. Although some
studies (Duncan,1999; Moroschan, Hurd & Nicoladis, 2009) have shown that males
display higher aggression behavior, other studies (Archer, 2004; Leenaars & Rinaldi,
2010; Osterman et al.,1994) failed to find gender differences in aggression. According
to Buss and Perry (1992), gender differences in aggressive behavior differ in terms of
sub dimensions of aggression. Gender differences increase in physical and verbal
aggression and decrease in hostility and anger.
The last factor examined in the present study is life period. In the present study,
both adolescence and emerging adulthood periods were investigated. According to
Arnett (2000), identity formation is the main task during emerging adulthood, while
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Erikson (1968) proposed that adolescence is a crucial life stage for identity formation.
In the emerging adulthood period, individuals try to explore their identity and may
show more risky behavior than adolescents (Arnett, Ramos & Jensen, 2001; White &
Jackson, 2005). On the other hand, aggressive behavior peaks in middle to late
adolescence and declines in emerging adulthood (Xue, Zimmerman & Cunnighham,
2009).
Until now, aggression has been examined generally either only in adolescence or
only in emerging adulthood. In the present study, aggression was investigated both
in adolescence and emerging adulthood periods. Moreover, aggressive behavior was
explored in terms of different variables (identity formation, low self-control, selfesteem, gender and life periods) in this study. Thus, this study will contribute to a
better understanding of aggressive behavior in adolescence and emerging adulthood
periods.
In light of the related literature, the aim of the study is to examine the relations of
(adolescence and emerging adulthood) with aggression. The hypothesis model of
this study has been shown below:
Figure 1. Hypothesis Model
Gender
L. Period
Commitment Making
Identification with
Commitment
Physical
Aggressio
n
Exploration in Breadth
Anger
Aggression
Exploration in Depth
Hostility
Ruminative
Exploration
Self-Esteem
Low Self-Control
103
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In the present study, it was hypothesized that (1) being male would positively
predict aggression, (2) being in the adolescence period would positively predict
aggression, (3) commitment dimensions would negatively predict aggression, and
exploration dimensions would positively predict aggression, (4) low self-control
would positively predict aggression, and (5) self-esteem would negatively predict
aggression.
Method
Research Design
This cross-sectional study was designed to examine the contribution of identity
dimensions, low self-control, self-esteem, gender and life period (adolescence and
emerging adulthood) on aggression. For this purpose, a structural equation model
was developed and tested. In this model, the dependent variable was aggression, and
it was constructed as a latent variable. Indicators of latent variable were physical
aggression, anger and hostility. Because Cronbach’s alpha value of verbal aggression
was low, it was not used in this study. Independent variables were demographic
variables (gender and life period), identity dimensions, self-esteem and low selfcontrol.
Research Sample
Data was collected from 484 (260 female and 224 male) students from several
high schools in Aksaray and from the Faculty of Education at Aksaray University in
the 2011-2012 academic years. Participants were selected through the purposive
sampling procedure (Buyukozturk et al., 2008). Of the participants, 240 were
adolescents (high school students, 132 female and 108 male) and 244 were emerging
adults (university students, 128 female and 116 male) and their age was between 1524 years old (Mage =18.99, SDage =2.62). Adolescents’ age was between 15-18 years old
(Mage =16.63, SDage =.79). Emerging adults’ age was between 19-24 years old (Mage
=21.31, SDage =1.45). University students were defined as emerging adults based on
results of previous studies (Atak & Cok, 2007; Atak & Cok, 2008; Morsunbul, 2013).
The results of this study indicated that university students can be seen as emerging
adults in Turkey.
Demographics. In order to obtain information on demographic features of the
participants, a personal data form was used.
Aggression. The Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BAQ) (developed by Buss
and Perry (1992) and adapted to Turkish by Madran (2013)) was used to determine
aggression. This scale has 29 items and four subscales: physical aggression, verbal
aggression, anger and hostility. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale that
ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher scores on the scale items
demonstrate higher levels of aggression. The Cronbach’s alpha values were total
aggression .85, verbal aggression .48, physical aggression .78, anger .76, and hostility
.71 in the study of adaptation. According to the data of the study, Cronbach’s alpha
values were total aggression .76, verbal aggression .46, physical aggression .76, anger
.74, and hostility .72. Because Cronbach’s alpha value of verbal aggression was low, it
was not used in this study.
105
Identity dimensions. The Dimensions of Identity Development Scale (DIDS)
(developed by Luyckx et al. (2008a) and adapted to Turkish by Morsunbul and Cok
(2014)), was used to determine identity dimensions. This scale has 25 items and five
subscales: commitment making, identification with commitment, exploration in
breadth, exploration in depth and ruminative exploration. Each item is rated on a 5point Likert scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The
Cronbach’s alpha values were commitment making .88, identification with
commitment .87, exploration in breadth .84, exploration in depth .78, and ruminative
exploration .79. According to data of the study, Cronbach’s alpha values were
commitment making .87, identification with commitment .84, exploration in breadth
.84, exploration in depth.75, and ruminative exploration .80.
Self-esteem. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) (developed by Rosenberg
(1965) and adapted to Turkish by Cuhadaroğlu (1986)) was used to determine selfesteem. This scale has 10 items and each item was rated on a 4-point Likert scale that
ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Higher scores on the scale items
demonstrate higher levels of self-esteem. Cuhadaroglu (1986) reported test-retest
reliability coefficients of .71 during a 4-week period on the Turkish version.
According to data of the study, Cronbach’s alpha value is .73.
Low self-control. The Low Self-Control Scale (LSCS) (developed by Grasmick,
Tittle, Bursik & Arneklev. (1993) and adapted to Turkish by Ozdemir et al. (2013))
was used to determine low self-control. This scale has 24 items and each item is rated
on a 5-point Likert scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Higher scores on the scale items demonstrate higher levels of low self-control.
Cronbach’s alpha value is .83 in the study of adaptation. According to data of the
study, Cronbach’s alpha value is .82.
Data were collected voluntarily from students during class time. The aim of the
study was explained to the students before the application of the instruments. The
completion of the scales took approximately 40 minutes.
Data Analysis
In order to analyze participants’ demographic features, descriptive statistics were
used. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the contribution of
(adolescence and emerging adulthood) on aggression. Prior to conducting a model
analysis, the assumptions of the model (outlier, multicollinearity, relations between
the variables, and sample size) were tested. Results indicated that the assumptions of
the model were provided.
Results
In this section, first descriptive statistics then zero-order correlations among all
variables and structural equation modeling results were given.
Descriptive Statistics.
Table 1 presents means and standard deviations for all scales. Table 2 presents
zero-order correlations among all variables. Consistent with expectations,
commitment making (r = -.15, p < .01), identification with commitment (r = -.09, p <
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.05) and self-esteem (r = -.28, p < .01) were negatively related to total aggression and
ruminative exploration (r = .31, p < .01), exploration in depth (r = .14, p < .01) and
low self-control (r = .53, p < .01) were positively related to total aggression.
Inconsistent with expectations, exploration in breadth (r = .03, p > .05) wasn’t related
to total aggression.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics
X
Sd
Total Aggression
68.33
11.42
Physical Aggression
25.76
4.92
Anger
19.74
3.73
Hostility
22.83
4.49
Commitment Making
18.95
3.72
18.63
3.85
18.66
3.99
18.49
3.58
Ruminative Exploration
15.05
4.69
Self-Esteem
20.11
4.68
Low Self-Control
68.20
12.56
Identification
Commitment
with
Table 2
Zero-Order Correlations among the Variables
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
13
1Gen
-
2L.Per
-.02
-
3TA
.01
.18**
-
4PA
-.07
.18**
.85**
-
5AN
-.16**
.22**
.86**
.60**
-
6HO
.07
.07
.87**
.58**
.71**
-
7CM
-.16**
-.13**
-.15**
-.09*
-.12**
-.19**
-
8IC
-.21**
-.10*
-.09*
-.08*
-.11**
-.14**
.73**
-
9EB
-.13**
-.21**
.03
.05
-02
.02
.39**
.51**
-
10ED
-.13**
-.17**
.14**
.11*
.10*
.14**
.37**
.40**
.64**
-
11RE
.11*
.13**
.31**
.19**
.35**
.27**
-.47**
-.46**
-.07
-.07
-
12SE
.04
.15**
-.28**
-.23**
-.27**
-17**
.20**
.23**
.10*
-08
-.39**
-
13LSC
.02
.23**
.53**
.41**
.51**
.47**
-25**
-.26**
-.05
.06
.43**
.35**
* p<.05, ** p<.01
14
-
107
Gen: Gender, L. Per: Life Period, TA: Total Aggression, PA: Physical Aggression, AN:
Anger, HO: Hostility, CM: Commitment Making, IC: Identification with
Commitment, EB: Exploration in Breadth, ED: Exploration in Depth, RE: Ruminative
Exploration, SE: Self-Esteem, LSC: Low Self-Control
Results of Structural Equation Model
Table 3 presents overall fit indexes of the structural equation model. They
revealed that fit indexes are at acceptable levels (Kline, 2005), (sd = 16, χ2 = 62.21 (p =
0.00), RMR=0.03, SRMR = 0.05, RMSEA = 0.054, GFI= 0.96, NFI = 0.91, CFI = 0.95,
NNFI = 0.91). Overall fit indexes of the structural equation model are presented in
Table 3.
Table 3
The Overall Fit Indexes Related to Post-Hoc Model Variances
The good fit index
Value
Acceptable Levels
χ2/sd * (62, 21/16)
3.88
<5
RMSEA
0.05
<0.08
NNFI
0.91
>0.90
CFI
0.95
>0.90
RMR
0.03
<0.08
SRMR
0.05
<0.08
NFI
0.91
>0.90
GFI
0.96
>0.90
* p<.01
The standardized coefficients for each parameter are presented in Figure 2. Figure
2 showed that relations between aggression and independent variables vary between
.04 and .46. According to demographic variables, there isn’t a significant relation
between gender and aggression (β = -.07, t = -1.76, p> .05); however, there is a
significant relation between life period and aggression (β = .11, t = 2.49, p< .05). These
findings point out that adolescents showed higher aggression behavior than
emerging adults.
Among the identity dimensions, there are significant relations between
exploration in depth and aggression (β = .15, t = 2.69, p< .01) and between ruminative
exploration and aggression (β = .22, t = 3.74, p< .01). These findings showed that
exploration in depth and ruminative exploration increased individuals’ aggression
level. Among the identity dimensions, commitment making (β = -.08, t = -1.26, p>
.05), identification with commitment (β = -.09, t = -1.43, p> .05), and exploration in
breadth (β = -.08, t = -.04, p> .05) didn’t significantly predict aggression level.
In terms of self-esteem, there is a significant relation between self-esteem and
aggression (β = -.19, t = 3.21, p< .01). This finding points out that higher self-esteem
level diminishes aggression level.
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Ümit Morsünbül
In terms of low self-control, there is a significant relation between low self-control
and aggression (β = .46, t = 8.83, p< .01). This finding points out that higher low selfcontrol level increases aggression level.
1.00
Gender
1.00
-0
L. Period
7
.0
0.
1.00
*
11
Commitment Making
-0
1.00
Identification with
Commitment
1.00
.0
8
-0.
09
Physical 0.61
Aggressio
n
**
-0.04
5
0.7
0.8
0.15**
1.00
0.8
0
*
2*
0.2
Ruminative
Exploration
*
-0
.1
9*
0.
46
*
*
1.00
Self-Esteem
0.41
Anger
Aggression
1.00
9**
1.00
Low Self-Control
Figure 2. Final Model (Standardized Coefficients)
* p<.05, ** p<.01
Gender: 0=Female, 1=Male
Life Period: 0 = Emerging Adulthood, 1 = Adolescence
**
0.53
Hostility
109
The aim of the study is to examine the relations of identity dimensions, low selfcontrol, self-esteem, gender and life period (adolescence and emerging adulthood)
with aggression. Results of this study showed that life period, exploration in depth,
ruminative exploration, self-esteem and low self-control significantly predicted
aggression. These results are consistent with results of prior studies (Bayraktar et al.,
2009; Britt & Gottfredson, 2003; Crocetti et al., 2010; Donnellan, Trzesniewski, Robins,
Moffitt & Caspi, 2005; Fergusson & Horwood, 2002; Hay, 2001; Luyckx, Goossens &
Soenens, 2006a; Ozdemir et al, 2013; Rosenberg, Schooler, & Schoenbach, 1989;
Schwartz et al., 2011; Vazsonyi & Belliston, 2007).
According to demographic variables, life period significantly predicted
aggression; however, gender did not significantly predict aggression. For gender,
there are different results in literature. Some studies (Duncan, 1999; Moroschan,
Hurd & Nicoladis, 2009) have indicated that males display higher aggression
behavior, while others (Owens, Daly & Slee, 2005) have shown that females display
higher aggression. However, other studies (Leeanare & Rinaldi, 2010; Osterman et
al., 1994) have shown that there is no difference between the genders in aggression
behaviors. The results of this study on gender might be associated with how
aggression was examined. In the present study, aggression scores were examined as
a latent variable. Thus, sub dimensions of aggression were not examined separately.
According to Buss and Perry (1992), gender differences appear particularly in sub
dimensions of aggression (especially in physical aggression).
Life period is also an important factor for aggression. Results of this study have
indicated that being in an adolescent period increases aggression. This result is
consistent with a second hypothesis of this study. According to Xue, Zimmerman
and Cunnighham (2009), aggressive behavior increases in middle to late adolescence
and declines in emerging adulthood. Studies also have shown that physical
aggression decreases but indirect aggression increases from childhood to adolescence
(Barker, Tremblay, Nagin, Vitaro, & Lacourse, 2006; Campbell et al., 2010; Cote,
Vaillancourt, Barker, Nagin & Tremblay, 2007; Underwood, Beron & Rosen, 2009;
Vaillancourt, Miller, Fagbemi, Cote, & Tremblay, 2007). Arnett (2000) has proposed
that during the period of emerging adulthood, emerging adults try to explore their
identity. In this process, they engage in different kinds of actions such as substance
use and other risky behaviors. Studies have shown (Arnett, Ramos & Jensen, 2001;
Morsunbul, 2013; Bukobza, 2009; Uludagli & Sayil, 2009; White & Jackson, 2005) that
emerging adults display higher risk taking behavior than adolescents. This study has
found that adolescents show higher aggression than emerging adults. Although risk
taking and aggression are negative behaviors, they are different variables.
Aggression implies any behavior aimed at damaging others, while risk taking is
aimed at one’s self (Uludagli & Sayil, 2009). Consequently, it may be said that
aggressive behavior decreases while risk taking increases from adolescence to
emerging adulthood.
Identity formation is an important developmental task for both adolescents and
emerging adults (Arnett, 2000; Erikson, 1968). According to the results of this study,
exploration in depth and ruminative exploration are crucial factors for aggression;
both exploration processes increase individuals’ aggression levels. In exploration in
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Ümit Morsünbül
depth, individuals reevaluate their commitment and, after this evaluation,
individuals either identify with their commitment or turn back to the starting point.
In ruminative exploration, individuals are permanently in an exploration process—
this process does not finish with commitment (Luyckx et al., 2008a). That is, if the
exploration process lengthens, individuals may show more aggression. Studies have
indicated (Morsunbul, 2013; Crocetti et al., 2010; Luyckx et al., 2006; Schwartz et al.,
2011) that exploration dimensions cause aggression and risk taking, but commitment
dimensions are protective factors for aggression and risk taking. Model analysis
revealed that commitment dimensions didn’t significantly predict aggression.
Another finding of this study is the negative relation between self-esteem and
aggression. Model analysis indicated that self-esteem predicts aggression in a
negative way. That is, a high self-esteem level decreases individuals’ aggression
level. Individuals who have high self-esteem show lower aggression compared to
those who have low self-esteem (Bayraktar et al., 2009; Fergusson & Horwood, 2002;
Saylor & Denham, 1993). Individuals with low self-esteem have weak relations with
society, and this gives rise to more delinquency and aggression. Moreover,
individuals with low self-esteem do not use interpersonal conflict resolutions that are
effective and constructive (Sahin, Basım & Cetin, 2009).
Another important result of this study is the high and positive relation between
low self-control and aggression. According to model analysis, the best predictor of
aggression is low self-control. Low self-control causes a high aggression level.
According to Tangney, Baumeister and Boone (2004), high self-control positively
contributes to individuals’ lives while low self-control has a negative contribution.
People who have low self-control show disorders such as hyperactivity, delinquency
and conduct disorders (Douglas, 1983; Krueger, Caspi, Moffitt, White & StouthamerLoeber, 1996; Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985). People who have high self-control may
adapt to their environment more easily by controlling their inner responses and
undesired behavioral tendencies (Tangney et al., 2004).
In summary, the resent study put forward important results. The first result is
that aggression level changes according to life period. The second is that low selfcontrol, self-esteem and some identity dimensions are crucial factors for aggression
in adolescence and emerging adulthood.
The results of the study provided several important explanations for counselors
and educators. In order to reduce aggression, counselors, educators and mental
health practitioners should consider identity, self-esteem and self-control. When
counselors and educators prepare school-based intervention programs they should
consider the important predictors of aggression.
The present study has some limitations. A major limitation of this study is the
cross-sectional study design. To understand the changes in aggression from
adolescence to emerging adulthood, we need to carry out a longitudinal study.
Another limitation is that participants of this study are high school and university
students. We need to work with non-student groups to better explain aggression.
Despite these limitations, this study involved several strengths. First, gender, life
period, identity development, self-esteem, and low self-control variables were used
together in order to examine aggression. Second, this study revealed differences
111
between two groups since data was collected both from adolescents and emerging
adults groups.
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Ergenlik ve Beliren Yetişkinlik Dönemlerinde Kimlik Gelişiminin, Benlik
Saygısının, Düşük Benlik Kontrolünün ve Cinsiyetin Saldırganlık
Üzerindeki Etkisi
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Özet
Problem Durumu: Saldırganlık artan biçimde hem ergenler hem de beliren yetişkinler
arasında yaşanan bir problemdir. Saldırganlık hem saldırı eyleminde bulunanı hem
de eyleme maruz kalanın hayatını olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir. Saldırganlık farklı
bakış açılarından farklı biçimlerde tanımlanmaktadır ancak en sık kullanılan tanımı
başkalarına zarar vermeyi amaçlayan davranışlar olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Ergenlik
ve beliren yetişkinlik döneminde saldırganlığı etkileyen pe çok değişken
bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışma kapsamında kimlik gelişimi boyutları, benlik saygısı ve
düşük benlik kontrolünün etkisi incelenmiştir. Bu çalışma kapsamında bu
değişkenlerin incelenmesi ergenlik ve beliren yetişkinlik dönemlerinde saldırgan
davranışların açıklanmasına katkı sağlayabilir.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Bu çalışmanın amacı kimlik gelişimi boyutlarının, düşük benlik
kontrolünün, benlik saygısının, cinsiyetin ve yaşam dönemlerinin (ergenlik, beliren
yetişkinlik) saldırganlık ile ilişkilerinin incelenmesidir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda
yapısal eşitlik modeli geliştirilmiş ve test edilmiştir.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Bu araştırma kesitsel desenin kullanıldığı bir çalışmadır.
Çalışmanın katılımcılarını 484 (260 kadın ve 224 erkek) öğrenci oluşturmaktadır.
Katılımcıların 240’ı ergen (lise öğrencileri,132 kadın ve108 erkek) 244’ü ise beliren
yetişkindir (üniversite öğrencileri,128 (kadın ve 116 erkek). Araştırmada saldırganlığı
belirlemek amacıyla 29 maddeden oluşan saldırganlık ölçeği, kimlik boyutlarını
belirlemek amacıyla 25 maddeden oluşan Kimlik Gelişiminin Boyutları Ölçeği, benlik
saygısını belirlemek amacıyla 10 maddeden oluşan Benlik Saygısı Ölçeği ve son
olarak da düşük benlik kontrolünü belirlemek amacıyla 24 maddeden oluşan Düşük
Benlik Kontrolü Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Çalışma da cinsiyetin, yaşam dönemlerinin,
kimlik gelişimi boyutlarının, benlik saygısının ve düşük benlik kontrolünün
saldırganlık üzerindeki etkilerini incelemek amacıyla yapısal eşitlik modeli
geliştirilmiştir. Araştırmanın bağımlı değişkeni saldırganlıktır. Saldırganlık örtük
değişken olarak tanımlanmıştır. Örtük değişkeni fiziksel saldırganlık, öfke ve
düşmanlık gözlenen değişkenleri belirlemektedir. Çalışmada sözel saldırganlık
değişkeni düşük güvenirlilik değeri nedeniyle analize dahil edilmemiştir.
Araştırmanın bağımsız değişkenleri ise cinsiyet, yaşam dönemleri, kimlik gelişiminin
boyutları, benlik saygısı ve düşük benlik kontrolüdür. Katılımcıların demografik
özelliklerinin ve ölçme araçlarının ortalama puanlarının analizinde frekans ve yüzde
dağılımı ve betimsel istatistikler kullanılmıştır. Bağımlı ve bağımsız değişkenler
arasındaki ilişkileri belirlemek amacıyla Korelasyon Analizi kullanılmıştır. Çalışma
kapsamında geliştirilen modeli test etmek amacıyla Yapısal Eşitlik Modeli Analizi
kullanılmıştır. Çalışma da ölçme araçlarının sınıflar da uygulanması için derse giren
ilgili öğretim elemanlarından izin alınmıştır. Ölçme araçları doldurulmadan önce
araştırma grubuna çalışma ve ölçme araçları ile ilgili kısa bilgiler aktarılmıştır.
Katılımcıların çalışmaya katılımın da gönüllülük esas alınmıştır. Ölçeklerin
uygulanması araştırmacılar tarafından bir ders saatinde yapılmış olup yaklaşık
olarak 40 dakika sürmüştür.
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Ümit Morsünbül
Araştırmanın Bulguları: Korelasyon analizi sonuçlarına göre toplam saldırganlık
puanı ile içsel yatırımda bulunma (r = -.15, p < .01), içsel yatırımla özdeşleşme ile
özdeşleşme (r = -.09, p < .05) ve benlik saygısı (r = -.28, p < .01) arasında negatif
yönde anlamlı ilişkinin olduğu saptanmıştır. Toplam saldırganlık puanı ile
seçeneklerin saplantılı araştırılması (r = .31, p < .01), seçeneklerin derinlemesine
araştırılması (r = .14, p < .01) ve düşük benlik kontrolü (r = .53, p < .01) arasında
pozitif yönde anlamlı ilişki olduğu saptanmıştır. Beklenenden farklı olarak toplam
saldırganlık puanı ile seçeneklerin genişlemesine araştırılması (r = .03, p > .05)
arasında anlamlı ilişki saptanmamıştır. Çalışma kapsamında geliştirilen yapısal
eşitlik modeline ait iyilik uyum değerleri kabul edilebilir düzeydedir (sd = 16, χ2 =
62.21 (p = 0.00), RMR=0.03, SRMR = 0.05, RMSEA = 0.054, GFI= 0.96, NFI = 0.91, CFI
= 0.95, NNFI = 0.91). Yapısal eşitlik modeli analizi sonuçlarına göre yaşam dönemi (β
= .11, t = 2.49, p< .05), seçeneklerin derinlemesine araştırılması (β = .15, t = 2.69, p<
.01), seçeneklerin saplantılı araştırılması (β = .22, t = 3.74, p< .01), benlik saygısı (β = .19, t = 3.21, p< .01) ve düşük benlik kontrolü saldırganlığı (β = .46, t = 8.83, p< .01)
anlamlı olarak yordamaktadır. Bulgular genel olarak değerlendirildiğinde
saldırganlığın en güçlü yordayıcısı düşük benlik kontrolü iken en zayıf yordayıcısı
ise yaşam dönemidir.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Bu çalışmanın sonuçları yaşam döneminin,
seçeneklerin derinlemesine araştırılması, seçeneklerin saplantılı araştırılması, benlik
saygısının ve düşük benlik kontrolünün saldırganlığı anlamlı yönde yordadığını
göstermiştir. Bu sonuçlar daha önce yapılan çalışmaların sonuçları ile tutarlı
görünmektedir. Yaşam dönemleri açısından ergenlerin beliren yetişkinlerden daha
yüksek düzeyde saldırganlık davranışları ortaya koyduğunu göstermiştir. Kimlik
boyutları açısından bakıldığında seçeneklerin derinlemesine araştırılması ve
seçeneklerin saplantılı araştırılması boyutlarının saldırganlık davranışlarını
artırdığını göstermiştir. Seçeneklerin derinlemesine araştırılması bireylerin var olan
içsel yatırımlarını tekrar derinlemesine değerlendirme sürecidir. Bu süreç içsel
yatırımla sonuçlanmadığında bireyler tekrar seçenekleri genişlemesine araştırma
sürecine başlar. Seçeneklerin saplantılı araştırılması sürecinde de bireyler herhangi
bir içsel yatırımda bulunmadıkları için daha fazla saldırganlık gösterebilirler.
Çalışmanın sonuçlarına göre bireylerin benlik saygısının yüksek olması saldırganlık
düzeyini düşürmektedir. Bu çalışmanın en önemli sonuçlarından biri düşük benlik
kontrolünün saldırganlığın en güçlü yordayıcısı olduğudur.
Bu çalışmanın sonuçlarına dayanarak ergenlik ve beliren yetişkinlik döneminde
saldırganlık açısından sorun yaşayan bireylerle çalışan uzmanların bireylerin kimlik
gelişimini, benlik saygısını ve düşük benlik düzeylerini göz önünde bulundurmaları
yararlı olabilir.
Bu çalışma önemli sonuçlar ortaya koymasına rağmen bazı sınırlılıklar
göstermektedir. Bu çalışma kesitsel bir çalışmadır ancak saldırganlığın gelişimsel
olarak daha iyi değerlendirilebilmesi için bundan sonraki çalışmalarda boylamsal
desenin kullanılması daha yararlı olabilir. Çalışmanın bir diğer sınırlılığı da
katılımcıların sadece öğrencilerden oluşmasıdır. Bundan sonraki çalışmalar da
öğrenci olmayan gruplarla çalışılması saldırganlığı değerlendirme açısından daha
doğru sonuçlar ortaya koyabilir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Problem davranış, ergen, beliren yetişkin
Course and Instructor Characteristics Distinguishing Highest
and Lowest Student Ratings of Instructors
Sevgi ÖZGÜNGÖR *
Erdinc DURU **
Suggested Citation:
Ozgungor, S. & Duru, E. (2015). Course and Instructor Characteristics Distinguishing
Highest and Lowest Student Ratings of Instructors. Eurasian Journal of
Abstract
Problem Statement: One way to delineate the main characteristics of
effective teaching within the higher education system is to gather college
students’ opinions of an effective instructor. Research based on students’
perceptions of efficient teaching revealed a series of teaching behaviors
setting the distinction between good and poor teaching. However, studies
also indicate differences across culture, and in Turkey, there has been little
research on the topic.
Purpose of Study: The goal of this study was to determine instructor and
course characteristics and teaching dimensions that discriminate between
instructors who received the highest and the lowest student ratings within
a Turkish college setting, by incorporating both quantitative and
qualitative methods.
Method: A total of 23,814 students across different departments in the
university rated 630 instructors on a scale developed to assess students’
perceptions of instructors’ performance. In addition, students were asked
to respond to an open-ended question to provide their own impressions of
each instructor. Then, students’ ratings were analyzed by means of
discriminative functional analysis, and written statements provided by
students were analyzed via content-analysis techniques by using a
combination of manual and computer-assisted methods (NVivo 9).
Findings and Results: According to the quantitative analyses, although
course and instructor characteristics were weak in discriminating the
Corresponding author: Assoc. Prof. Dr., Pamukkale University, Department of Educational
Sciences, PDR.ABD e-mail: [email protected]
** Prof. Dr., Pamukkale University, Department of Educational Sciences, PDR.ABD e-mail:
[email protected]
*
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Sevgi Özgüngör & Erdinc Duru
groups, all teaching dimensions (relationships with students, effective
teaching, exams and evaluation, contribution to generic skills, class
interaction, and organization and planning) were very useful in
discriminating the instructors who received the best and the poorest
ratings. Also, qualitative analysis revealed 4 themes consistently
distinguishing the two groups: lecturing, relationship with the students,
knowledge and expertise, and exams and evaluation.
Conclusions and Recommendations: This study replicates the existing
literature on student perceptions of effective teaching, with a culturally
different, large sample. It also adds support to the notion that there are
teaching behaviors, such as lecturing skills, fair evaluations, respect and
interest toward students, and demonstrating expertise, that help draw the
distinction between good and poor teaching in the eyes of students and
that could therefore assist the improvements efforts of teacher education.
Keywords: Instructor effectiveness, poor teaching, college teaching, student
evaluations
Introduction
One of the important preconditions to ensure higher education quality is to
employ effective instructors and maintain instructors’ excellence through students’
educational years. Additionally, teacher quality has been linked to long-term
achievement going beyond school years (Chetty, Friedman, & Rockoff, 2014). Hence,
attempts to define and delineate the main characteristics of the best instructors
within a higher education system accumulated numerous studies. The most basic
form of this research is conducted through asking college students to rate the most
important features of an “effective or ideal” instructor on a researcher-provided
scale. In such a study with a semantic differential task, Pozo-Muñoz, RebollosoPacheco, and Fernández-Ramírez (2000) asked students to rate an ideal teacher based
on a 7-point rating scale with two bi-polar adjectives listed on opposite ends (e.g.,
nice-unpleasant; expert-inexpert, etc.). They found four distinguishable factors
defining ideal teachers: teaching competency, teachers’ qualities, appearance, and
directiveness. Zhang, Fike, and DeJesus (2015) reported that the highest rated
qualities of ideal instructors were being knowledgeable and grading fairly.
More recent studies combining both survey and qualitative methods asked
students both to rate the likelihood of each statement to define an ideal teacher on a
scale and to list the most important features of their ideal teacher. In such a study,
Okpala and Ellis (2005) reported five main components of quality teaching at higher
education: caring for students and their learning, teaching skills, content knowledge,
dedication to teaching and love of work, and good verbal skills. Khandelwal (2009)
reported six dimensions: encouragement, course preparation and delivery, fairness,
rapport with students, spending time with students outside of class, and control.
Slate, LaPrairie, Schulte, and Onwuegbuzie (2011) identified four reoccurring themes:
119
knowledgeability, understanding, communication skills, and teaching well.
However, they also detected some differences between undergraduate and graduate
students’ definitions in that graduate students placed more importance on being
knowledgeable, connecting with the real world, passion for the job, and flexibility. In
a comprehensive review, Feldman (2007) synthesized the current research on teacher
efficiency and reported that the factors most related to teaching effectiveness varied
depending on whether the students’ own achievement or the results of the overall
teaching evaluation is taken as the indication of teacher effectiveness. Within Turkish
college settings, Tunca, Alkin-Sahin, Oguz, and Bahar-Guner (2015) obtained five
themes by analyzing students’ definitions of ideal instructors, namely the role and
responsibilities of instructors, values, personal characteristics, social responsibilities,
and ethical principles. These findings indicate that although some teacher behaviors
are more salient and are better descriptors of effective teachers, still students’ choices
of best teachers do not necessarily correspond to best learning outcomes, indicating
that students’ characteristics and expectations might also affect the definition of
excellent teachers.
Indeed, studies in which participants come from culturally different orientations
other than Western countries seem to further support this possibility. In an earlier
study, Bail and Mina (1981) compared American and Filipino students’ ratings of 39
statements pertaining to instructor behavior according to their perceived importance
for general teaching effectiveness. Although both groups perceived three dimensions
as equally important (instructors’ competence on the subject matter and their ability
to relate it to class materials, quality of feedback and evaluation procedures, and
instructor–student rapport), Filipino students placed more importance on qualities
pertaining to authority and personal appearance for effective teaching than did
American students. Watkins and Akande (1992) reported that although there were
similar patterns of findings with Western studies, Nigerian students might hold a
more “general view” of the instructors rather than distinguishing different aspects of
teaching. Miller, Dzindolet, Weinstein, Xie, and Stones (2001) reported that U.S.
students endorsed higher importance to teacher preparation, evaluation, and
presentation items and opportunities for student inquiry in defining effective
teaching than South African students, who in turn endorsed higher importance to
these items than Chinese students. Taken together, these studies indicate that
although there are identifiable themes consistent across studies, there are also
differences of student opinion as to the best instructors, based on culture. Still, in
spite of countless studies on the topic in the world’s literature, only a few of them
have been conducted in the Turkish culture. Therefore, it remains a need to define
best-teacher qualities in the eyes of students. The topic is especially important within
Turkish culture since it nests a variety of interesting contradictions compared to
Western culture, where the majority of knowledge about teaching qualifications is
obtained. Foremost of these contradictions comes from the recent years’ radical
change of educational policies.
The Turkish educational system has only recently discovered constructivist
teaching (Akpinar & Aydin, 2007) and, despite great challenges—such as teacher
120
readiness needing to be reconciled with parental expectations for higher student
scores on standardized tests such as the TEOG, YGS, and KPSS—efforts to establish
an educational system based on constructivism remain strong. Constructivism
requires students’ active participation, good cooperative skills, as well as motivation
for and enjoyment from learning activities. However, in a changing world of
expectations and rules, students’ surroundings that shape their motivation, skills,
and even personalities have also been changed. Students are growing up in a
technological world where there is less opportunity to practice social skills and fewer
responsibilities at home, and exams push students to adopt a more resultsorientation rather than focusing on learning and enjoyment. Within such an
educational system hosting many contradictions and challenges, it is not easy for
teachers to easily understand the students’ expectations or define the teacher
practices that best fit to these expectations. Hence, in spite of an already accumulated
knowledge base on teaching quality, both the existence of differences across studies
and the unique complexities of Turkish educational settings warrant further inquiry
in this area.
Further, although much research has accumulated, a majority of it focuses on
identifying the qualities of teachers who are defined as the best. Only a few compare
the features of instructors delineated as either the best or the poorest within the same
context. These studies revealed that organization of content, providing variety,
knowledge, creating an enjoyable learning experience, and communication skills
were the most commonly stated attributes of the most effective instructors, while
poor course organization, poor communication, unfairness, and being boring were
the most defining characteristics of the worst instructors across studies (e.g., Check,
2001; Epting, Zinn, Buskist, & Buskist, 2004; Fortson & Brown, 1998; Johnson, 1990;
Young & Shaw, 1999). However, the majority of these studies—with the exception of
only a few—asked students to define their best/worst instructors rather than to
actually to rate their best or worst instructors (e.g., Marsh, 1977; Young & Shaw,
1999). Students might apply different criteria for rating a real instructor as opposed
to defining an imagined one; when students are asked to rate their best instructors,
they inadvertently activate their implicit schemas for an ideal instructor, causing
some bias on ratings. For example, students might implicitly hold an ideal instructor
schema that is more organized, highly knowledgeable, and highly dedicated to
teaching, but they might award a higher rating to an easy grader, or a fun-loving or
understanding instructor. Therefore, in this study students were asked to rate each of
their instructors’ performance and to provide an open-ended explanation of what
they thought about the instructor without judging whether he or she is a good or
poor instructor. Then, those instructors who received the highest evaluation points
for three consecutive semesters were identified as the highest rated instructors.
Likewise, those who received the lowest scores for three consecutive semesters were
identified as the lowest rated instructors. The two instructor groups were then
compared based on demographics such as age, years of experience, gender, academic
rank, class size, instructors’ total number of students, and total workload (as the
number of total hours spent teaching courses in a week) to analyze if demographic
variables would change the ratings. Although past studies have already indicated
121
that neither students’ nor instructors’ demographics have much effect on student
evaluations (Marsh, 1984), in Turkey instructors have much higher workloads and
student density than in Western universities where the literature mostly derives
from. More importantly, in Turkey, unlike in Western countries, there is no
determining utility of students’ evaluations or even good teaching skills on hiring
and promoting decisions. Hence, it is possible that those who devote more time to
academic behaviors, such as publishing, rather than teaching behaviors, such as
preparing for the course or caring for the students, might attain a higher academic
rank compared to those who spend more time on teaching activities that leaves less
room for academic duties. To restate, in spite of the existing studies to distinguish
poor and effective teaching in college, the changing face of the educational needs of
students as a result of technological advances, cultural needs, and the
methodological differences across studies necessitates further research to define
teaching-efficient criteria in the eyes of Turkish college students. Therefore, this
study aims to extend current knowledge on teaching quality by comparing the most
salient features of the instructors who received the highest/lowest evaluation points
across the university within a Turkish higher educational setting, by using both
qualitative and quantitative methods.
In summary, the main purposes of this study were to determine: (a) Which
demographics (if any) discriminate those instructors who received the highest
evaluations and those who received the lowest evaluations; (b) which instructional
dimension(s) best discriminate those instructors who received the highest
evaluations and those who received the lowest evaluations; and (c) whether there
are identifiable patterns on students’ written statements that distinguish the
instructors who received the highest evaluations from the instructors who received
the lowest evaluations, and do they support the quantitative analyses?
Method
Research Design
The students were asked to evaluate the performances of all instructors who
lectured them in the Fall semester of the 2009–2010 school year, on a scale published
on the school’s website two weeks before final exams started. Students were also
asked to respond to an open-ended question, which required students to provide
their own impressions of the corresponding instructor in order to contribute to the
improvement efforts of the university’s instructional quality. The data were also
collected at the end of the next two semesters. That is, feedback was collected in the
2009–Fall, 2010 Spring, and 2011 Fall semesters. An instructor was classified under
the highest rated category if his or her evaluations were 1 standard deviation above
the mean for three consecutive semesters. Likewise, an instructor was classified
under the poorly rated category only if her or his evaluations were 1 standard
deviation lower than the mean for three consecutive semesters. Using these criteria,
27 instructors were classified as the highest rated and 32 instructors were classified as
the lowest rated. There were 26 male and 6 female instructors in the lowest rated
122
group, and there were 17 male and 10 female instructors in the highest rated group.
For the lowest rated group, 6.2% were professors, 21.9% associate professors, 50%
assistant professors, and 21.9% lecturers; for the highest rated group, 22% were
associate professors, 51.9% assistant professors, and 25.9% lecturers.
Research Sample
This study used the data collected as a part of the “Pamukkale University
Teaching Staff’s Instructional Process Evaluation and Improvement Project.” The
project started in the 2009–2010 Fall semester, and data were obtained from all
students attending to the university with the exception of medical school students. A
total of 23,814 students (12,142 men, 51%, and 11,672 women, 49%) evaluated 630
instructors. There were 412 male and 218 female instructors. The ages of the
instructors ranged from 23 to 64, with a mean of 40. 30 (ss=7. 97). Years of experience
of the instructors ranged between less than 1 year to 33 with a mean of 10. 33 (ss=4.
76).
Research Instrument
Demographics. Demographics including students’ GPA, instructor gender,
course load, instructors’ total number of students and class size, academic rank, age,
years of experience, and discipline were obtained from the university’s data
processing unit.
Evaluation of instructors’ teaching and educational processes. Students’
evaluations of the instructors’ performances were measured by a scale developed
through modification of the most widely used questionnaires in the student
evaluations literature, such as Course Experience Questionnaires (Ramsden, 1991)
and SEEQ (Marsh, 1980, 1984; Marsh & Dunkin, 1997), based on the university’s
educational system’s features and needs. Although the new scale was most closely
related to SEEQ, its modifications involved reducing the number of items on all
subscales and the addition of a subscale to measure students’ perception of
instructors’ role on the acquisition of higher-order thinking skills such as critical
thinking, new viewpoints, and flexibility in thinking. The resulting scale had 20 items
compromising 6 subscales. Students were also asked to respond to two additional
items: One structured item asking students to evaluate the instructor-made difficulty
levels of the course after considering the innate nature of the course itself, and one
open-ended question to write any useful information about the instructor’s
performance or how to improve it. The first subscale (Effective Teaching) taps the
instructor’s teaching skills such as being able to capture student interest and making
the content meaningful and valuable; the second subcomponent (Course
Organization and Planning) reflects the instructor’s ability to organize and deliver
the course content in a fluent and comprehensive manner; the third subscale (Exams
and Evaluation) was made up from the items measuring the fairness and
appropriateness of an instructor’s evaluation practices; the fourth component
(Relationship With Students) included items measuring the nature and closeness of
instructors’ communication skills and relationships with students; the fifth subscale
(Class Interaction) taps the instructors’ energy and behaviors to encourage students’
123
involvement in class activities; and, finally, the last subscale (Contribution of Generic
Skills) measured instructors’ ability to support development of students’ thinking
skills, such as critical thinking and gaining new viewpoints.
Both test–retest and internal reliability values calculated to establish the scale’s
reliability levels were satisfactory, ranging between .70 and .98 for all subscales.
Factor analysis initially revealed one dimension indicating a general view of
instruction rather than capturing a multidimensional nature of the teaching
behaviors. However, when principal component analysis was forced to create 6
dimensions, it revealed 6 subcomponents explaining 86% of total variance with all
the items loading only on the expected dimensions.
Procedures and Statistical Analysis
Results were organized around the study’s main purposes and presented
accordingly. First, discriminate functional analysis was performed on the data to
determine which (if any) demographics, as well as six teaching dimensions,
differentiate between the instructors who were awarded the highest scores and those
receiving the lowest evaluations. Second, a qualitative content analysis was run by
using NVivo 9 to determine the possible repeating patterns in describing the highest
and the lowest rated instructors. Finally, both qualitative and quantitative results
were combined conceptually to synthesize the findings.
Findings and Results
Discriminant Analyses
At the first step of the statistical analysis, a discriminate functional analysis
indicated that only three of the demographics—which were years of experience,
student’s course grade, and class size—were significant across all demographic
variables; however, significant differences existed for all teaching dimensions
between the two instructor groups.
The discriminant function produced a large canonical correlation of .97 and a
coefficient of determinism of 100. The largest correlation with the discriminant
function was Contribution of Generic Skills, followed by Class Interactions, Course
Organization and Planning, Effective Teaching, Relationships with the Students, and
Exams and Evaluations, in order. All three demographics had a negative
contribution to discriminant function. The discriminant function for the stepwise
analysis resulted in a correct classification of 100% of the respondents into their
respective groups with no misclassification. The results are given in Table 1.
124
Table 1.
Discriminant Function Analysis of Demographics and Teaching Dimensions between
Instructors Who Received the Best Evaluations and Those Who Received the Poorest
Evaluations (N=59)
Part A: Correlation with Discriminant Function Variable
Study Variables
Instructional
dimensions
Demographics
Correlations
Contribution to generic skills
.863
Class interaction
.799
Course organization and
planning
.773
Effective teaching
.766
Relationships with students
.757
Exams and evaluation
.702
Student’s grade
-.083
Class size
-.073
Instructor’s gender
.051
Academic discipline
.038
Difficulty level of the course
-.033
Instructor’s total course hours
-.022
Instructor’s total students
number
-.020
Academic rank
.019
Instructor’s age
.005
Years of experience
-.110
125
Part B: Tests of Equality of Group Means
Independent Variables
Wilks'
Lambda
F
df1
df2
P
value
Effective teaching
.093
553.827
1
57
.000
Class interaction
.086
603.545
1
57
.000
541.009
1
57
.000
704.281
1
57
.000
464.993
1
57
.000
565.220
1
57
.000
Relationships with
students
Contribution to
generic skills
Exams and evaluation
Course organization
and planning
.095
.075
.109
.092
Student’s grade
.897
6.524
1
57
.013
Class size
.919
5.042
1
57
.029
1.023
1
57
.316
Difficulty level of the
course
.982
Instructor’s gender
.958
2.499
1
57
.119
Instructor’s age
1.000
.028
1
57
.868
Academic discipline
.977
1.353
1
57
.250
.438
1
57
.511
11.527
1
57
.001
.386
1
57
.537
.341
1
57
.562
Instructor’s total
course hours
Years of experience
Instructor’s total
students number
Academic rank
.992
.832
.993
.994
126
Part C: Canonical Discriminant Function
Eigenvalue
Canonical
Chi-square
df
P value
140.458
16
.000
Correlation
16,575
97.7
Part D: Classification Result
Actual Group
Membership
Best Evaluated
Poorest Evaluated
Predicted
Group
Best Evaluated
Membership
Poorest Evaluated
27
0
0
32
Percent of cases correctly classified = 100%
Qualitative Analysis of the Data
The written statements were analyzed via the content-analysis technique by using
a combination of manual and computer-assisted methods (NVivo software for
qualitative data management). Within this process, words and sentences that are
conceptually similar were organized, coded, and interpreted to create meaningful
themes and subthemes. After the organization of the codes, obtained themes and sub
dimensions were expressed in percentages and given in a frequency table. The
students’ written statements were analyzed separately for the two instructor groups.
There were a total of 945 responses for the open-ended question for the instructors
who received the highest evaluations, and there were 1,393 responses for the
instructors who received the lowest scores. However, only a total of 1,895 responses
were codeable since most of them consisted of general statements such as “the
lecturer was awesome,” “this class sucks,” or “worst teacher ever” without further
explanations as to why. Below is a summary of the themes related to each group and
the categories related to these themes (Table 2 and Table 3).
For the instructors who were rewarded the highest points, all the codeable
statements were categorized into five themes: Lecturing, relationship with the
students, knowledge and expertise, personality, and exams and evaluation. Lecturing
characteristics further compromised six subthemes: teaching skills and techniques,
value and utility of the content, enjoyment and interestingness of the lessons,
instructor’s positive attitude toward teaching and students, preparing students for
the profession, and development of critical thinking and new viewpoints.
127
Table 2.
Number and Percent of the Frequencies of the Themes for the Highest Rated Instructors
Themes
Categories
Number
%
of
the
of
students students
mentioned
mentioned
the
the theme
theme
Lecturing
Teaching
skills
and
160
28.9
techniques
Value and utility
96
17.35
Enjoyment
and
71
12.83
Interestingness
Attitude toward teaching
35
6.33
and the students
Preparing students for
32
5.78
their profession
Critical thinking and
15
2.71
new viewpoints
TOTAL
409
73.96
Relationships with
56
10.12
the students
Knowledge
and
40
7.23
expertise
Personality
25
4.52
Exams
and
23
4.15
evaluation
TOTAL
553
100
For the instructors who received the lowest evaluations, a total of five dimensions
were obtained: lecturing, examinations and evaluations, content, relationships with
the students, and expertise and knowledge. Lecturing had six subcomponents:
inefficient or inadequate teaching skills, rote teaching, boring teaching style,
providing insufficient examples, negative attitude toward the lessons, and inability
to teach according to students' developmental levels, in the order of importance.
Exams and evaluations had four subthemes: too difficult or above students'
developmental levels, not fair, exams based on only factual information rather than
deep understanding, and wanting more than what was given. Content compromised
three subthemes: too hard, unnecessary or useless, and outdated. Students’ responses
about the relationships with the students theme revolved around two main
subthemes: frequent use of insults and criticism, and negative attitudes towards
students including the use of threats to make the exams or course content too
difficult in order to maintain authority within the class.
128
Table 3.
Number and Percent of the Frequencies of the Themes for the Poorly Rated Instructors
Themes
Categories
Number
of % of the students
students
mentioned
the
mentioned the theme
theme
Lecturing
Skills (lack of)
264
19.67
Rote teaching
148
11.03
Boring
136
10.13
Providing insufficient
62
4.62
example
Negative attitude toward
44
3.28
teaching
Inability to teach
20
1.49
according to students'
developmental level
TOTAL
674
50.22
Exams and
Difficulty
97
7.23
evaluations
levels/appropriateness to
students' levels
General comments
75
5.59
/fairness
Exam based on factual
48
3.58
information
Wants more than what is
40
2.98
given
TOTAL
220
19.37
Content
Inappropriate difficulty
140
10.43
level
Lack of utility
63
4.69
Content is outdated
17
1.27
TOTAL
260
16.39
Relationships
Insults and criticism
79
5.89
with the
Negative attitudes toward
90
6.71
students
students
TOTAL
169
12.59
Expertise and
knowledge
GENERAL TOTAL
19
1.42
1342
100
129
When themes obtained from students’ responses for instructors who received the
highest scores and lowest scores were compared, it appears that obtained themes and
subthemes were very closely matched for the groups. For both groups, the most
frequently mentioned theme was related to the instructors’ lecturing characteristics
including teaching skills and techniques, which made the course effective or
ineffective. More than 70% of the statements for the highest rated instructors and
more than 50% of the statements for the lowest rated instructors were about the
lecturing characteristics. While the statements for the instructors who received the
highest evaluations emphasized the efficiency, joyfulness, usefulness (in a variety of
ways, such as increasing critical thinking skills, knowledge, adaptation to real life),
and gaining vocational skills, as well as a respectful and valuing attitude toward
both the course and the students, statements for the lowest rated instructors were
about a lack of teaching skills causing memorization rather than learning, the
inability to consider students’ developmental levels during instruction, boring
lecturing, and a negative attitude toward both students and to the content being
taught. Likewise, although the ordering based on mentioned frequency was different
for each group, statements regarding both groups involved student and instructor
relations, knowledge and expertise levels of the instructors, and exams and
evaluations. With the exception of the exams and evaluation theme, for all themes,
statements for each group were in essence bipolar statements. That is, the highest
rated instructors were cherished for being caring, kind, and respectful to students
and to their ideas, while the lowest rated instructors were described as being rude,
inconsiderate to students and their needs, and disrespectful to their ideas. However,
for the exam and evaluations, both groups’ statements echoed the toughness of the
content; while the highest rated instructors’ students perceived this toughness as a
necessary component of understanding and learning, students of the lowest rated
instructors thought the toughness was created artificially by inefficient teaching
behaviors, making it an obstacle to learning rather than a help.
The purposes of this study were to determine which instructor and course
characteristics and teaching dimensions best differentiate the instructors who
received the highest evaluation points from those instructors who received the
lowest evaluation points for three consecutive semesters, incorporating both
quantitative and qualitative methods. For this aim, students’ evaluations collected
through a teaching evaluation scale were analyzed and compared to the obtained
themes derived from students’ open-ended statements. Quantitative analyses
indicated that although the discriminative powers were very little, three
demographics were useful in discriminating two groups, namely instructors’
experience in years, the student’s grade in the course, and the number of students in
the course. Previous studies usually found little or no effect of either instructor or
students demographics (e.g., Marsh, 1984; Beran & Violato, 2005), with some
exceptions. This study’s findings are compatible with previous findings since,
although there were some effects, these effects were very little for all demographics
130
including the strongest of all three, which is experience. These results are in line with
earlier studies which found a small but inverted U-shaped quadratic relation in
which instructors receive higher evaluations initially, level up at some early point,
and then decline slowly thereafter (Marsh & Roche, 2000). However, some cultural
differences in academic settings might also be accountable for this result since the
establishment of higher academic standards in the higher education system became
important in Turkey only recently. Therefore, younger instructors might be more
knowledgeable and inclined to use active learning techniques, and be more
understanding toward students both because it is an important element of active
learning and because they share a similar conceptualization of authority due to lesser
cohort differences. In terms of class size, past research usually shows a significant but
small effect of class size on student ratings (Hanushek, 2002). This study further
extends the current findings by showing that, although small, this effect is also
applicable for distinguishing between good and poor instructors in the eyes of
students; the number of students in the class might cause an otherwise a regular
instructor to be viewed as a very poor instructor. Likewise, the inefficiency of a poor
instructor can be no longer compensated by the students’ own efforts within
crowded classes.
As to students’ grades, findings on this issue are more complicated and less
agreed upon. While some studies found significant correlations between students’
evaluations and course grades (Cashin, 1995), some others found no or little
relationship between these two (Marsh & Roche, 1999). Further, researchers’
interpretation of the meaning of the existing link differ in that some consider this link
as a sign of validity of the ratings since better instructors’ students should learn
better, resulting higher grades (Marsh & Roche, 1997). Others consider this link to be
a sign of threat to the validity of student ratings, however, since high evaluations are
attributed to students’ appreciation of grading leniency (Greenwald & Gillmore,
1997). This study’s findings add further support to the validity of students’ ratings
since, within the efficient teaching literature, the best instructors are usually defined
as challenging, someone who sets higher standards and pushes students to do their
best (e.g., Acker, 2003; Slate et al., 2011). Both qualitative and quantitative analyses of
this study were in line with this notion. According to qualitative analysis, students in
both groups frequently mentioned that the course was difficult and that the
instructor had high expectations. However, the explanations for the difficulty levels
were entirely different. Students thought that the instructors who garnered the
highest ratings provided a rich learning experience and expected the best from the
students in return. In contrast, students believed that the poorly rated instructors
made the course harder by asking useless questions, relying on rote teaching, and
under-teaching or avoiding certain concepts. According to the students, the highest
rated instructors not only delivered the content very efficiently, but also they held
high expectations for better performance. Students seem to perceive the high
expectation for success as fair and useful as long as instructors themselves create the
necessary conditions for it. On the other hand, poorly rated instructors’ exams seem
to be perceived as difficult only because they are unfair in the sense that these
instructors ask more than what they provide and their exams contain rote learning
131
and memorization with useless content, making it hard to learn and get motivated to
learn—which was described as unfair by the students.
While only a few demographics were useful in discriminating the two groups, all
teaching dimensions were important in the classification of the groups. Teaching
dimensions in order of the highest contributions to the discriminate variance were
generic skills, class interaction, course organization and planning, effective teaching,
relationships with the students, and exams and evaluations. These results are
important in the sense that they lend further support to previous studies of teaching
efficiency with data obtained from students with, culturally, a very different
orientation. Good instructors might possess a variety of characteristics, however,
some of these characteristics keep reappearing across studies: good teaching skills
(using a variety of teaching methods, giving examples to illustrate concepts,
increasing student interest and value), good organization and preparation,
instruction in an enjoyable and enthusiastic way, being knowledgeable, caring
deeply for students and teaching, having a passion and commitment to teach, being
fair in exams and grading, creating a comfortable learning environment, and
emphasizing and using active learning (e.g., Fortson & Brown, 1998; Khandelwal,
2009; Slate et al., 2011). Likewise, although much more limited, literature on poor
instructors demonstrates that poor instructors also possess some characteristics
which are comparable across studies. Poor instructors are boring (Fortson & Brown,
1998; Check, 2001), unable to deliver the content because of a lack of organization
(Fortson & Brown, 1998; Check, 2001) or a lack of knowledge or ability (Check, 2001),
and unable to relate to students due to poor communications skills (Johnson, 1990;
Epting et al., 2004). In addition to being disorganized, they are unfair in evaluation
practices (Johnson, 1990; Khandelwal, 2009). The current study’s findings, combined
with the existing literature, indicate that efficient and poor instructors are not very
different from each other. Rather, they are the flip side of the same coin—meaning,
that although there is no certain definition of good teaching, there are some elements
that are very useful when possessed and very harmful when missing for efficient
teaching, at least in the eyes of students.
Another contribution of this study was through converging quantitative and
qualitative results to provide a better understanding for the distinction between the
lowest and highest rated instructors. According to this analysis, although qualitative
results were mainly supportive of the quantitative analyses, there were dimensions
obtained from qualitative analyses not captured by the sole use of the scale, such as
instructors’ personality, the encouragement of the development of critical thinking,
and knowledge and expertise levels. Patrick (2011) reported that the dimensions of
openness and conscientiousness were the best personality predictors of both course
and instructor ratings. The most frequently mentioned features of the instructors in
written statements of the current study were also closely related to
conscientiousness, openness, and agreeableness. Based on these findings, it is
possible that there might be a relationship between an instructor’s personal resources
and the academic, developmental, and psychological needs of students. In other
words, while the conscientiousness dimension of the highest rated instructors’
132
personalities might serve to meet the academic needs of students, the openness and
agreeableness dimensions of these instructors’ personalities might serve to meet the
interpersonal needs of students, including their developmental and psychological
requests. Taken together, these findings seem to lend further support to Chickering
and Reisser’s (1983) theory, which postulates that the postsecondary experience has
the potential to foster feelings of intrinsic motivation by fulfilling students’
autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs.
In short, this study replicates the existing literature on teaching effectiveness with
a culturally different and large sample, and adds clear support that there are actual
teaching behaviors that really draw a distinction between good and poor teaching,
and therefore could assist efforts for quality improvements in a higher education
system.
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En Yüksek ve En Düşük Öğrenci Değerlendirmelerini Alan Öğretim
Elemenalarını Ayıran Demografik ve Öğretim Elemanı Özellikleri
Atıf:
Ozgungor, S. & Duru, E. (2015). Course and Instructor Characteristics Distinguishing
Highest and Lowest Student Ratings of Instructors. Eurasian Journal of
Özet
Problem Durumu: Yükseköğretimde kaliteyi sağlamanın en önemli yolu öğrencileri
gelecekteki mesleklerine hazırlayan eğitim kadrosunun kaliteli ve yetkin olmasını
sağlamaktır. Bu yüzden yükseköğretimde etkili öğretim elemanını tanımlamaya
yönelik pek çok araştırma yapılmıştır. Bu araştırmalarda kullanılan en temel yöntem
üniversite öğrencilerinden ideal, etkili ya da en iyi öğretim elemanlarını
tanımlamalarını istemektir.
Bu çalışmalarda yükseköğretimde etkili öğretim
elemanını tanımlayan özelliklerin başında öğrenci ve öğrenme düzeylerini
önemseme, öğretme becerileri, alan bilgisi, öğretmeyi sevme ve işini sevme, dersin
iyi planlanması, adil değerlendirme gibi özellikler sıralamıştır. Ancak var olan
çalışmalar, sonuçların lisans ve yüksek lisans öğrencileri için farklılaştığını ve
öğrencilerin etkin öğretim elemanlarına ilişkin düşüncelerinin farklı kültürel yapılara
göre değiştiğini göstermiştir. Alan yazında öğrencilerin tanımladığı etkili öğretim
elemanı özelliklerinin kültüre göre değiştiğini öne süren çalışmalara rağmen
yükseköğretimde etkili öğretim elemanı tanımlamasına ilişkin bulguların neredeyse
tamamı yurtdışında yapılan çalışmalara dayalıdır. Oysa son yıllarda teknolojik,
kültürel ve eğitim politikaları açısından çatışan özellikleri barındıran Türkiye için bu
konunun araştırılması daha da önemlidir. Şöyle ki, bir taraftan eğitim
politikalarındaki değişimler öğrencilerin aktif katılımını gerektiren yapılandırmacı
eğitimi teşvik ederken, bir taraftan TEOG, LGS, KPSS gibi sınavlar öğrencileri daha
hazırcı ve ezberci olmaya itmektedir. Bu tür çelişkileri aynı anda barındıran eğitim
sisteminde görev yapan eğitimciler için öğrencilerin gözünde en yararlı ve bu
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yüzden öğrenmeye güdüleyici öğretmen davranışlarının ne olduğunun belirlenmesi
daha önemli hale gelmektedir. Aynı zamanda, ülkemizde öğretim elemanlarının
üzerindeki öğrenci sayısı ve ders yükünün daha yoğun olması gibi unsurlar göz
önünde bulundurulduğunda öğretim elemanlarının performanslarında kişisel
özellikleri dışındaki özelliklerin de belirleyici olduğu düşünülebilir.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Bu çalışmanın temel amaçları (a) üniversite öğrencileri
tarafından sunulan performans değerlendirmelerinde en yüksek ve en düşük
puanları alan öğretim elemanlarını ayrıştıran demografik özelliklerin belirlenmesi (b)
üniversite öğrencileri tarafından yapılan performans değerlendirmelerinde en
yüksek ve en düşük puanları alan öğretim elemanlarını ayıran öğretim etkinliklerine
ilişkin boyutların belirlenmesi (c) öğrencilerin en yüksek ve en düşük puanları
verdikleri
öğretim
elemanlarına
ilişkin
açık
uçlu
soruya
yönelik
değerlendirmelerinin analiz edilerek iki grubu ayırmada işlevsel olan anlamlı
örüntüler oluşturulup oluşturulamayacağının belirlenmesidir.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Çalışma kapsamında veriler Tıp Fakültesi hariç Pamukkale
Üniversitesi’ne bağlı tüm akademik birimlere devam etmekte olan toplam 23814
(12142 erkek ve 11672 kız) öğrenciden derslerine giren öğretim elemanlarının
performanslarını üniversitenin web sitesinde yayınlanan bir ölçek üzerinden
değerlendirmeleri istenerek elde edilmiştir. Kullanılan ölçek Marsh tarafından
geliştirilen SEEQ’nin Türkçe uyarlamasını kapsasa da, çalışmanın amacına uygun
bazı değişimler de içermektedir. Bu değişimler madde sayısının kısaltılması ve
öğrencilerin bilişsel becerilerinin gelişimini destekleyici davranışlara yönelik yeni bir
boyutun eklenmesini içermektedir. Nihai ölçek altı alt boyut içermektedir: etkili
öğretim, sınıf içi etkileşim, öğrencilerle ilişkiler, planlama, ölçme ve değerlendirme
ve genel becerilere katkı boyutları. Veriler 2009 Güz, 2010 Bahar ve 2011 Güz
dönemlerinin sonunda final haftasından önceki 2 hafta sürecinde toplanmıştır.
Öğrencilere aynı zamanda değerlendirdikleri tüm öğretim elemanı için düşüncelerini
belirtmeleri istenen açık uçlu bir soru sunulmuştur. Üç dönemin sonunda, her
dönem için standart sapmanın 1 yukarısında ve 1 aşağısında değerlendirmeler alan
öğretim elemanları belirlenmiştir. Bu şekilde üç dönemde standart sapmanın
yukarısında ve aşağısında puan alan öğretim elemanları belirlenerek öğrenciler
tarafından performansları en iyi ve en kötü olarak algılanan öğretim elemanları
tespit edilmiştir. Bu sınıflama sonucu toplam 630 öğretim elemanının 32’si (26 erkek,
6 kadın) en düşük değerlendirmeleri alan, 27 (17 erkek, 10 kadın) öğretim elemanı
da en yüksek puanları alanlar olarak sınıflandırılmıştır. Öğrencilerin açık uçlu
yanıtları NVivo 9 programı kullanılarak içerik analizi yöntemiyle analiz edilmiştir.
Araştırmanın Bulguları: Araştırmanın birinci amacına yönelik olarak en yüksek
puanları alan öğretim elemanları ile en düşük puanları alan öğretim elemanlarını,
öğretim elemanının deneyimi, cinsiyeti, toplam ders yükü, öğrenci sayısı, unvanı,
öğrencinin ders başarı notu, akademik birimi, sınıf mevcudu ve dersin zorluk
derecesini içeren demografik özelliklerin ayırmada yararlı olup olmadığını
belirlemek amacıyla discriminant analizi yapılmıştır. Analiz, sadece 3 demografik
değişkenin (deneyim, öğrenci başarı notu ve sınıf mevcudu) grupları ayırmada etkili
olduğunu, ancak bu etkinin zayıf olduğunu göstermiştir. Araştırmanın ikinci
amacına yönelik olarak yapılan analizler öğretim etkililiğine ait tüm alt boyutların
grupları ayırmada etkili olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Son olarak, öğrencilerin açık
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uçlu yanıtlarının içerik analizi yoluyla incelenmesi sonucu en yüksek puanları alan
öğretim elemanlarını tanımlayan 5 alt boyut elde edilmiştir; dersin işlenişi,
öğrencilerle ilişkiler, uzmanlık, kişilik ve ölçme değerlendirme. Benzer şekilde, en
düşük puanları alan öğretim elemanlarına yönelik yanıtlar dersin işlenişi, ölçme ve
değerlendirme, içerik, öğrencilerle ilişkiler ve uzmanlık olmak üzere yine 5 alt boyut
oluşturmuştur.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Bu çalışmanın temel amacı takip eden 3 dönem
boyunca öğrenciler tarafından en yüksek ve en düşük değerlendirmeleri alan
öğretim elemanlarını ayrıştıran demografik ve öğretim etkinliği boyutlarının
belirlenmesidir. Yapılan analizler demografik değişkenlerden iki grubu ayrıştırmada
etkili özelliklerin öğretim elemanının deneyimi, sınıf mevcudu ve öğrenci başarı
puanı olduğunu ve öğretim etkinliği alt boyutlarının tamamının iki grubu
ayrıştırmada etkili olduğunu göstermiştir. Öğrencilerin açık uçlu cevaplarına yönelik
yapılan içerik analizleri nicel bulguları destekler niteliktedir. Analizler sonucu en
yüksek puan alan öğretim elemanlarını tanımlayan 5 alt boyut oluşturmuştur.
Öğrenci algılarına göre, en yüksek puanları alan öğretim elemanları, dersi işlerken
farklı ve eğlenceli yöntemler kullanan, öğrencileri aktif kılan, derste öğrencilerle
sürekli etkileşim içinde olan, alanında uzman, öğrencilere ve öğrenci gelişimine içten
ilgi duyan, yaptığı işten haz alan ve bunu sınıf içi hareketleriyle sürekli sergileyen,
öğrencilerin mesleki ve kişisel gelişimlerini destekleyen ve dünyaya ve insanlara
karşı pozitif tutumlarıyla öğrencilerin yaşama bakışında radikal değişiklikler yaratan
öğretim elemanlarıdır. Ayrıca bu öğretim elemanlarının sınavları zor ancak adil
olarak tanımlanmaktadır. En düşük puan alan öğretim elemanları genelde aynı
özelliklerin yokluğuyla tanımlanmıştır. Ders işleyişi sırasında sıkıcı bir tarz
sergileyen, sunu tekniği kullanan, kitabı okuyarak ya da ezberden tekrarlayarak,
öğrenci katılımını sağlamayan bu öğretim elemanları aynı zamanda içeriği
güncelleştirememeleri ya da öğrencilerin günlük ve mesleki yaşamlarıyla
ilişkilendirilmemeleri nedeniyle eleştiri almışlardır. Alanında yetersiz olarak
algılanan bu bireyler, derse ve öğrencilere karşı olumsuz, aşağılayıcı davranışlarıyla
tanımlanmıştır. Son olarak, bu öğretim elemanlarının anlatmadıkları konuları sınava
dâhil ederek, yeterli örnek çözmeyerek, ezber sorarak sınavları zorlaştırdıkları ve
adil olmak yerine kişisel ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına göre puanlandırma yaptıkları
belirtilmiştir. Özetle, bu çalışmanın bulguları, öğrencilerin en yüksek ve en düşük
puan verdikleri öğretim elemanlarının alan yazında yer alan etkili öğretmen
tanımıyla paralel olduğunu ve bulguların yükseköğretimde eğitim kalitesini
artırmada yararlı olacağını göstermektedir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Öğretmen etkinliği, yükseköğretimde eğitim kalitesi, öğrenci
değerlendirmeleri, iyi öğretmen
Contrasting Rhetorical Patterns: Discovering Effects of First
and Second Language Writing Conventions
Volkan İNCEÇAY
Suggested citation:
Incecay, V. (2015). Contrasting rhetorical patterns: Discovering effects of first
language and second language writing conventions. Eurasian Journal of
Abstract
Problem Statement: In this qualitative small-scale study, I aimed at
investigating why students have difficulties in adjusting themselves to
English writing conventions. I also examined the possible bilateral effects
of Turkish and English writing conventions to determine whether
engaging learners in contrastive rhetoric exercises can elucidate the
phenomenon of transfer in rhetorical patterns.
Purpose of Study: The aim of this study was to discover whether bilingual
writers with the same first-language background (i.e., Turkish)
demonstrate similar composing patterns or whether these patterns diverge
when writing in first or foreign language (i.e., English). Its broader aim
was to describe whether transfer pertains to rhetorical patterns.
Method: To investigate the existence and transfer of rhetorical patterns, we
examined four opinion essays—two in English, two in Turkish—written
by each of six freshman students registered for an English composition
course at an English-medium university in Istanbul, Turkey. Additional
data came from students’ reflective tasks and semi-structured interviews
conducted with them.
Findings: The analysis of the essays demonstrated that the students placed
thesis statements in the initial, middle, or final positions in their Turkish
essays, indicating that some students used a deductive style of writing, a
common US English writing convention, in their Turkish essays. This
finding suggests that the students practiced aspects of English
composition learned at the university level. Notably, students also used
discourse markers more than typical Turkish essayists would, indicating

Yeditepe University, School of Foreign LanguagesEnglish Language Teaching Preparatory
Program, e-mail: [email protected]
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Volkan İnceçay
that the students were able to transfer knowledge not only from their first
to the foreign language. Other results reveal that it was somewhat
challenging for students to write in their first language given their
adjustment to English writing conventions.
Conclusion and Recommendations: This study’s findings suggest that
students initiated the construction of an academic discourse community
identity and membership, implying that writing instructors can raise
learners’ awareness of academic environment and involve them with
different academic conventions by engaging them in contrastive rhetoric
studies. Contrastive rhetoric could also prompt students to think more
critically, which would further assist them in writing process. Lastly, the
findings suggest that engaging students in exercises of contrastive rhetoric
can assist and empower them in their writing practices.
Keywords: Writing instruction, contrastive rhetoric, transfer, academic
discourse community
Introduction
During writing classes and feedback sessions, I have observed students struggle
with implementing English writing conventions. Knowing that culture heavily
impacts how people think and organize ideas, at least according to the Sapir–Whorf
hypothesis (Kay & Kempton, 1984), I have questioned whether frustration students
feels when using different writing systems stems from differences in writing
conventions in their first language (L1). I was also keen to examine whether the effect
is mutual.
Early on, Kaplan (1966) suggested that teaching reading and writing to foreign
students constitutes a different process from that of teaching native speakers given
cultural differences inherent in rhetorical patterns of the various languages with
which learners interact. Referring to personal communication with Kaplan, Matsuda
(2001) reported that Kaplan admitted having been strongly influenced by the Sapir–
Whorf hypothesis, the strong version of which maintains that speakers of different
languages understand the world differently and construe meaning according to the
worldview presented to them by their native language (Davies, Sowden, Jerrett,
Jertett, & Corbett, 1998). By contrast, the weak version of the hypothesis, which
argues influence but not determination, holds that language influences our thinking,
and emphasizes the importance of the social context in which the language is used
(Chandler, 1995). This weaker version of the hypothesis is considered to be
foundational to contrastive rhetoric by suggesting that languages affects perception
and thought in diverse ways (Connor, 1996, cited in Connor, 2002). According to
Kaplan (1966), the contrastive analysis of rhetoric can help foreign language
instructors to teach advanced learners how to write in another language.
Contrastive rhetoric studies have illuminated the written work of second and
foreign language (L2) learners to reveal the effects of L1 and culture by drawing on
139
ample disciplines and areas, including anthropology, pedagogy, linguistics, and
translation studies, among others (Quinn, 2012). Consequently, contrastive rhetoric
has achieved considerable growth accompanied by the publication of many books,
research articles, dissertations, and theses. Accordingly, contrastive rhetoric will be
expected to continue to influence decisions regarding curricula and writing
instruction (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996), as well as writing in English as a second
language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL) (Connor, 2002).
Leki (1991), Matsuda (1997), and Connor (2002) have posited that contrastive
rhetoric studies in the 1980s involved linguistic text analysis as a data collection
method that made it possible to quantify certain features—for example, cohesive
devices and coherence and discourse of texts—in L1 and L2 writing. Citing studies
she conducted with Lauer in 1985 and 1988, Connor (2002) referred to their creation
of a system for counting not only linguistic but also rhetorical elements in any
written text. In the following decade, the field expanded in such a way that
contrastive rhetoric, once the analysis of spoken language or paragraph organization
in ESL student compositions, became an interdisciplinary field of applied linguistics,
originating largely from the work of Connor (1996; Connor, 2002; Kubota & Lehner,
2004). During this same decade, contrastive rhetoric began to focus more intently on
exploring cognitive and social processes. The findings of these studies have revealed
that writers can implement several writing types, though the patterns preferred often
depended upon genre (Connor, 2002).
Yet, contrastive rhetoric has not been a field free of criticism. Kubota and Lehner
(2004) indicated that the discipline has tended to create stagnant, uniform rhetorical
patterns to characterize diverse languages. Other criticisms have included that
contrastive rhetoric privileges English over other languages and early studies
excluded L1 texts and discourse, as well as their examination (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996),
though the practice has since ended. Kachru explains that since EFL writers from
outer- and expanding circle countries outnumber native speakers of English, as well
as given sociocultural differences, L2 and foreign language instructors in inner-circle
countries should possess an understanding of different structures of rhetorical
organizations used worldwide and not only teach Western rhetorical traditions
(Kachru, 1995, cited in Bolton, 2015). By extension, within-subject instead of betweensubject comparisons can yield more reliable results (Kubota, 1998; Kubota & Lehner,
2004). For instance, in an interesting study, Kubota (1998) examined student
compositions written in Japanese, a language thought to exhibit an inductive style of
writing that can negatively affect ESL writing. The participants at university level
wrote one essay in Japanese and another in English, both of which the researcher
analyzed by taking into account the organization and placement of main idea(s).
After also evaluating the English versions in terms of language use, the researcher
found that roughly 50% of participants used similar rhetorical patterns when writing
in both languages and thus proposed that L1 writing ability, degree of L2
proficiency, and composition experience impact ESL writing. The author also
revealed the lack of negative transfer from Japanese to English in terms of rhetorical
patterns. In another study, using a within-subject comparison, Hirose (2003) found
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Volkan İnceçay
that traditional deductive pattern of writing in Japanese surfaced in most students’
L2 writing as well.
Kobayashi and Rinnert (2008) examined the impact of an intensive preparatory
program for high-school composition in L1 or L2, Japanese and English respectively
in university entrance exams. Concentrating on task response and structural features
in L1 and L2 essays written by 28 first-year students at a Japanese university, these
researchers demonstrated that L2 training encouraged the students to determine
their position on the given topic and state it at the outset of their essays.
Recently, Crawford, Mora Pablo, Goodwin and Lengelin (2013) with the help of
interviews and written discourse analysis, explored the rhetorical pattern
development of two writers each of which wrote two essays, in academic English
and Spanish. Their results showed that though the participants articulated strong
identity with the English discourse community, their compositions were more in
harmony with Spanish writing conventions.
In Turkish context, in 1991 Enginarlar (cited in Uysal, 2008) examined the
expository essays written in both Turkish and English by Turkish high-school
students. The experimental group consisted of bilingual writers attending an
immersion program at the time of the study. The results demonstrated that when
writing in Turkish, bilingual writers’ introductions were much shorter and generally
more concise than those of monolingual participants. To the researcher, this
suggested a possible transfer from the target to the first language in terms of
rhetorical patterns, which is consistent with results found by Akyel and Kamışlı
(1996), who evaluated student essays before and after writing instruction. The two
authors also mentioned that writers could transfer rhetorical knowledge to their first
language.
In studying thought processes of writers of argumentative essays in both Turkish
and English, Uysal (2008) concluded that the writers preferred some rhetorical
patterns related to text organization and cohesive devices (e.g., transition markers) in
both languages, though dissimilarities also emerged between the Turkish and
English essays. In the Turkish essays, topic sentences were unclear, which was not
the case in the English ones. The researcher suggested that the result could stem from
the expectation of Turkish writers that readers are responsible to connect ideas
presented in print, which is also a writing convention in other countries, including
Japan (McKinley, 2013). Uysal (2008) noted, however, that the essays in her study
had to be written in a very limited time (i.e., 50 minutes), which could have heavily
abbreviated brainstorming, outlining, writing, and revision both during and after
finishing writing.
In foreign language education in Turkey, since too few studies have focused on
comparing L1 and L2 writing in terms of rhetorical patterns used, I sought to delve
deeper into the issue by conducting the present study. My purpose was to assess the
absence or presence of the transfer of specific elements of rhetorical patterns. I
moreover aimed to examine to what extent cultural writing patterns affect Turkish
EFL students in their writing. I thus posed the two following research questions:
141
1. What specific elements of rhetorical patterns, if any, are transferrable?
2. To what extent, do cultural writing patterns affect Turkish EFL students in
their writing?
Method
Research Design
This study was a small-scale qualitative one in which students enrolled in an
English composition course participated by writing four essays, completing reflective
tasks, and attending semi-structured interview sessions.
Research Sample
The sample consisted of students from my first-year English composition course
at an English-medium university during the 2013–2014 academic year. No data
collection procedure was mandatory, and six students, all women, volunteered to
participate. All six participants were native speakers of Turkish. Four participants
had previously received writing instruction in the intensive preparatory program of
the Department of English Language Teaching, while the remaining two students,
who could document their level of English proficiency, had waived enrollment in the
preparatory class. As shown, participants in most aspects were quite similar. In terms
of Turkish writing instruction, all participants stated that they had taken Turkish
courses before beginning their university educations and had learned the basics of
Turkish writing conventions in the curriculum designed by the Ministry of National
Education. As such, I was able to eliminate any contamination due to recruiting
participating students with heterogeneous characteristics that the literature has
indicated likely impact outcomes—for example, level of L2 proficiency.
Research Instruments and Procedure
I used multiple data collection tools with concerns related to reliability and
triangulation. Initially, I was unsure of the topic of the study at its outset, yet for the
entire semester had observed the participants, especially in feedback sessions, and
recorded notes along with the papers that received my feedback. These data
suggested that I clarify the focus of my investigation since I had observed that the
participants struggled with the writing process. The primary data for the study came
from participant-generated essays, their reflective writing tasks, and follow-up semistructured interviews with them.
Essays. I asked participants to write four opinion essays—two in English and two
in Turkish. Instead of writing on the same topic, which would have encouraged the
participants to translate their essays, participants voted on four topics from a range
of predetermined ones (Table 1). Participants were particularly interested in these
topics, most of which were hotly debated at the time of the study, though others
resulted from brainstorming performed at the beginning of each class. I collected
essay data during four sessions with participants. In each meeting, I requested the
participants to write essays and did not impose a time limit, largely to minimize
anxiety that could have otherwise influenced results, yet also to allow participants to
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brainstorm, outline, write, and revise throughout the process, provided they desired
to do so. Also to minimize anxiety, this time from limited vocabulary knowledge, I
allowed participants to use print dictionaries.
Table 1.
Topics for English and Turkish opinion essays
English essay topics
Turkish essay topics
Couples can live together before getting
married.
In public schools, instead of wearing
uniforms, students should be able to
wear what they want.
Being ethical has its limits.
Private courses preparing students
for the university entrance exam
should be shut down.
Reflective writing tasks. For Petrić (2005), reflective writing as an exploratory task is
of specific significance in contrastive rhetoric in foreign language classrooms since it
affords students the opportunity to share their thoughts during the process. The
purpose of reflective activities is thus to raise writers’ awareness of the nature of their
writing and rhetorical patterns. In the present study, I informed participants about
what reflective activities normally require and requested them to write reflectively; I
also conducted a sample for them during class time (i.e., 1 hour) to serve as a model.
Since I gathered only two English and two Turkish essays from each participant, to
collect more in-depth data I had the participants also complete two reflective writing
tasks. Immediately following essay composition, I asked participants to write about
how they felt, about what they found stress-free or challenging while writing, and
how they would compare essays written in English and Turkish once completed.
Follow-up semi-structured interviews. Matsuda (1997) argues that the contrastive
analysis of written work may be inadequate. Therefore, to gain a better
understanding of what transpires in the minds of writers and of their mental
representation of the writing context, Matsuda (1997) suggests integrating into
discourse analysis data collected via interviews. Xinghua (2011) has similarly stated
that a combination of data collection tools such as class observation and discourse
analysis can yield more enlightening outcomes, particularly with the help of the
within-subject approach. My aim was to more thoroughly explore what participants
experience while writing essays in Turkish and English, their feelings, perceptions,
and ideas regarding the process after given additional time to reflect, and their
preferences, if any, about the rhetorical patterns and related elements. Therefore,
after the essays were completed, I conducted semi-structured interviews with the
students. I opted for this sort of interviews due to their common applications in the
literature as a means of unveiling cognitive processes studied in contrastive rhetoric
143
research (Crawford et al., 2013; Gao, 2012; Hirose, 2003; Kobayashi & Rinnert, 2008;
Kubota, 1998; Uysal, 2008).
For the follow-up semi-structured interviews, I consulted experts, academics in
the department, about the interview questions. Then, I invited the participants
individually to respond to questions that I had prepared based on relevant findings
in the literature. Each interview session lasted 15–20 minutes.
Throughout the data collection process, the participants preferred to speak in
Turkish. I therefore transcribed each interview and shared it with the respective
participant for their confirmation.
After transcribing the follow-up interviews, I received help from a doctoral
student as a coder in identifying common patterns. We separately analyzed the data
and grouped common patterns that surfaced in the interviews (Miles & Huberman,
1994). For the patterns on which we disagreed, we deliberated until reaching a
consensus bearing high inter-coder agreement (94%).
Data Analysis
I primarily employed literature addressing contrastive rhetoric that compared
monolingual and interlingual essays, interviews, and reflective tasks by taking into
account different criteria during analysis. This literature clearly shows that some
norms are preferable to others. For example, the placement of the thesis statement is
the most common measure in research, followed by cultural influences and discourse
markers. Since the literature suggests that combining different criteria in analyzing
written work can yield more trustworthy results (Matsuda, 1997; Uysal, 2011;
Xinghua, 2011), I used the most common criteria—namely, placement of the thesis
statement, discourse markers, and cultural influences. However, the results of
preliminary data analysis prompted me to also include the number of paragraphs, as
done by Xing, Wang, and Spencer (2008). The following list highlights the data
collection tools and procedures for data analysis.
1.
I counted the number of paragraphs in each essay.
2.
Based on the placement of thesis statement, or main idea, I sought to
determine whether participants developed their essays deductively or
inductively. The literature holds that placing the thesis statement in the
introductory paragraph indicates a deductive style of writing, which is a
UK and US writing convention, whereas waiting to clarify the thesis at
the end of the essay indicates an inductive style (Kubota, 1998; Xing et
al., 2008). By extension, this difference is also thought to demonstrate the
effect of culture in writing (Uysal, 2008). Similarly, Kubota (1998)
explained that if the thesis statement appears in the introductory
paragraph, then the location can be labelled initial and, if in the body,
middle. By contrast, if the thesis statement appears in the final paragraph
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of the essay, then the location is clearly final. Lastly, collection refers to
circumstances in which the thesis statement appears in multiple places.
3.
Discourse markers, also known as transition signals or signposts, help
readers to make logical connections among different parts of written
texts, and their presence or absence can directly affect the flow of
reading. The frequency of these devices should reveal differences in
terms of rhetorical patterns in participants’ written work, as well as
signal cultural impact upon writing style (Uysal, 2008; Xing et al., 2008).
4.
I considered cultural influences to manifest in the use of other criteria
taken into consideration during analysis (Uysal, 2008; Xing et al., 2008).
Thus, either alone or in combination, these criteria provided me
information about the impact of culture upon writing.
Results
Results of Essay Analysis
I analyzed the essays according to the criteria shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Criteria for essay analysis
Figure 1 and Table 2 reveal the criteria used to evaluate participants’ essays
written in both languages. I also used these criteria as themes for grouping categories
and codes determined from the students’ interviews and reflective tasks.
145
Table 2.
Results of analysis and exemplary excerpts
Themes, categories, and codes
1. Number of paragraphs
 Reason for writing different
numbers of paragraphs
Lack of practice in
Turkish classes
Exemplary excerpts
In our Turkish composition classes, we
didn’t have the chance to practice writing as
much as I’m having right now. After I had
finished writing the Turkish essays, I
realized that I followed the typical fiveparagraph essay that I have practiced a lot
at university (Participant 1, follow-up semistructured interview).
-
To include more ideas
in a coherent way
I wasn’t sure whether I had to write three
paragraphs or more in Turkish essays. At
the university, I have been writing essays
consisting of at least five paragraphs. I
wanted to include more ideas, but I wasn’t
satisfied with a big body paragraph
containing different ideas. Due to this
problem, I added an additional paragraph
(Participant 6, follow-up semi-structured
interview).
-
Having numerous rules
to follow
I should admit that there are many rules
that need to be considered while writing in
English. However, I did not focus much on
the rules when I was writing in Turkish.
This practice is partly due to the fact that I
don’t know much about them (Participant 1,
reflective writing task).
2.
Placement of the thesis
statement
 Reason for placing it
incorrectly
Lack of knowledge
I didn’t know where to place my main idea
while I was writing the essays in Turkish. I
thought that I had to state them in the
introductory paragraph because this is the
way I am accustomed to following in
English compositions (Participant 4, followup semi-structured interview).
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Table 2. Continued
3. Discourse markers
 Reason for using different
numbers
of
discourse
markers
Lack of knowledge
4. Cultural influences
 Reasons for influences
Being used to writing in
English but not Turkish
-
-
Lack of knowledge in
Turkish essay writing
Being more confident in
writing English essays
I wasn’t much aware of the significance of
words like however, in conclusion, and on the
contrary before I started my university
education. I didn’t pay attention to these
words when writing in Turkish. At the same
time, when I write anything, particularly in
school assignments, I try to use these words
to make the meaning clear to readers
(Participant 2, follow-up semi-structured
interview).
While I’m writing, I find myself thinking in
English. I ask myself, If this topic were in
English, then how I would write about it? It
was difficult for me to write in Turkish
because I am now used to writing in English
(Participant 1, reflective writing task)
I had difficulties with writing the Turkish
essays. I realized that I know how to write
an essay in English better when I compare
Turkish and English writing. For instance, I
couldn’t decide how I should connect the
ideas and paragraphs in Turkish essays, but
I was quite comfortable with it when I was
writing in English (Participant 4, reflective
writing task)
I became aware of the fact that I was trying
to translate the organization of the opinion
essay in English to Turkish. When I
compare the essays that I wrote in Turkish
and English, I can tell that I found the
essays that I wrote in English to be better
than the Turkish ones. I understood that my
self-confidence has increased with writing
in English (Participant 6, reflective writing
task)
147
For the first criterion in comparing essays written in Turkish and English, the
expected result was three paragraphs for Turkish essays and five for English ones.
However, the results did not bear out this expectation in some participants, as
illustrated in Table 2. When these participants were asked why the number of
paragraphs differed, they explained by referring to their lack of practice in Turkish
classes and the rules that they had learned in English composition classes.
Notably, the participants wrote their essays by following the framework
recommending an introduction, body, and conclusion. The interviews clarified that
participants had learned this organization in both Turkish and English classes,
though one participant memorably commented during the reflective activity that she
“was not much informed about Turkish writing conventions.”
Concerning the placement of the thesis statement in essays written in English,
there were no exceptions, as all participants placed it in the introductory paragraph.
More specifically, 12 thesis statements in English essays were in the initial position,
thereby making the writing style deductive, which indicates a UK and US writing
convention (Kubota, 1998; Xing et al., 2008).
Within-subject analysis of essays written in Turkish, however, showed that
Participants 1 and 2 stated their opinions in the middle position in both essays.
Participant 3 was confused about where to place the thesis statement; in the first
essay, she preferred a final position, whereas in the second Turkish essay her thesis
statement appeared in the initial position. By contrast, Participant 4 placed her thesis
statements in the initial position, explaining that this was how she was used to doing
it (Table 2).
In addition to number of paragraphs and placement of the thesis statement,
discourse markers were also of concern. In all essays, participants used discourse
markers, and both within- and between-subject analyses clarified that the frequency
of markers in English essays was much greater than in Turkish essays.
Lastly, though I expected to observe signs of Turkish culture’s effect upon the
students’ writing, following data collection I noticed that the students attached
strikingly little importance to Turkish writing conventions taught in the Turkish
education system. Yet, there was one important finding. Including the personal
emails and messages that the participants sent to me daily, without exception all
cited the influence of English writing conventions while writing, even when writing
in Turkish. Significantly, this result suggests that participants initiated the process of
becoming members of their academic discourse community.
The results highlight individual differences among participants, especially
regarding the number of paragraphs used in their English and Turkish essays.
Differences also manifested in terms of the placement of the thesis statement in
Turkish essays. By contrast, all participants placed their thesis statements in an initial
148
Volkan İnceçay
position in their English essays. They also mostly organized their essays following
the introduction–body–conclusion format in both languages.
In this study, the participants preferred to state their opinions or main ideas in all
positions when writing in Turkish. However, within-subject analysis showed that
five out of the six participants were consistent in placing their thesis statements
across their essays. This finding complements what Kubota (1998) found in her
study, in which some participants used an inductive style while writing in their L1
and a deductive style in L2. In a similar vein, some participants in this study used a
deductive style also in L1, which also occurred in Hirose’s (2003) study. In that study,
the author found that some participants preferred a deductive style of writing in L1
as well.
In this study, the participants’ placement of the thesis statement in the initial
position of their English essays possibly demonstrated the effect of L2 training that
they had received in their writing coursework. This result corroborates a finding of
Kobayashi and Rinnert (2008), who also identified the effect of L2 writing instruction
upon freshman university students’ writing.
The present study’s participants also underscored that they transferred their
knowledge from English to Turkish in terms of rhetorical elements (e.g., discourse
markers). This trend was also the case in studies conducted by Kobayashi and
Rinnert (2008) and Uysal (2008), both of which demonstrated that students could
transfer their knowledge not only from L1 to L2, but from L2 to L1 as well.
One of this study’s most significant results is that all participants reported
struggling with writing in Turkish because they were used to writing and, to some
extent, even thinking in English, which could indicate their initiation into
constructing an academic discourse community identity. This finding parallels what
Crawford et al. (2013) found, though those authors reported analyses indicating that
participants’ L2 did not influence their L1 writing. In the present study, participants
were clearly under the influence of L2, as they transferred rhetorical organization
and elements from L2 to L1. This transfer trend is moreover consistent with findings
articulated by Akyel and Kamışlı (1996) and Enginarlar (cited in Uysal, 2008).
As mentioned earlier, though this study’s participants were largely unaware of
discourse markers (i.e., transition signals) in their native language, they used them in
their Turkish essays as well as in their English ones. During the interview, one
participant said that she could not remember the Turkish versions of some discourse
markers and needed to consult a bilingual dictionary in order to translate the English
ones into Turkish. Transfer also occurred in terms of rhetorical organization, as it did
in Uysal’s (2008) study as well. Yet, whereas the thesis statements in the present
study’s Turkish essays were as clear as in the English ones, Uysal’s (2008)
participants created rather obscure, unclear topic sentences. This contrasting result
might have derived from the fact that those participants were required to write their
essays in a highly limited time (i.e., 50 min), which could have partially prevented
participants from stating their opinions in the most desirable way. By contrast, in the
149
present study, participating students received adequate time to brainstorm, outline,
compose, and revise.
During this study, I observed no negative transfer from students’ L1 (i.e.,
Turkish) to their L2 (i.e., English). Put differently, no inhibiting effects of the native
language in terms of writing conventions occurred, particularly regarding rhetorical
organization and its elements. Some participants wrote their thesis statements in the
initial and some in the final position while writing in Turkish. Although the
participants remained unaware as to why they had followed these two patterns,
Turkish writing convention imposes stating one’s position either in the introductory
paragraph, if using a deductive writing style, or in the final paragraph, if using an
inductive writing style. By contrast, in their English essays, participants knew
without a doubt to state their positions on the topic in the introduction paragraph
(i.e., in the initial position) and thereafter write deductively.
Clearly, English writing style impacted the writings of participants both
negatively and positively. To their detriment, for instance, some participants
experienced confusion about where to place their thesis statements. On the plus side,
however, they included more transition signals in their Turkish essays than a typical
Turkish essay would, and when asked why, they argued that doing so clarified the
meaning and made the text more understandable. From my perspective, this
admission was a significant result, for the participants recognized their being under
the direct influence of English, for they had not felt the need to use these markers
until they started writing in English. This actually suggests that problems students
experience in writing in a foreign language may not be originating from their native
language. In fact, this trend indicates that the participants have begun to construct an
academic discourse community identity and to pursue membership. This
phenomenon could importantly imply for writing instructors that engaging students
in contrastive rhetoric studies can help to raise their awareness and encourage them
to feel that they are part of the academic context in which they currently study and
could further work in the future.
Another implication of the study is that instructors teaching composition may ask
their students about their backgrounds in relation to the writing practices to which
they have been introduced earlier in their academic careers. If students are aware of
this tacit knowledge, then they can use it to their benefit.
As a final implication, contrastive rhetoric studies in composition classes can
prompt students to think more critically while engaging academic writing, since
critical thinking plays an important role throughout the composition process. Having
students perform these kinds of exercises could benefit them by underscoring
interlingual differences and similarities at both micro and macro levels. Accordingly,
employing contrastive rhetoric studies in writing classes could help, motivate, and
empower learners in the process.
Nevertheless, this study has limitations. First, the small number of participants
makes the generalizability of the results somewhat difficult. Second, patterns
revealed in this study cannot be considered to completely encompass all Turkish (or
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Volkan İnceçay
English) cultural conventions. Third, the participants wrote opinion essays, meaning
that this study’s findings cannot be generalized to other types of rhetorical
organization. Lastly, because no men participated in this study, results based on
gender differences cannot be drawn. These limitations may also enlighten strategies
for future research. For one, researchers can conduct studies involving other essay
types, as well as include men to reveal differences and similarities, if any, between
genders. Further research could also concentrate on multiple groups of participants
and compare learners with different L1 backgrounds and levels of language
proficiency.
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Retorik Desenleri Karşılaştırma: Anadil ve İkinci Dil Yazı Yazma
Düzenlerinin Etkilerinin Ortaya Çıkarılması
Atıf:
Incecay, V. (2015). Contrasting rhetorical patterns: Discovering effects of first
language and second language writing conventions. Eurasian Journal of
Özet
Problem Durumu: Öğrencilere kendi anadillerinde ve yabancı dilde kompozisyon
yazdırarak iki dil arasındaki olası karşılıklı etkileri araştıran küçük ölçekli bir çalışma
yapmanın yararlı olabileceğini düşündüm. Öğrencileri karşılaştırmalı retorik desen
çalışmalarına dâhil ederek retorik desen seviyesinde diller arası transfer olup
olmayacağını görmek istedim.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Aynı anadile sahip (Türkçe) iki dilli bu öğrencilerin yazım
sürecinde Türkçe ve İngilizce’ye ait benzer retorik desenleri takip edip etmediklerini
veya bu desenlerin anadilde ya da yabancı dilde (İngilizce) birbirinden ayrılıp
ayrılmadığını araştıran niteliksel küçük ölçekli bir çalışma yapmayı amaçladım.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Çalışmada İstanbul’da bulunan ve eğitim dili İngilizce olan bir
vakıf üniversitesinde İngilizce kompozisyon dersine kayıtlı altı birinci sınıf öğrencisi
yer aldı. Bu altı öğrenciden farklı konularda görüşlerini tartıştıkları iki Türkçe iki
İngilizce kompozisyon yazmalarını istedim. Kompozisyonların konusunu
öğrencilerin görüşleri doğrultusunda belirledim. Türkçe olarak öğrencilerin
üniforma giyme zorunluluğu ve dershanelerin kapatılıp kapatılmaması konuları
seçildi. İngilizce kompozisyonlar içinse çiftlerin evlilik öncesi beraber yaşayıp
yaşayamayacağı ve etik olmanın sınırlarının olup olmayacağı konuları öğrenciler
tarafından belirlendi. Amacım yazılan kompozisyonlarda bu iki dile ait retorik
desenlerin var olup olmadığı ve diller arasında bu desenlerin transfer edilip
edilmediğini araştırmaktı. Çalışmada kullanılmak üzere öğrencilerin yazdığı
kompozisyonlara (N=24) ek olarak reflektif (yansıtıcı) ödevlerden ve yarı
yapılandırılmış görüşmelerden de veri elde ettim.
Alanda konu ile ilgili yapılmış araştırmalarda kullanılan analiz yöntemlerini
incelediğimde yazılan paragraf sayısı, ana fikrin ifade edildiği cümlenin metin
içerisindeki yeri, kullanılan bağlaçlar, kültürel etkiler, retorik desenler, ve deyim ile
metafor kullanımı gibi kriterlerin ön plana çıktığını gözlemledim. Sıklık açısından ise
bahsedilen bu ölçütlerden ilk dördünün daha yoğun kullanıldığını ve çalışmanın
amacına daha uygun olduğunu gördüm.
Araştırmanın Bulguları: Verilerin analizi sonucunda ortaya çıkan sonuçlar öğrenciler
arasında kompozisyonlarda fikirlerin ifade edildiği paragraf sayısı açısından
farklılıklar olduğunu gözlemledim. Benzer şekilde ana fikir cümlesinin
153
pozisyonunda Türkçe yazılan kompozisyonlarda da farklılıklar olduğunu ortaya
çıkardım. Bazı katılımcıların Türkçe yazdıkları kompozisyonlarda ana fikir cümlesini
kompozisyonun başında yazarak tümdengelim tarzını bazı katılımcıların da ana fikri
sonda yazarak tümevarım tarzını benimsediklerini gördüm. Yansıtıcı ödevler ve yarı
yapılandırılmış görüşmelerde elde edilen bulgular bu durumun öğrencilerin
İngilizce yazma alışkanlıklarının etkisinde olduğunu ortaya koyarken aynı zamanda
akademik söylem topluluğunun bir üyesi olma yolunda ilerlediklerini gösterdi.
İngilizce yazılan kompozisyonlarda ise bu bulguyu destekler biçimde öğrencilerin
tamamı tümdengelim tarzını benimsediklerini gördüm. Bu araştırmada aynı
zamanda öğrencilerin üniversite birinci sınıf eğitimlerinde edindikleri yazma
bilgilerini örneğin bağlaç kullanımını ana dildeki yazma tarzları ile
bütünleştirdiklerini gördüm. Bu sonuçların alanda yapılan diğer çalışmalar ile de
tutarlı olduğunu gözlemledim. Araştırmanın önemli sonuçlarından biri de katılımcı
öğrencilerin özellikle İngilizce yazım geleneklerine daha alışkın ve hâkim oldukları
için Türkçe kompozisyon yazarken zorlandıklarını ifade etmeleri idi. Bu durum da
öğrencilerin anadillerinin yabancı dil etkisi altında kaldığını ve akademik söylem
topluluğunun üyesi olma sürecinde olduklarını gösterme açısından önemliydi.
Örneğin bağlaç kullanımı açısından bir öğrenci kendisini Türkçe yazarken her ne
kadar bağlaç kullanma açısından zorunlu hissetse de kelimelerin Türkçe’sini
hatırlayamadığı için sözlüğe baktığını ifade etti.
Ana fikir cümlelerinin hem de İngilizce hem de Türkçe yazılan kompozisyonlarda
doğrudan gözlemlenebilir pozisyonda idi. Durumun böyle olmadığı çalışmalarda
aradaki farkın katılımcı öğrencilere yazmaları için yeterince süre verilmediğinden
kaynaklanmış olabileceği düşünülmektedir. Bu çalışmada ise beyin fırtınası, plan ve
yeniden inceleme yapmaları için öğrencilere herhangi bir süre sınırlaması
getirmedim.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Bu çalışmada öğrencilerin anadillerinden yabancı
dile herhangi bir olumsuz transfer gözlemlemedim. Diğer yandan İngilizce’nin
Türkçe üzerinde hem olumlu hem de olumsuz etkisini ortaya çıkarmış oldum.
Örneğin, katılımcı öğrenciler Türkçe yazarlarken ana fikir cümlesini nereye
yazacakları konusunda karışıklık yaşadılar. Öbür taraftan Türkçe kompozisyonlarda
tipik bir Türkçe yazının içerebileceği bağlaçtan daha çok bağlaç kullandılar. Bunun
sebebini sorduğumda ise öğrencilerin yanıtı öne sürdükleri fikirleri okuyucunun
daha net bir şekilde anlaması şeklinde oldu. Öğrencilere bu araştırmadakine benzer
karşılaştırmalı retorik çalışmalarında yer vermek hem öğrencilerin konu ile ilgili
farkındalık seviyelerinin artırılmasına hem de eğitim sürecinde içinde bulundukları
ya da çalışma hayatlarında içinde bulunabilecekleri akademik söylem topluluğunun
özellikleri konusunda bilgi sahibi olmalarına sebep olabilir.
Çalışmadan elde edilen bir diğer uygulanabilir sonuç ise karşılaştırmalı retorik
araştırmalarının öğrencileri akademik yazma süreçlerinde önemli rol oynayan
eleştirel düşünmeye daha fazla sevk edebileceğidir. Bu tip çalışmalar ayrıca
öğrencilere mikro ve makro düzeyde diller arası benzerlikleri ve farklılıkları anlama
açısından yararlı olabilir. En önemlisi de yazma derslerine karşılaştırmalı retorik
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Volkan İnceçay
çalışmalarını dâhil etmek öğrencilere süreçte onları motive ederek, kendilerine güven
duymalarını sağlayarak yardım edebilir.
Yine de bu çalışmanın birtakım sınırlılıkları bulunmaktadır. Öncelikle, her ne kadar
bu çalışma nitel de olsa az sayıdaki katılımcı çalışmanın sonuçlarının genellemesini
kısıtlamakta. İkinci olarak, çalışmada üstünde durduğum olguların Türkçe ve
İngilizce’ye ait kültürel yazım geleneklerinin tamamını temsil ettiği söylenemez.
Üçüncü olarak, bu çalışmada öğrencilerden retorik desen olarak sadece fikir
kompozisyonu yazmalarını istedim. Bu nedenle diğer retorik desenler çalışmanın
kapsamı içinde değildi ve sonuçlar diğer desenlere genellenmemelidir. Ek olarak bu
çalışmada hiç erkek öğrenci yer almadı ve bu yüzden cinsiyet farklılıklarına ait
herhangi bir sonucu ortaya koymadım.
Bu sınırlılıklar gelecek çalışmalara yol göstermesi açısından önemli sayılabilir.
Araştırmacılar diğer retorik desenleri içeren çalışmalar tasarlayabilirler. Gelecekteki
çalışmalar her iki cinsiyetten öğrencileri içererek bu sayede cinsiyete ilişkin
benzerlikleri ve farklılıkları ortaya çıkarabilir. Bunlara ek olarak gelecekte yapılacak
çalışmalar farklı yabancı dil düzeylerine ve farklı anadillere sahip olan öğrencilere
yönelebilir.
Anahtar sözcükler: Yazma eğitimi, karşılaştırmalı retorik, transfer, akademik söylem
topluluğu.
Counselor Trainees’ Views on Their Forthcoming Experiences
in Practicum Course
Yıldız KURTYILMAZ*
Suggested Citation:
Kurtyilmaz, Y. (2015). Counselor trainees’ views on their forthcoming experiences in
practicum course. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 61, 155-180.
Abstract
Problem Statement: The counseling profession requires specific education
and training to equip counselor trainees with necessary knowledge and
skills. Therefore, they are required not only to acquire theoretical
knowledge but also to integrate it into practice. Especially, the integration
of theoretical knowledge into practice is optimally possible with
practicum. Although practicum provides a context such integration, it also
leads to some negative thoughts and feelings among trainees.
Experiencing anxiety and other feelings of incompetence impedes their
professional development. Therefore, the critical task is to enable them to
cope with negative feelings and experiences such as anxiety during their
training process. In this context, taking account trainees’ experiences and
feelings as counselors during the formal education process makes
important contributions to their personal and professional development.
Purpose of Study: To support the development of counselor trainees and
make their educational and training processes fully functional,
understanding the nature and antecedents of these negative experiences
and feelings becomes critical. This study was conducted to understand the
counselor trainees’ predictions about their experiences as counselors
during practicum course and to reveal the sources of feelings related to
these predictions.
Methods: This research was a qualitative study based on focus group
interviews. The researcher and two research assistants conducted
interviews with two groups consisting of a total of 13 trainees taking an
Individual Counseling Practicum Course. Open-ended questions were
Dr., Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Sciences,
E-mail:[email protected]
*
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Yıldız Kurtyılmaz
asked during interviews. Data was analyzed by means of inductive
analysis.
Findings and Results: As a result of the inductive analysis, four main
themes of Counselor Trainees’ Feelings, Professional Practice Issues in the
Counseling Process, Evaluation Anxiety, and Supervision emerged. When
counselor trainees’ feelings about practices were examined, feelings of
confusion, anxiety, excitement, curiosity, and fear were reported. Most of
their fear and anxiety was explained in terms of professional practice
issues such as being professional, managing the counseling process, etc.
Evaluation anxiety was revealed as another source of the trainees’
negative feelings, as they were preoccupied with being good counselors.
The supervision process was evaluated more positively.
Conclusions and Recommendations: Findings revealed counselor trainees’
views on what they believed they would experience and feel with regard
to practicum before this course. It was found that trainees were anxious
and worried due to the ambiguities of practicum experience. Based on
these findings, in order to provide better counselor trainee education and
more effective psychological counseling services, carefully dealing with
incompetence feelings and their sources is proposed. Although this study
reveals important findings about trainees, it has some limitations. This
study was carried out as a qualitative study with a limited number of
participants. Therefore, similar studies should be conducted with larger
groups. In later studies, diary use and observations can be employed for
data triangulation. Longitudinal studies can be conducted to understand
deeply trainees’ feelings throughout the professional developmental
process.
Keywords: Counselor training, counselor’s professional development,
counselor trainees’ anxiety, counselor trainees’ feelings of incompetence
Introduction
Counseling as a helping profession requires specific education and training to
equip trainees with the necessary knowledge and skills and eventually to provide
them with a counselor identity (Levitt & Jacques, 2005), as the target of the
counseling profession is individuals in need of help. Moreover, the effectiveness of
counseling is based mainly on the counselor’s characteristics rather than the methods
and techniques used (Ronnestad & Skovholt, 2003). Therefore, counselor education is
critical. The quality of counselor education is also vital because conducting
counseling properly entails simultaneously taking into account many more things
such as the client’s speech, thoughts, feelings, behaviors, etc. (Barrett-Lennard, 1998).
Based on all the information provided by clients, counselors are supposed to
hypothesize about their clients’ problems and issues and then test these hypotheses
(Welfel & Patterson, 2005). That is, being analytical, spontaneous, authentic, and
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emphatic (Levitt & Jacques, 2005) are prerequisites to becoming an effective
counselor. Although these characteristics are fostered by courses on the knowledge
level, trainees are required to integrate their theoretical knowledge into practice
(Woodside, Oberman, Cole, & Carruth, 2007). The optimal integration of knowledge
and skills into practice is possible through practicum course (MacMillan, & Clark,
1998). Although practicum course provides a context for putting acquired skills and
knowledge into practice, it leads to some thoughts and negative feelings in trainees
(Woodside et al., 2007) because the practicum course is the first step for almost all of
them.
Trainees perceive this practicum course as a stage in which they should
demonstrate their repertoire they have acquired (Woodside et al., 2007) throughout
their entire education, because they try to abandon old and nonprofessional
strategies like giving advice to counselees (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 1992). Instead,
they try to apply accumulated theoretical knowledge and professional methods to
the counseling process (Woodside et al., 2007). Although they are rigorous in the use
of theoretical knowledge, professional methods, and techniques (Ronnestad &
Skovholt, 2003), they are unclear about which methods and techniques should be
used at what time (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003). To overcome this uncertainty, they
look for precise strategies and methods to use in counseling sessions in the initial
phases of their developmental process (Jenings, Goh, Skovholt, Hanson, & BanerjeeStevens, 2003). That is, they try to find the best alternative response (Granello, 2002).
Due to this preoccupation with finding a single truth instead of possible truths
(Jenings et al., 2003) they have difficulties attending to clients, being authentically
present, and establishing rapport, and eventually they cannot help their clients
(Levitt & Jacques, 2005). As a result, they self-assess and question whether their
personal characteristics are appropriate for counseling in general, if they have the
necessary skills to enable them to fulfill the requirements of practicum course, and if
they can strike a balance between theory and application (Thériault, Gazzola, &
Richardson, 2009).
In addition to self-evaluation, counselor trainees are faced with the evaluation of
their performance by supervisors (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003). Therefore, they feel
under pressure and become anxious, they cannot listen to clients effectively, they are
afraid that they cannot focus on the process, they cannot respond to what counselees
share, and they get stuck. Practicum students want to take control of decreasing their
anxiety and to try to be effective counselors by managing the session efficiently
(Jennings et al., 2003), but it’s impossible to predict what will happen during
sessions. As a result, practicum students initially have no idea about how to cope
with clients’ resistance and crying, and subsequently they succumb to anxiety
(Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003).
Despite all this ambiguity, counselors strive with all their strength and are
preoccupied not only with keeping track of the counselee, but also the counseling
process and themselves as counselors (Egan, 2002). In addition, they endeavor to use
counseling techniques and skills in the right place and at the right time
spontaneously (Thériault & Gazzola, 2005) and to establish a balance between
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supervision and interventions at sessions (Cormier & Hackney, 2007/2014).
However, they are not competent enough to cope with all these challenges
simultaneously (Jordan & Kelly, 2011). Thus, when counselor trainees adopt the
professional role of counselor in practicum course, they are challenged and
experience feelings of incompetence. Feelings of incompetence (FOI) are the
emotions and thoughts that arise when therapists’ beliefs in their abilities,
judgments, and/or effectiveness in their roles as therapists are reduced or challenged
internally (Thériault, 2003, 34). In the literature it was shown that all therapists, even
experienced ones, have these incompetence feelings at varying levels, reflected in the
form of anxiety, fear, confusion, and insecurity (Thériault & Gazzola, 2005; Thériault
et al., 2009). Counselors doubted their knowledge, training, skills and ability to help.
They were worried about doing the right thing and being effective in general. Also,
counselors asked themselves whether they were good therapists or not. They were
also worried about helping or damaging their counselees and their contributions in
general. Counselors questioned whether their personal characteristics were
appropriate for the counseling process (Thériault & Gazzola, 2005).
In another study investigating the sources of FOI, a lack of theoretical knowledge
and experience and insufficient training were found as causes of incompetence
feelings. Participants explained their FOI with their failure in engaging clients in the
counseling process. Specifically, counselors reported that working with resistant
clients became a source of their incompetence feelings (Thériault & Gazzola, 2006).
Novice therapists stated that they react to FOI with negative responses such as
making technical errors and being distracted-disengaged-detached during sessions.
Since the self-evaluation issue was constant among novice therapists, they searched
for positive evaluative statements from their clients. To gain approval from clients,
they exhibited technically flawed behaviors such as giving advice and imposing their
own solutions to clients. They tried to reduce the negative effects of FOI by
consulting supervisors (Thériault et al., 2009). Jordan & Kelly (2004) investigated
beginning practicum students’ worries about being counselors. The most frequently
reported source of worry was concerns about competence and effectiveness.
Participants explained some part of their worries as being concerned with their
preparedness to work as counselors.
In a study investigating prepracticum students’ perspectives on learning to be a
counselor (Woodside et al., 2007), all participants reported anxiety about their lack of
counseling skills and training. They questioned whether counseling was appropriate
for them. Some of them stated that since they hadn’t done any counseling sessions,
they did not know whether they had the skills necessary to perform counseling.
Therefore, they were afraid of hurting clients. The ambiguity of the counseling
process led to fear in counselor trainees, so they reviewed their decision to become
counselors (Woodside et al., 2007). Similarly, counseling students reported anxiety,
excitement, and stress about the ambiguous nature of the class before class began
(Knight, 2013).
Novice trainees’ experiences, feelings, and concerns about their developmental
processes were investigated. They were worried about their reactions to clients and
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learning and using helping skills. Since trainees were worried about how to manage
sessions, they had anxiety about forthcoming sessions. Trainees complained about
not being fully present with clients and being distracted due to over-involvement
with themselves. They also reported anxiety about their objectivity. They were
concerned about difficulties in relating to clients empathetically because of their
failure to handle differences or be sympathetic. They feared working with resistant
and involuntary clients and displaying nonprofessional behaviors like giving advice
(Hill, Sullivan, Knox, & Schlosser, 2007).
In studies in Turkey, Aladag, Yaka, & Koc (2014) investigated the counselor
candidates’ opinions about their counseling skills training program. Findings
indicated that candidates reported anxiety, confusion, excitement, and inadequacy
when they thought about themselves as counselors. Another difficulty candidates
experienced was controlling their personal reactions.
Were the effects of Practicum I-II courses on trainees’ basic counseling skills
competencies were investigated, findings indicated that the courses improved basic
counseling skills and competencies like reflection of content. Group supervision was
found as the most enriching element of this course, and the supervision process was
evaluated positively by trainees at undergraduate level (Aladag & Bektas, 2009).
Graduate students also evaluated supervision and supervisors positively, and they
found their supervisors objective, encouraging, and supportive (Buyukgoze-Kavas,
2011). Similarly, novice therapists searched for feedback and support from
supervisors to cope with their FOI (Hill et al., 2007; Thériault et al., 2009).
In conclusion, it can be stated based on the literature that experiencing anxiety
and other incompetence feelings is inevitable for trainees during their training, and
these experiences impede their professional development (Fulton & Cashwell, 2015).
Therefore, the critical task is to enable them to cope with negative feelings and
experiences such as anxiety during the training process. In this context, taking into
account trainees’ experiences and feelings about conducting sessions during the
formal education process makes important contributions to their personal and
professional development, because when counselor trainees act with awareness and
nonjudgmentally toward themselves, their anxiety decreases (Fulton & Cashwell,
2015). Thus, to support the development of counselor trainees and make the
educational and training process fully functional, understanding the nature and
antecedents of these negative experiences and feelings comes into question. This
study was conducted to understand the counselor trainees’ predictions about their
experiences as a counselor during practicum course and to reveal the sources of the
feelings related to these predictions. For this reason, research questions were as
follows.
1.
What do trainees think about their forthcoming practice of counseling in
Practicum Course?
2.
What do trainees feel about their forthcoming practice of counseling in
Practicum Course?
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3.
What are the sources of trainees’ feelings about their forthcoming practice of
counseling in Practicum Course?
Method
Research Design
Since the study aimed to investigate current views of counselor trainees, the
descriptive model was utilized. A qualitative study design was used to get a richer
understanding of counselor trainees’ views on their prospective practicum
experiences by means of focus group interviews. These interviews were conducted to
make sense of phenomena in terms of meanings attributed by individuals.
Participants
Participants in the study were 13 seniors in the Guidance and Psychological
Counseling Program of a public university who took an Individual Counseling
Practicum Course. This course is carried out in six groups and each group consists of
seven people. This study was conducted with volunteer students from two groups of
this course. None of the participants ever conducted a session as a counselor, so they
have never received any supervision. Demographic characteristics of the participants
with nicknames are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of the Participants
Student
Group
Gender
Name
Melis
1
Female
Zeynep
1
Female
Kiraz
1
Female
Demet
1
Female
Eda
1
Female
Inci
1
Female
Selda
2
Female
Reyhan
2
Female
Demir
2
Male
Aliye
2
Female
Gul
2
Female
Gurkan
2
Male
Mehmet
2
Male
Age
21
21
22
22
22
21
21
21
23
22
21
23
24
Being a
Counselee
NO
YES
NO
YES
YES
NO
YES
YES
NO
YES
YES
NO
YES
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Research Context
The research was conducted about practices within the scope of the Individual
Counseling Practicum Course. The aim of this course in the undergraduate program
is to make counselor trainees implement counseling skills and competences with a
real counselee, to develop students’ therapeutic skills and competences, and to
prepare them for the profession through the supervision process.
Participants are required to conduct nearly 20-25 sessions with real counselees to
be successful in a 14-week course. Students are obliged to transcribe every session
they audiotaped, and they are required to make an evaluation of the process and
themselves at the end of every session. Supervision is given based on the written
transcripts. Feedback was given to students individually and in a written format
about whether their reactions are technically correct and appropriate, whether their
reactions are functional, and how they manage the process. At the same time,
students are supervised each week during a 5-hour course about managing the
process by discussing about what they are planning to do in the following session for
each counselee through the group supervision. In short, it is aimed that all sessions of
counselor trainees are evaluated, their basic psychological counseling skills and
competences are assessed and developed and their professional awareness of
themselves are increased by means of this course.
Data Collection Procedure
Focus group interviews were conducted to examine and investigate the
participants’ sources of anxiety and worry about the Individual Counseling
Practicum Course before the course began. Since focus group interviews provide an
opportunity for interaction between group members, it enables much more detailed
and different views compared to individual interviews (Thomas, MacMillan, McColl,
Hale, & Bond, 1995).
In order to determine the participants’ views about what they would experience
as counselors in the Individual Counseling Practicum Course and what they feel
about predicted experiences, focus group interviews were conducted in a semistructured way. The researcher together with two research assistants who had an
assisting role in the course conducted the interviews. Participants were informed that
the aim of this research focused on their own experiences of this process, and it had
nothing to do with evaluation of their performances. After receiving consent from
participants, focus group interviews were conducted by asking open-ended
questions. Questions were prepared by reviewing the literature and were based on
the researcher’s previous observations as a supervisor and instructor. Two experts
working in counseling and the guidance department who also provided clinical
supervision to their students then evaluated and reviewed the questions. According
to their suggestions, the last interview protocol, including following questions, was
obtained.
1.
What do you feel and what do you experience when you consider the
counseling process in general with regard to practices and applications in
the scope of this course?
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2.
When you envision yourself carrying out counseling with a real counselee,
what do you feel?
3.
What makes you feel competent in the counseling process?
4.
What do you think about the supervision process to be given in the scope
of this course?
The interview with a group of six participants lasted 40 minutes, and the other
one with seven participants lasted 55 minutes. Interviews were audiotaped.
Data Analysis
Data was analyzed by means of inductive analysis suggested by Creswell (2012).
In this context, interviews were transcribed and reviewed for any mistakes. Codes
and themes were then determined. At this step, the researcher read transcripts to
explore a general sense of data and memos were written on transcripts. After that,
microanalysis began; the texts were divided into meaningful segments and then had
codes assigned to them. A list of all code words was subsequently obtained.
Overlaps and redundancies in raw data were then determined, and the codes were
reduced. After this procedure, the data was read and reviewed to see whether new
codes emerged. The list of codes was reduced eventually; a thematic framework (6
themes with 47 subthemes) was obtained. To validate the accuracy and credibility of
the coding process and the findings in general, the views of three experts (two
experts on counseling and one with expertise in qualitative research) were obtained.
Through this process, suggestions to unify some subthemes with other subthemes,
reorganize some themes under other subthemes, and change some themes’ naming
were reviewed together with the researcher, and consensus was achieved. Lastly, the
themes were reviewed by the researcher, and four themes with 38 subthemes were
obtained.
Results
In this section, findings are presented under the heading of themes. As a result of
inductive analysis of the data, the four main themes of Counselor Trainees’ Feelings,
Professional Practice Issues in Counseling Process, Evaluation Anxiety, and Supervision
were obtained as seen in Figure 1.
1. Counselor Trainees’ Feelings
Counselor trainees stated that they felt confused, anxious, excited, curious, and
fearful when they imagined or thought about the process they would go through
over the course of their practicum. Most of the counselor trainees reported anxiety
and fear related to their predictions about what would take place during sessions.
Their most frequently stated feeling was anxiety resulting from the unexpectedness
of the counseling process in general and their lack of experience. In addition to their
overwhelming anxiety and fear, they stated that they experienced excitement when
they envisaged working with real clients. One participant reported that she would be
curious about her client’s feelings, experiences, etc. Another stated that she had not
only negative feelings but also positive feelings about her forthcoming counseling
sessions.
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Figure 1. Main themes of the counselor trainees’ views on forthcoming
experiences in practicum course
2.
Professional Practice Issues in Counseling Process
When counselor trainees’ expectations of the psychological counseling process
were examined, it was determined that the source of their anxieties was issues
related to professional practices in the counseling process. As can be seen in Figure 2,
findings under this theme were grouped in four main sub-themes of being professional
in counseling process, managing counseling process, inadequacy in theoretical knowledge and
counseling skills, and having appropriate personal characteristics.
Figure 2. Thematic framework of professional practice issues in counseling
2.1. Being Professional in Counseling Process
It was revealed that trainees explained anxieties about being professional in the
counseling process in situations of managing difficult emotions, being authentic, and
respect issues, as shown in Figure 3.
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2.1.1.
Managing Difficult Emotions
Since counselor trainees experience very intense feelings, they are anxious that
these intense feelings will interfere with the process and they will be unable to
control them. Some counselor trainees stated that they would be unable to act
professionally when they couldn’t control especially their feelings of excitement and
anxiety. They experienced anxiety that they would be unable to control all their
dysfunctional feelings and thoughts, that they would act unprofessionally by
reflecting these feelings and thoughts in the process, and that they would thus
transform counseling sessions into daily conversations by feeling sympathy instead
of empathy.
2.1.2.
Being Authentic
Another characteristic prerequisite for being an effective counselor is
authenticity. Counselor trainees were worried about not being genuine or real. They
stated that they would like to carry out counseling in their own way, but in the
beginning they were afraid of imitating and replicating techniques and statements
from books. Some of them stated that they couldn’t be natural and acted in a
counterfeiting manner because of their excitement. Authenticity is impossible
without spontaneity. Although spontaneity goes hand in hand with authenticity,
producing both is a little bit difficult. Counselor trainees complained about their
ways of giving responses to clients. They stated they would become professional if
they could give a response without thinking, i.e., automatically.
Figure 3. Subthemes of being professional in counseling process
2.1.3.
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Respect
Counselor trainees expressed their concerns about being judgmental versus
objective and helping or hurting clients in the counseling process because of their
ineptitude. Since these three issues were found to be related to the subject matter of
respect, they were grouped under the heading of respect theme.
Since counselor trainees were aware of the significance of being objective, they
stated that they had anxieties about being judgmental or not being objective.
Participants mentioned, they were anxious that they would act with their prejudices
while conducting sessions, and that even without noticing they might likely impose
their own values when they had to work with counselees, especially those who were
different from themselves or acted in a way not approved by society. Similarly, they
were anxious that they couldn’t maintain objectivity when they met with a counselee
whom they couldn’t tolerate or when they experienced a situation they couldn’t
handle. That is, they were afraid of not applying the principle of unconditional
positive regard to clients different from themselves.
In addition to the objectivity issues, more than half of the participants reported
their anxieties about hurting clients. Some of them stated that they could hurt clients
directly; on the other hand, some participants mentioned that they could hurt clients
indirectly by not being helpful to them. In terms of hurting counselees directly,
participants pointed out that they could lead counselees in a way that their problems
get worse and could lead counselees to feel worse because of intrusion into their
subjective world. With regard to hurting counselees indirectly, participants stated
anxiety over being unable to carry out an effective counseling and make an
appropriate intervention. For instance, they mentioned that they were anxious about
the probability of affecting counselees negatively by means of driving them to
despair because of being unable to achieve the goals they set, causing them to waste
their time and making them develop negative attitudes toward the counseling
process in general.
2.2. Managing Counseling Process
When the sources of counselor trainees’ feelings such as anxiety and fear were
examined, the trainees perceived managing counseling process as another triggering
agent. More specifically, counselor trainees mentioned that they would experience
difficulty with issues such as engaging client in counseling process, transferring
theoretical knowledge into practice, being prepared for counseling, integrating supervision
into sessions, and being engaged, all of which lead to mismanagement of the counseling
process as seen in Figure 4.
2.2.1.
Engaging Client in Counseling Process
Counselor trainees were anxious about engaging clients in counseling process.
Findings showed that being unable to break the counselee’s resistance was one of the
challenges counselors faced in engaging clients in counseling process. Counselor
trainees explained their anxieties about engaging the client in the counseling process
as stemming from the client’s resistance due to prejudices against counseling and
lack of awareness of the problems needing a solution.
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Participants became anxious when they thought that they would have difficulty
in establishing a working alliance with counselees and engaging them in the
counseling process because of their reluctance and unwillingness. In addition,
counselor trainees had anxieties when they predicted they would have difficulty in
engaging counselees in the process if they couldn’t satisfy their unrealistic
expectations such as wanting advice and solutions from trainees. Similarly, they
thought that counselees expecting all their problems to be solved with the touch of a
magic wand and their lives to be changed all at once in a single session wouldn’t
participate in the counseling process, and so counselor trainees became anxious
about working with the counselees with such unrealistic expectations.
Figure 4. Subthemes of managing counseling process
2.2.2.
Integrating Theoretical Knowledge into Practice
Most of the beginning counselor trainees stated that they were anxious about
transferring theoretical repertoire into practice, because the failure in transfer would
lead to mismanagement of the counseling sessions.
2.2.3.
Being Prepared for Counseling
The fact that counselor trainees feel unprepared for the counseling process and
find themselves unexperienced is another factor leading to anxiety because these
feelings will prevent effective management of the counseling process. Since the
counselor trainees had never conducted any counseling sessions, they didn’t know
what they would confront during sessions and how they would manage the process,
and thus they were anxious. They noted that they would overcome these challenges
in time and by experience, but they weren’t ready for the process because it would be
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their first experience. In addition to their lack of experience, counselor trainees
doubted if they could cope with ambiguous nature of the counseling process itself,
the unpredictability of what happens during sessions, and variety of clients’
problems, so they were worried about managing counseling sessions effectively.
2.2.4.
Being Engaged
Counselor trainees explained their anxieties related to their performance
managing the counseling process by connecting them to issues such as
disengagement from the process, being unable to focus on the process, and being
unable to focus on the counselee. Trainees experienced intense anxiety over problems
related to disengagement from the process due to attention deficit, being lost in
thought, remaining unresponsive as a result of not focusing on the process,
experiencing silence or misunderstanding the focus, and being unable to listen to the
counselee effectively.
2.2.5.
Integrating Supervision into Sessions
Counselor trainees were anxious about when they would implement the
interventions suggested in supervision, how and when they would deal with the
issues pointed out by supervisors, and how they would address these issues in the
natural flow of the session.
2.3. Inadequacy in Theoretical Knowledge and Counseling Skills
Counselor trainees’ anxiety over professional practice issues was found to be also
related to perceived inadequacies in theoretical knowledge and counseling skills as
seen in Figure 5.
2.3.1.
Inadequacy in Theoretical Knowledge
Nearly all of the participants expressed that they were intensely anxious about
their inadequacy in theoretical knowledge, therapeutic skills, and responses. The
interviews revealed that counselor trainees’ anxieties were related to whether they
had the competences they had to acquire in their theoretical courses, as they
perceived their practicum as harvest time and they found it difficult to compensate
for their previous shortcomings in theoretical and conceptual knowledge.
2.3.2.
Responding Appropriately
Participants also stated that they were anxious about whether their responses
would be appropriate and correct, because they couldn’t immediately estimate when
and how to give responses compatible with the counselee’s disclosures, even though
the trainees had the required skills and responses. Because of this indecisiveness,
trainees became anxious about the possibilities of being stuck during the process,
asking questions ceaselessly, and transforming the process into an interrogation.
2.3.3.
Responding at Deeper Level
Some participants were afraid that they wouldn’t be able to go beyond what
counselees say and respond at a lower level, which would lead them to repeat
counselees’ statements due to their inadequacies.
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2.3.4.
Responding with Empathy
Being unable to be emphatic, which is closely related to responding at a lower
level, was also enumerated among anxiety sources. The participants expressed
anxiety over the possibilities of being unable to infer counselees’ feeling from what
they stated and finding the counselees’ problems meaningless and unimportant, as
they would think counselees exaggerated their problems. Thus, they were anxious
that they would be unable to understand counselees and respond empathetically.
2.4. Having Appropriate Personal Characteristics
In addition to anxieties over their incompetence and inadequacies in theoretical
knowledge and therapeutic skills, some counselor trainees were anxious that they
might not be compatible with the profession due to their personal or personality
characteristics. Two trainees shared their anxieties related to the possibility that they
might not be compatible with this profession and might not follow the career in the
future. They expressed anxiety that they couldn’t imagine themselves as counselors
in the future and that they had made the wrong career choice because they thought
their personal tendencies and capacities weren’t generally compatible with the
profession. Based on these characteristics, they pointed out that they had a general
anxiety over professional practice issues in the counseling process.
Figure 5. Subthemes of inadequacy in theoretical knowledge and counseling skills
3.
Evaluation Anxiety
It was revealed that counselor trainees’ anxieties could be related not only to the
process itself but also to the evaluation they would experience at the end of or during
the process. It was determined that trainees’ anxieties were based on being evaluated
by counselees and by supervisors with regard to meeting course requirements
(Figure 6).
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3.1. Evaluation by Counselees
Counselor trainees who refrained from being perceived as incompetent by their
counselees expected positive feedback from counselees and to see their counselees
benefit from the process. Trainees said that their motivations would be affected when
counselees expressed satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
Figure 6. Thematic framework of evaluation anxiety
3.2. Evaluation by Supervisors
Since trainees would undertake these practices in the scope of the course, they
tried to meet the requirements of the course and desired positive evaluations from
their supervisor. For example, some counselors mentioned that they would fail the
course if their counselees dropped out, and they wanted to get high marks from this
practicum course with high credits. Furthermore, they were afraid that they could
begin to work with a counselee without problems, fall into repetition in the process,
and receive negative evaluations from their supervisor because they couldn’t work
effectively. Additionally, some counselors were anxious about their supervisor’s
potential negative reactions to them and their practice.
4.
Supervision
The supervision process itself might be one of trainees’ anxiety sources and is
related to evaluation anxiety, but some participants perceived supervision in more
positive terms. They defined the supervision process as an answer key that would
enable them to see and correct their mistakes and to include alternative responses.
Some participants reported progressive characteristics and cumulative effects of
supervision process, and they mentioned that their mistakes and incompetence
would be reduced as they received supervision over time. Counselor trainees hoped
that they would have the opportunity to see and learn more professional responses
and interventions by means of the supervision process. A participant described
supervision as sharing the responsibilities of the counselee and counseling process,
finding the process comforting.
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Figure 7. Thematic framework of supervision
When counselor trainees’ feelings about their imminent practices were examined,
it was seen that they had feelings of confusion, anxiety, excitement, curiosity, and
fear. Counselor trainees’ dominant emotion was anxiety, as expected and consistent
with the literature (Aladag et al., 2014; Hill et al., 2007; Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003;
Thériault & Gazzola, 2005; Thériault et al., 2009; Jennings et al., 2003; Knight, 2013;
Woodside et al., 2007). Trainees’ anxiety can be explained with the fact that they can’t
cope with ambiguity of the process because they haven’t carried out counseling
session before and they are inexperienced. To cope with the ambiguity of the
counseling process, they try to determine just one perfect response, in turn making
them more anxious (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003). Moreover, counselor trainees have
evaluation anxiety (Aladag et al., 2014). Because of continuous self-evaluation as well
as evaluation by supervisors, they are preoccupied with themselves, and so they may
become more anxious about their competencies.
As counselor trainees’ expectations of the process were analyzed, it was observed
that their anxieties and fears were centered on Professional Practice Issues in
Counseling Process. They were worried about being professional, managing counseling
process, inadequacy in theoretical knowledge and counseling skills, and if they had
appropriate characteristics for counseling profession.
They stated their concerns about being professional as in the form of being
authentic, managing difficult emotions, and practicing respect. Authenticity is
among the necessary conditions of being an effective counselor, but since trainees are
preoccupied with finding the perfect response and being excellent, they are full of
anxiety. This anxiety may prevent them from being natural and giving responses
spontaneously (Levitt & Jacques, 2005). Because of over-identification with clients,
they worry about being sympathetic and feeling more like a friend than a
professional (Hill et al., 2007). This finding is consistent with the finding that
beginning counselors have anxiety over regulating emotional boundaries with clients
(Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003), and findings from Aladag et al.(2014) about counselor
candidates who indicated the difficulty of controlling their personal reactions.
171
Counselor trainees expressed their concerns about being professional in terms of
respect issues. They are meticulous about showing respect to their clients by means
of being objective, helping clients, and not hurting them. One way of expressing
respect is being non-judgmental and/or being objective in the counseling process
(Brown & Srebalus, 1996). In other words, they are anxious about judging and
evaluating their clients from their personal standpoint (Hill et al., 2007).
Counselors show respect to clients through helping them (Egan, 2002), so when
counselors worried that they would be unable to help counselees, they concluded
that they would hurt their counselees indirectly and that their professionalism would
be damaged. This finding is parallel to other findings indicating that counselors were
worried about helping clients (Jordan & Kelly, 2004; Thériault & Gazzola, 2005;
Woodside et al., 2007). Internalizing and showing respect in counseling process is
much more difficult than defining it (Welfel & Patterson, 2005). Therefore, it can be
stated that trainees are likely to have anxieties about these respect issues. Counselors
need to respect their counselees, to be authentic and spontaneous and also to control
their feelings in order to be functional agents in the counseling process. Clearly,
participants think that they should take these three issues into consideration, and
they become anxious as a result.
One of the stated factors for counselor trainees’ anxiety about professional
practice issues during counseling process was based on the difficulty of managing
counseling process. This is consistent with the finding that indicates process issues as
one of the most important determinants of therapists’ feelings of incompetence.
These issues directly relate to the counseling process itself, have long-lasting effects
on negative feelings, and are shaped by the interactions between therapist and client.
Therefore, incompetence feelings based on process issues are difficult to handle
(Thériault & Gazzola, 2006). Additionally, each client is unique and his/her problems
are various. Thus, the counseling process itself is complex and unpredictable and
requires consideration of many things simultaneously (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003),
so managing the counseling process requires diverse skills and competencies.
Counselor trainees explained their anxieties over difficulties in managing the
counseling process by means of Engaging Client in Counseling Process, Integrating
Theoretical Knowledge into Practice, Being Prepared for Counseling, Integrating Supervision
into Sessions, and Being Engaged.
Participants reported anxiety about engaging resistant and reluctant clients in
counseling process. Especially the clients with negative attitudes about counseling or
a lack of self-awareness, or unrealistic expectations from counselors like such as
expecting advice were perceived as a source of anxiety. This finding is parallel to
some findings in the literature (Hill et al., 2007; Thériault & Gazzola, 2006; Thériault
et al., 2009). When the counseling process is defined as a working alliance between
counselee and counselor, engaging the counselee in the process and establishing a
working alliance with the counselee are seen as the main component of an effective
process (Welfel & Patterson, 2005). This situation seems to explain the anxiety of
novice counselors, who want to succeed, over engaging their counselees in the
process.
172
Although a working alliance between counselor and counselee is a cornerstone
for an effective counseling process (Welfel & Patterson, 2005), integrating theoretical
knowledge and concepts into practice is also an indispensable factor in effective
practicum (Kottler & Brown, 2000; Woodside et al., 2007). Despite its critical
significance, its accomplishment by counselor trainees is initially rather difficult at
the beginning because it requires tailoring the general road map presented by
theoretical information according to the specific situations in counseling process
(Jennings et al., 2003). Thus, since inexperienced trainees are not good at adapting
theoretical knowledge into practice spontaneously (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 1992;
2003), this integration may be perceived as the triggering agent of their anxieties over
management of the counseling process.
Feeling unprepared for the counseling process is another source of anxieties over
managing the process. This finding is in line with Woodside et al.’s (2007) finding
that counselor trainees experience anxiety because they don’t know what they will
experience in practice, because their expectations of counseling process are unclear,
and because they lack experience. Apart from the fact that their practicum is their
first experience, novice counselors identified the ambiguity of the counseling process
in general as a factor that would lead to difficulty managing the process and as a
source of worry and anxiety (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003). As counseling process
itself is a multi-dimensional process and its targets are sophisticated individuals, it is
quite complicated and full of ambiguities. Therefore, counselor trainees can’t predict
what will take place during sessions, they feel unprepared, and as a result, they
experience fear and anxiety (Woodside et al., 2007). Besides, feelings of fear and
anxiety were attributed to the possibility of being distracted from the counseling
process and being disengaged from both the process and clients, because being
detached from the process means ineffective interventions and decreased
performance. Since trainees are then more preoccupied with being good therapists in
addition to being effective as counselors, they focus more on themselves. This
preoccupation with the self prevents trainees from concentrating on their clients and
directing their attention to what is happening in sessions, which results in cognitive
distraction (Ronnestad & Skovholt, 2003). Counselors’ cognitive distraction due to
increased self-awareness leads to disengagement and impedes being fully present for
clients (Thériault et al., 2009).
Counselor trainees thought that they would have to integrate feedback provided
in supervision into their sessions and use this feedback functionally to manage the
counseling process effectively. However, they predicted that they would have
difficulty in transferring supervision into practice. Although trainees attribute much
importance to supervisors’ contributions to managing the process and themselves
(Ronnestad & Skovholt, 2003), they may find the spontaneous implementation of
supervision into sessions challenging, which leads to anxiety. Since the supervisor’s
suggestions are based on his/her own style, the high probability that the counselor
trainee will be unable to adjust these suggestions to his/her own style may create
further anxiety (Cormier & Hackney, 1999). In sum, it was revealed that ineffective
management of the counseling process consists of the factors that lead counselors to
173
lose the feeling of control in the counseling process and factors related to the overall
counseling process that indirectly hinder their effectiveness in the process.
Counselor trainees also experience intense anxiety over their inadequacy in
theoretical knowledge, therapeutic skills, and responses with regard to professional
practices in counseling process. This finding is consistent with Thériault & Gazzola
(2006)’s findings. Since counselors are worried about doing the right thing and being
effective in general (Thériault & Gazzola, 2005), they want to apply all their
accumulated theoretical knowledge into practice (Jennings et al., 2003). Furthermore,
it can be stated that counselor trainees who don’t realize the role of theoretical
knowledge in counseling process aim to pass the course rather than to internalize
theoretical and conceptual knowledge. Therefore, the probability of feeling
inadequate in terms of theoretical knowledge increases in such a situation. Moreover,
trainees weren’t confident they could implement therapeutic skills into counseling
sessions in an appropriate manner (Thériault & Gazzola, 2006). They were anxious
about predicting the right time to respond and being trapped in silence due to their
uncertainties about how to respond to their counselees (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003).
Additionally, they were concerned about being empathic, which permits counselors
to understand their clients’ subjective experiences and deeply reflect this
understanding to clients (Ronnestad & Skovholt, 2003). Thus, since counselor
trainees think that their inadequacies in counseling skills and techniques become
hindrances to the management and success of the counseling process, they have
increased anxiety over the effectiveness of the process and the possibility of
achieving success in counseling (Woodside et al., 2007).
Additionally, it was observed that some counselor trainees experienced general
anxiety over their incompatibility with the profession due to their personal or
personality characteristics. This finding is supported by findings that indicate that
counselor trainees are indecisive about whether they have the appropriate personal
and personality characteristics to become counselors (Ronnestad & Skovholt, 2003).
In particular, counselor trainees faced with difficulties excessively question if they
are on the right track, and so they become worried (Woodside et al., 2007).
It was seen that the participants experienced anxiety over evaluation by both
their counselee and supervisors with regard not only to managing the process but
also during and after the process. Counselor trainees demand to give right responses
and be effective in the process (Thériault & Gazzola, 2005), and they decide their
effectiveness by taking into account feedback from external sources such as
counselees or supervisors (Ronnestad & Skovholt, 2003). When trainees experience
performance anxiety, they want to receive approval and be appreciated by
counselees to decrease this anxiety. In order to understand if they have been effective
or not, counselor trainees look at the indicators of their impacts on counselees,
counselees’ positive feedback on the process and themselves (Thériault & Gazzola,
2005; Thériault et al., 2009), and whether clients improve or not (Skovholt &
Ronnestad, 2003). Due to the lack of task clarity and difficulty in defining expertise
(Skovholt, Ronnestad, & Jennings, 1997), counselor trainees attribute much
importance to how they will be evaluated by their supervisors. Since there is no
174
consensus on the ingredients of effective helping, novices are preoccupied with
meeting standards and expectations of this practicum course, and they become
anxious about their supervisors’ inspections (Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003).
Counselor trainees evaluated the supervision process positively. They saw the
supervision process as an opportunity for progress and an answer key to see
alternative professional responses. They perceived supervision as comforting thanks
to sharing responsibility with supervisors. Positive evaluation of the supervision
process is consistent with the findings in the literature (Aladag et al., 2009; Skovholt
& Ronnestad, 2003). Trainees seek for support and encouragement from supervisors
to decrease their anxiety levels. Also, they need confirmation from supervisors
because of the fragile and insecure self (Ronnestad & Skovholt, 2003). Furthermore,
to be able to manage counseling sessions effectively, trainees try to speed up the
professional mastery process through modeling, or imitating their supervisors
(Skovholt & Ronnestad, 2003). Thus, it can be stated that supervision and supervisors
are perceived as subsidiary and supportive sources.
As a result, it can be stated that the findings of this study are consistent with
earlier findings in the literature. Parallel to studies about professional development
of counselors, counselor trainees reported experiencing anxiety, fear, confusion, and
excitement. Most of their fears and anxieties were explained through professional
practice issues in counseling process such as being professional, having appropriate
characteristics for counseling, managing counseling process, and inadequacy in
theoretical knowledge and counseling skills. Since counselor trainees are
preoccupied with being effective and good counselors, they seek confirmation from
clients and supervisors. Thus, evaluation anxiety becomes part of trainees’
professional development process. Especially at the beginning of the development
process, the supervision process was evaluated positively and as supportive and
progressive.
Findings of this study revealed counselor trainees’ views on what they would
experience and feel about their practicum course before the course started. It was
concluded that they became anxious and worried because of the ambiguous nature
of counseling. Based on these findings, it is foreseen that addressing the ambiguous
and complicated characteristics of the counseling profession and inadequacy feelings
which may be experienced by trainees during the counseling process, especially in
the scope of their practicum course, will make important contributions to both the
training process and professional development of counselor trainees.
Discussing with counselor trainees about their inadequacy feelings in their
practicum course and in the supervision process in this scope and allowing them to
disclose these feelings will contribute positively to their normalizing and making
sense of their experiences during the professional development process. In this
context, it is proposed that inadequacy feelings as well as the reasons and sources of
these feelings should be taken into consideration during the education and training
process to provide a more qualified counselor trainee education and more effective
counseling services. Counselor trainees should be provided with support for coping
with ambiguities in the process.
175
Although this study puts forward important findings about counselor trainees, it
has some limitations. This study was conducted as a qualitative study with a limited
number of participants. Therefore, similar studies could be conducted with larger
groups. To benefit from group synergy in the process of data collection, focus group
interviews were used. Therefore, methods such as observation and diary use can be
implemented in data collection for data triangulation. In this study, data was
gathered only before the practices in the course began. Data can be collected during
sessions and also at the end of the process in order to understand and observe the
trend in inadequacy feelings over a developmental process. For a deep
understanding of the feelings and thoughts counselor trainees experience in their
professional developmental process, longitudinal studies that include preprofessional and professional life can be conducted.
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Psikolojik Danışman Adaylarının Bireyle Psikolojik Danışma
Uygulaması Dersindeki Olası Yaşantılarına İlişkin Görüşleri
Atıf:
Kurtyilmaz, Y. (2015). Counselor trainees’ views on their forthcoming experiences in
practicum course. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 61, 155-180.
Özet
Problem Durumu: Bir yardım mesleği olan psikolojik danışma alanında psikolojik
danışman adaylarının gerekli bilgi ve becerilerle donatılması ve danışman kimliğinin
kazandırılması için özel eğitim alması ve uygulama yapması gerekmektedir. Çünkü
178
psikolojik danışma mesleğinin hedefi psikolojik yardıma ihtiyaç duyan bireylerdir.
Psikolojik danışma sürecinin etkililiği kullanılan yöntem ve tekniklerden daha çok
danışmanın kişisel ve kişilik özelliklerine dayanmaktadır. Bu nedenle, psikolojik
danışma eğitimi oldukça önemlidir. Ayrıca, etkili psikolojik danışma
gerçekleştirebilme aynı anda danışanın konuşmalarını, düşüncelerini ve davranışları
gibi pek çok faktörü dikkate almayı gerektirmektedir. Danışmanların danışanın
sunduğu tüm bilgilere dayanarak danışanın problemleri ve meseleleri ile ilgili
hipotez kurmaları ve bu hipotezleri danışma sürecinde test etmeleri de
beklenmektedir. Bir başka deyişle, analitik, spontan, ve empatik olma etkili
psikolojik danışman olmanın ön koşullarıdır. Bu özellikler bilgi düzeyinde derslerde
kazanılsa da, danışman adaylarının bu kuramsal kazanımlarını uygulamaya
geçirmeleri gerekmekte, bilgi ve beceri aktarımı da ancak uygulama dersi ile
mümkün olmaktadır. Uygulama dersi bu kazanımların uygulamaya aktarılmasını
sağlasa da danışman adaylarında bazı olumsuz düşünce ve duygulara yol
açmaktadır çünkü uygulama dersi hemen hemen tüm psikolojik danışman adayları
için psikolojik danışma uygulamalarının başlangıç noktasını oluşturmaktadır.
Danışman adayları uygulama dersini üniversite eğitimleri boyunca edindikleri
kazanımları ve repertuarlarını ortaya koyacakları bir sahne gibi düşünmekte, kaygı
ve korku başta olmak üzere yetersizlik duyguları yaşamaktadırlar. Bu yetersizlik
duyguları ise danışman adaylarının mesleki gelişimlerine ket vurmaktadır. Bu
nedenle, uygulama eğitimi süresi boyunca yaşanan kaygı gibi olumsuz duygularla
baş etmeyi sağlamak danışman eğitiminin ayrılmaz bir parçasıdır. Bu bağlamda,
danışman adaylarının eğitimleri süresince gerçekleştirdikleri oturumlarla ilgili
ortaya çıkan duygu ve yaşantılarının ele alınması danışman adaylarının kişisel ve
mesleki gelişimlerine önemli katkılar sağlayacaktır.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Danışman adaylarının gelişim süreçlerini desteklemek ve eğitim
sürecinin daha işlevsel olması için danışman adaylarının uygulama dersi
kapsamında gerçekleştirecekleri oturumlar ve ders sürecine ilişkin olumsuz yaşantı
ve duygularının araştırılması hedeflenmiştir. Bu amaçla, bu çalışmada danışman
adaylarının uygulama dersinde danışman olarak yaşayacakları olası deneyimlere
ilişkin görüşleri ve bu görüşlere ilişkin olarak ortaya çıkan duygularının
kaynaklarının ortaya konması amaçlanmıştır.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Bu çalışma, danışman adaylarının uygulama dersindeki olası
yaşantılarına ilişkin görüşlerini daha iyi ve ayrıntılı olarak anlamak için nitel çalışma
olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Veriler, veri zenginliği sağlamak, grup sinerjisinden
yararlanmak amacıyla odak grup görüşmeleri ile toplanmıştır. Araştırmanın
katılımcıları bir devlet üniversitesinin Rehberlik ve Psikolojik Danışmanlık
Programı’nın dördüncü sınıfında Bireyle Psikolojik Danışma Uygulaması dersini
alan 13 öğrenciden oluşmaktadır. Bu ders 7 kişilik gruplar halinde 6 grup olarak
yürütülmektedir. Bu çalışma, bu dersin iki grubuna devam eden ve çalışmaya
gönüllü olarak katılmak isteyen öğrencilerle gerçekleştirilmiştir. Açık uçlu sorular
sorularak yarıyapılandırılmış olarak gerçekleştirilen görüşmeler 6 kişilik grupta
yaklaşık 40 dakika, 7 kişilik grupta ise yaklaşık 55 dakika sürmüştür. Verilerin analizi
tümevarım analizi yoluyla gerçekleştirilmiştir.
179
Araştırmanın Bulguları: Verilerin tümevarımsal analizi sonucunda Danışman
Adaylarının Duyguları, Psikolojik Danışma Sürecinde Mesleki Uygulamalar,
Değerlendirilme Kaygısı ve Süpervizyon olmak üzere dört ana temaya ulaşılmıştır.
Danışman adaylarının ders kapsamında gerçekleştirecekleri süreci hayal ettiklerinde,
ya da düşündüklerinde kaygı, korku, heyecan, merak hissettiklerini ve kafalarının
karışık olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. En sık ifade edilen kaygının kaynakları psikolojik
danışma sürecinin genel olarak belirsizliği ve deneyim eksikliği ile açıklanmıştır.
Danışman adaylarının psikolojik danışma sürecine ilişkin beklentileri incelendiğinde,
onların kaygılarının kaynağında danışma sürecindeki mesleki uygulamalarla ilgili
olan danışma sürecinde profesyonel olabilme, danışma sürecini yönetme, teorik bilgi ve
danışma becerilerinde yetersizlik, kişisel açıdan mesleğe uygun olma gibi faktörlerin yer
aldığı belirlenmiştir. Danışman adaylarının kaygılarının sürecin sadece kendisi ile
değil aynı zamanda sürecin sonunda ya da süreç sırasında yaşayacakları
değerlendirilme kaygısı ile de ilgili olabileceği görülmüştür. Danışman adaylarının
değerlendirilme kaygılarının temelinde, danışanlar tarafından değerlendirilme ve
süpervizör tarafından dersin gerekliliklerini karşılama açısından değerlendirilme
meselelerinin olduğu belirlenmiştir. Değerlendirilme kaygısı ile ilgili olabilecek ve
danışman adaylarının kaygı kaynaklarından birisi de süpervizyon sürecinin kendisi
olabilmektedir. Katılımcılar süpervizyon sürecini yanlışlarını görmelerini ve
düzeltmelerini sağlayacak, içinde alternatif tepkilerin yer aldığı bir cevap anahtarı
gibi tanımlamışlardır. Bazı katılımcılar da süpervizyon sürecinin birikimli etkisinin
geliştiriciliğinden, süpervizyon aldıkça zamanla hata ve eksikliklerinin
azalacağından söz etmişlerdir. Süpervizyon süreci ile daha profesyonel tepkiler ve
müdahaleleri görebilme ve öğrenebilme fırsatı yakalayacaklarını ummaktadırlar.
Süpervizyon sürecini danışan ve danışma sürecinin sorumluluğunu paylaşma olarak
algılayan bir katılımcı ise bu süreci rahatlatıcı bulmaktadır.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Bu çalışmanın bulguları danışman adaylarının
eğitimleri sırasında uygulama dersi öncesinde bu dersle ilgili neler yaşayacaklarına
ve neler hissettiklerine ilişkin görüşlerini ortaya koymuş, bilinmezliklerle dolu olan
bu yaşantı nedeniyle kaygı ve endişe yaşadıkları sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu bulgulara
dayalı olarak eğitimleri boyunca özellikle de uygulama dersi kapsamında danışman
adayları ile psikolojik danışma mesleğinin belirsiz ve karmaşık yönleri, süreçte
yaşanabilecek yetersizlik duygularının ele alınmasının hem eğitim sürecine hem de
danışman adaylarının mesleki gelişimine önemli katkılar sağlayacağı ön
görülmektedir.
Danışman adaylarının mesleki gelişim sürecinde yaşadıklarını normalleştirmesi ve
anlamlandırmasına katkı sağlamak için yetersizlik duygularının uygulama dersinde
ve bu kapsamdaki süpervizyon sürecinde onlarla tartışılması, bu duygularını ifade
etmelerine izin verilmesi mesleki gelişim süreçlerine olumlu katkılar sağlayacaktır.
Bu bağlamda, daha kaliteli danışman adayı eğitimi ve daha etkili psikolojik danışma
hizmetlerinin sağlanması için yetersizlik duyguları ve bu duyguların neden ve
kaynaklarının eğitim süresince dikkatle ele alınması önerilebilir. Danışman
adaylarına süreçteki belirsizliklerle baş etme konusunda destek sağlanabilir.
180
Bu çalışma danışman adayları konusunda önemli bulgular ortaya koysa da bazı
sınırlılıklara sahiptir. Bu araştırma nitel çalışma olarak, az sayıda katılımcı ile
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu nedenle daha büyük gruplarla benzer çalışmalar
gerçekleştirilebilir. Veri toplama sürecinde grup sinerjisinden yararlanmak için odak
grup görüşmesinden yararlanılmıştır. Bu nedenle sonraki çalışmalarda gözlem,
günlük gibi yöntemlerle veri çeşitlemesi yapılabilir. Bu çalışmada dersteki
uygulamalar başlamadan önce veri toplanmıştır. Danışman adaylarının yetersizlik
duygularının gelişimsel süreçte nasıl bir seyir izlediğini anlamak için, danışman
adayları ile hem danışma oturumları devam ederken, hem de süreç sonunda da veri
toplanabilir. Danışman adaylarının gelişimsel süreçlerinde yaşadığı duyguları ve
durumları daha derinlemesine anlamak için meslek öncesi ve mesleki hayatını da
kapsayan boylamsal çalışmalar gerçekleştirilebilir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Danışman adayları, danışmanların profesyonel gelişimi, danışman
adaylarının kaygısı, danışman adaylarının yetersizlik duygusu
An Investigation of the Perceptions of School Administrators
Towards the Roles and Duties of School Counselors
Kasım KARATAŞ*
İsmet KAYA**
Suggested Citation:
Karatas, K. & Kaya, I. (2015). An Investigation of the Perceptions of School
Administrators Towards the Roles and Duties of School Counselors. Eurasian
Abstract
Problem Statement: School administrators are the first responsible body for
the implementation of the counseling and guidance program. For sharing
this responsibility, school administrators should be in cooperation with
school counselors. Administrators’ perceptions on school counseling and
guidance services show that school administrators have positive attitudes
toward counseling services and they cooperate with the counselors at
school. School administrators describe counseling services as necessary
and successful activities. However, other studies show that school
administrators are of the opinion that counselors should perform tasks
that are not in their job descriptions. In short, school administrators’
perceptions on school counseling and guidance services and the tasks and
missions of school counselors vary greatly and there is no consensus
among the administrators. It is important to investigate the perceptions
and views of school administrators towards counselors. Therefore, the
present study aimed to contribute to the current literature via offering
suggestions to increase the productivity and effectiveness of school
counselors.
Purpose of the Study: The aim of this study is to investigate the perceptions
of school administrators who are important shareholders in carrying out
school counseling and guidance services. The sub-aims of the study are to
investigate the status of school counselors, and the school administrators’
expectations of school counselors, both in terms of personal and
professional qualifications and in terms of the status and duties of the
counselors.
Corresponding author: Res. Asst., Dicle University, Department of Educational Sciences,
Diyarbakır, [email protected]
** Res. Asst., Dicle University, Department of Elementary, Diyarbakır, [email protected]
*
182
Kasım Karataş & İsmet Kaya
Method: This qualitative study investigates the perceptions of school
administrators towards school counselors in terms of their roles and
duties. The current research utilizes a phenomenological design. The
participants of the study were 13 school administrators who were working
in primary and secondary schools in downtown Diyarbakır. A semistructured interview, developed by the researchers, was used to collect the
data. Gathered data were first analyzed in terms of descriptive analyses
and then digitized.
Findings: Research findings show the administrators’ positive perceptions
of counselors being necessary and important in educational and
instructional activities for every shareholder of education. School
administrators listed a set of personal and professional qualifications for
school counselors. In addition, school administrators are of the opinion
that school counselors have some privileges apart from other teachers in
terms of their status and role at the school. It is found that school
administrators are well aware of the necessity and importance of school
counselors, who serve as field experts at schools.
Conclusion and Recommendations: In this study it is found that school
managers are very aware of and positive about the school counseling and
guidance field and counselors’ teaching duties and responsibilities. The
quality and efficiency of school counseling services should be increased,
and the counselors’ job description should be clarified by the Ministry of
Turkish National Education to prevent confusion. School administrators
and other shareholders should support the creation of a common
professional identity for school counselors.
Keywords: School counselors, school administrators, roles and duties
Introduction
Contemporary educational systems are expected to help students develop
physically, emotionally, intellectually, and socially. In other words, they are to help
individuals develop as a whole. In the Turkish educational system, students are
offered student personnel services, which allow them to make the most of their
education and to improve in every aspect (Yeşilyaprak, 2009). As one of these
services, “Guidance” contains a systematic and professional support process to help
individuals get to know themselves, solve their problems, make decisions, improve
their capacities, and put their decisions into action (Kepçeoğlu, 2001). Those who
provide and maintain such professional psychological services are qualified experts
and school counselors. Counselors, in general terms, establish a psychological
support relationship with the individual to help him maintain his development and
report his needs for making decisions and solving problems (Gibson & Mitchell,
1990).
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Counselors at schools provide psychological guidance services to students in
getting to know themselves in terms of their interests, talents, and professional
values. Counselors also provide students with information on occupations, help
them realize which occupations fit their personal characteristics, develop positive
relationships with their environment, develop more productive working habits, and
eliminate their problems and troubles [Ministry of National Education (MEB),
Regulation of Psychological Counseling and Guidance Services, 2009].
The role of school psychological counselors in the process of education and in
individuals’ educational, personal, and vocational development is undeniable. As the
development of students in every aspect and their preparation for social life are not
feasible only via instructional activities, counselors’ roles become more critical.
Counselors support students to get to know themselves better and thus become
sufficient in finding solutions for their own problems. Considering guidance as a
supplementary part of the educational activities (Kepçeoğlu, 2001), psychological
counseling and guidance services that are led by school counselors support learners
and fulfill the needs that instructional activities cannot.
Counselors are expected to be experts on their subjects and also have personal as
well as professional qualifications. In this respect, among the personal qualifications
the following my be listed: Success in inter-personal relations, love for humanity,
having the high potential of intelligence, having a broader worldview, selfconfidence, sensitivity, patience, tolerance, being happy with themselves,
effectiveness, reliability, sincerity, being genuine and transparent. In addition to
these personal characteristics, school counselors should also demonstrate the
following professional qualities: being encouraging, critical, supportive, open to
change, successful at work, objective, sensitive to others’ problems, empathetic, an
active listener, responsible, trustful, coherent, patient, and honest (Knoff, Hines &
Kromrey, 1995; Kepçeoğlu, 2001; Corey, 2005; Hackney & Cormier, 2008). On the
features contributing to the effectiveness of counselors, Halinski (2009) found that
five personality traits are emphasized more commonly. These personality traits are
being friendly and accepting, empathetic, flexible, self-reliant, and sincere. For school
counseling and guidance activities to be successful, it is important that school
counselors possess the personal and professional qualifications listed above. The
cooperation of the shareholders who serve at schools with school counselors and
carry out the services with a team mentality is another important factor contributing
to the success of the services (Glossoff & Koprowicz, 1990).
As an accrediting body of the counseling programs in the United States, CACREP
lists the main qualifications that school counselors must possess the knowledge and
ability to consult with teachers, school administrators, families, and social groups,
conduct counseling to improve the students’ academic, professional, personal, and
social development, prepare and implement developmental programs, and have
knowledge and education. In this respect, having the support of school
administrators is of utmost importance. Afterwards, the support and cooperation of
the other shareholders are essential for school counselors to provide qualified
services.
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School administrators, teachers, parents, and other educational personnel are the
people who school counselors cooperate with the most. Among them, school
administrators have the most influence on the activities of school counselors (Owen,
2005). Thus, the status of the counselor at school, including his duties and
responsibilities, should be known by school administrators and other shareholders.
Otherwise, counselors may have to perform services that are not appropriate for their
professional roles (Baker, 2000). According to the Primary and Secondary School
Guidance Program of Special Education and Counseling Services Head Office in the
Turkish Ministry of National Education (2006), some of the duties school counselors
should maintain are consulting with classroom teachers who serve as counselors,
providing necessary resources, material, and evaluation tools, completing the
activities defined in the curriculum to be carried out by school counselor in person,
evaluating the curriculum with other classroom teachers and determining any
potential deficiencies, taking necessary precautions together with class counselors
and school administrators, informing parents about the curriculum, and making
necessary alterations to the curriculum regarding the needs and conditions of the
school district.
Despite all these job definitions, school counselors sometimes have to do tasks
that are not aligned with their professional responsibilities. The main reason for that
is the prejudice of school administrators and teachers against counseling and
guidance services, including lack of information and cooperation (Tuzgöl-Dost &
Keklik, 2012). Some tasks that the American School Counselor Association [ASCA]
(2014) determined to be unrelated to the counseling profession are enrolling the
newcoming students, supervising during exams, signing the excuse papers of
absentees, dealing with school discipline, sending home the students who violated
dress code or uniform policies, attending courses in place of absent teachers,
computing student grades, re-registering students, observing the halls of the school,
and keeping secretarial records and doing administrators’ paperwork. However, not
being able to change the expectations of school administrators causes problems in
serving a healthy counseling service in the school environment (Özabacı, Sakarya &
Doğan, 2008).
Studies in which school administrators were found to lack sufficient information
on school guidance services (Glossoff & Koprowicz, 1990; Güven, 2009; Hardesty and
Dillard, 1994; Stickel, 1990) found that these uninformed administrators negatively
affected the productivity of guidance activities. For school counselors to perform the
counseling and guidance services in a trouble-free environment, it is expected that
school administrators demonstrate an awareness on the tasks and status of school
counselors, support them, and cooperate with them.
Some studies on the administrators’ perceptions on school counseling and
guidance services show that school administrators have positive attitudes toward
counseling services and that they cooperate with the counselor at school (e.g.,
Ametea & Clark, 2005; Zalaquett, 2005; Meşeci, Özcan and Bozdemir, 2007; Owen,
Owen & Ballestro 2009). School administrators describe counseling services as
necessary and successful activities (e.g., Owen, 2005; Camadan & Sezgin, 2012).
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However, other studies show that school administrators are of the opinion that
counselors should do tasks that are not included in their job description (Fitch,
Newby, Ballestero & Marshall, 2001). In short, school administrators’ perceptions on
school counseling and guidance services and the tasks and missions of school
counselors vary greatly, and there is no consensus among the administrators.
Based on the available literature, the authors have not come across any
qualitative research on the perceptions of school administrators towards the roles
and responsibilities of school counselors in Turkey. School administrators are the
first responsible body for the implementation of the counseling and guidance
program. For sharing this responsibility, school administrators should be in
cooperation with school counselors. It is important to investigate the perceptions and
views of school administrators towards counselors. Therefore, the present study
aimed to contribute to the current literature via offering suggestions to increase the
productivity and effectiveness of school counselors. The purpose of this study is to
investigate the perceptions of school administrators who are important shareholders
in carrying out school counseling and guidance services. Sub-aims of the study are to
investigate the status of school counselors, and school administrators’ expectations of
school counselors, both in terms of personal and professional qualifications and in
terms of the status and duties of counselors.
Method
Research Design
This qualitative study investigates the perceptions of school administrators
towards school counselors in terms of their roles and duties. The current research
utilizes a phenomenological design. The phenomenological design is favorable when
investigating concepts that we realize but for which we do not have a detailed and
in-depth understanding (Yıldırım & Şimsek, 2013). As the school administrators’
perceptions and views on school counselors are the main concern, the
phenomenological design, which enables in-depth analysis, is preferred.
Participants
The participants of the study were 13 school administrators who work at schools
that have counselors on duty in the Diyarbakır city center. Being effective in
revealing detailed information, the criteria sampling method for purposeful
sampling was used in the study (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). For choosing school
managers, the criterion was that they were to have a permanent psychological
counselor staff at school. Two of the school managers were principals and eleven of
them were assistant principals; all of them were male. Twelve of the participants had
bachelor’s degrees and one had a master’s degree. Professional seniority varied
between 10 and 30 years. The participants’ ages varied between 36 and 58.
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Development of the Interview Form and Data Collection
The semi-structured interview technique was used to investigate school
administrators’ perceptions towards the roles and duties of school counselors
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). The most important feature that the semi-structured
interview form provides is more systematic and comparable information, as the
interview is carried out within a very specific protocol (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). The
reason for choosing the semi-structured interview technique in this study was the
need for a form that would enable further questions and explanations in order to
learn school administrators’ views on school counselors’ roles and duties.
In developing the semi-structured interview form, the experts were consulted.
Related literature was investigated and interview questions were prepared. Before
administering the draft form, three educational science experts were consulted and
necessary adjustments were made. Interviewers asked about school administrators’
views on the necessity of school counselors in educational activities, the features of
an ideal counselor, the status of counselors compared to other teachers, and whether
there is a need for adjustments for counselors’ duties and status.
Data were collected between December 16th and 29th of 2014. Interview
durations varied between 25 to 45 minutes. The interviews were carried out at the
schools where the administrators were assigned, and all interviews were face to face.
The school administrators were unwilling to be voice recorded so the interviews
were recorded via taking notes. All data were recorded on papers.
Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis was used for analyzing the data. The aim of this analysis was
to convert the data in a way that audiences can understand and use. In descriptive
analysis, data can be presented in themes based on research questions. In this
analysis, direct quotations were used to present the participants’ views (Yıldırım &
Şimşek, 2011). In composing a framework for descriptive analysis, the interview
notes were itemized. The steps for the evaluation of the interviews were: 1) the
themes in parallel with the purpose of the study were determined; 2) the answers for
each question were analyzed, the school managers who stress the themes were
determined, and common views were specified; 3) school managers’ expressions
were presented in direct quotations and interpreted; and 4) the first letters of
“manager” and “assistant manager” were used for coding and the number was
presented in parenthesis, e.g. (M2) or (AM9)
Validity and Reliability of the Study
The validity and reliability of the study increase the credibility of the study.
Therefore, people who are interviewed and the durations of the interviews were
recorded in tables. Other researchers’ opinions were asked in coding the data and
creating themes. Thus, researcher flexibility was ensured. The interviewers’ detailed
explanations were presented. The whole process has been explained to readers
thoroughly (Odom, Brantlinger, Gersten, Horner, Thomson & Harris, 2005). To
ensure the reliability of the study, five educational science experts were asked for
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their opinions on whether the views, which were grouped under four sub-themes,
represented the views of the participants. The researcher and expert views were
compared and the number of “agreements” and “disagreements” was determined.
Miles and Huberman’s (1994) formula was used to determine the reliability of the
study. When the agreement between the expert and researcher evaluations was
higher than 90%, expected reliability was ensured (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The
reliability of this study was found to be 92%.
Findings
Necessity in Educational and Teaching Activities
The first question of the study is “What do you think about the necessity of
school counselors in educational and teaching activities?” The participants’ answers
to this question are presented, along with with the conceptual theme and subthemes, in Table 1.
Table 1.
Theme, Sub-Themes, and Frequency Table on the Necessity of School Counselors in
Educational and Teaching Activities
Theme
Necessity in educational
and teaching activities
Sub-theme
f
Field expert
8
Indispensable
Guide and support for education shareholders
Route for educational studies
4
9
1
In Table 1, all school administrators agreed that school counselors are necessary
for educational and teaching activities. The participants expressed the need for
counselors in solving the main problems observed at schools. The views of the
administrators on this topic were as such:
AM1: “They’re an indispensable part of the school. The school that has a
powerful counseling and guidance service is a safe one in every aspect.”
AM3: “Counseling and Guidance teachers are necessary for every school. Today,
we face much more complicated problems compared to the past. For overcoming
these problems, expert support is a must.”
AM4: “Those who know the best methods and techniques about how to
communicate with students – they are backbones of the school and students.”
In addition, the participants point out that school counselors are necessary and
should inform school administrators, teachers, and parents. The opinions of the
participants on this topic are:
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AM4: “As the counseling teacher has constant communication with the teacher,
students, and the parents, he is the most important person in gaining desired
behaviors and abolishing unacceptable behaviors.”
AM13: “We [the administrators] do not know what to do for some student
behaviors. They [the counselors] are very helpful to us.”
AM5: “All teachers should consult with the counseling teachers. Teachers and
students should be informed on orientation, guiding, study techniques, preparing for
higher education, assessment and evaluation.”
The Characteristics of an Ideal School Counselor
The second question of the study was “What are the characteristics of an ideal
school counselor?” The answers of the participants for this question were analyzed in
two sub-themes as personal features and professional features. The data are
presented in Table 2.
Table 2.
School Administrators’ Views on the Characteristics of an Ideal School Counselor
Theme
Sub-theme
Communication skills
Personal
Ideal features of a
school
counselor
Professional
Cheerful and friendly
Reliable
Social
Dedicated
İdeal Model
Fair
Good looking
Empathic
Experienced in field
Improving himself
Expert
Distributing knowledge
Active
Guiding
f
7
12
4
8
8
4
3
2
2
7
5
6
1
1
1
According to school administrators, as seen in Table 2, the features of an ideal
school counselor were having communication skills, being cheerful and friendly,
being social, dedication, and ideal. The expressions of some school administrators on
this topic are:
AM10: “School counselors should be social, positive, and have strong
communication skills.”
AM12: “Counselors should have good dialog with the society, be ideal and
friendly to people.”
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AM1: “They should be social and sharing; they also should cooperate with others
(parents, teachers, families) at school.”
AM4: “[A counselor] should be a good example with his behaviors, should be
ethical and accepted by the society.”
AM2: “Counselor teacher must be cheerful, dedicated, and hard-working.”
For school administrators, the professional features of school counselors are
possessing knowledge necessary for the field expertise, following the recent
developments in the field, and improving him- or herself. Some of the opinions in
this respect are:
M4: “Counselors must be well-qualified experts. Other people should need
counselor’s information, not the other way round.”
AM8: “Counselor must be someone well-qualified. He is like a doctor. He must
be qualified in every aspect.”
AM13: “He must be competent at work. He should not stay with a bachelor’s
degree. He should learn all the time, thereby improving himself.”
Having a Different Status from Other Teachers at the School
The third question of the study was “What do you think about counselors’
different status from other teachers at schools?” The answers of the participants to
this question are presented, with conceptual theme and sub-themes, in Table 3.
Table 3.
Theme, Sub-Themes, and Frequency Table on Administrators’ Views about
Counselors’ Different Status from Other Teachers at School
Theme
Sub-theme
f
Doing his job in comfort
5
Dealing with students
personally
5
Support for teachers
2
A negative impression
2
Positive
Having a different status from other
teachers
or
Being exempt from some duties
Negative
In Table 3, it is seen that administrators agreed that counselors might be exempt
from some directorial works, as school counseling and guidance services are crucial.
Administrators thought that this was not a privilege for counselors. In contrast, it
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was a necessity for them to carry out their responsibilities. In this regard, some of the
statements were as follows:
AM13: “Counselors should be in a different position from other teachers. I think
they are not like any other teachers. Not only the students but also we as
administrators need their support. I personally get counselor teachers’ help and
support. They should not be considered the same as other teachers.”
AM5: “Counselors should have a different status because counseling is a special
service and it must be confidential. Counseling requires expertise. Counselors need
special rooms to help students who have problems.”
AM4: “If they are doing their work perfectly, they should have some privileges.
They understand students’ psychology and they sometimes have to work with
students and parents individually. Considering all these factors they need different
conditions from other teachers.”
In Table 3, two of the school administrators thought that when some counselors
did not carry out their responsibilities properly, it created a wrong perception in the
society. School administrators’ views on this topic were:
AM1: “I’m not in favor of counselors’ privileges, because when the facilities
provided for them are not used properly that creates problems and they are seen as
not working but just wasting time.”
AM12: “Some counselors are not field experts as they graduate from other
programs. So having privileges while not being an able one in the field creates a
negative attitude towards them.”
Desired Changes
The fourth question of the study was “Imagine you were authorized by the
Ministry of Turkish National Education; would you think to make changes related to
the status and duties of school counselors? Why?” The answers of the participants for
this question are presented with conceptual theme and sub-themes in Table 4.
Table 4.
Theme, Sub-Themes, and Frequency Table on School Managers’ Views on
Changes to Be Made
Theme
Sub-theme
f
Desired changes
to be made
Not employing counselors who are not field experts
4
Attending courses
Activities with students for integration
Increasing number of counselors
Improving working conditions
Giving seminars to parents and teachers
Helping the school management
Supervising
Preventing work for extra institutions
5
3
7
3
3
2
2
1
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According to Table 4, school administrators stated that they would want to make
changes related to school counselors’ duties if authorized. School administrators
expressed that student-counselor integration was the most important change to be
made. The reason for this change was to enable counselors with the ability to observe
students in the classroom environment, allowing them to be able to determine and
define the students’ problems and prevent them before they become severe. The
school managers’ ideas on this were:
AM1: “Counseling teachers should attend the classrooms for absent teachers. If
not, they cannot determine the problems in point. Students who need counseling and
guidance teachers’ support are easy to identify in the classroom environment. If
counseling teachers do not attend courses, they cannot identify those students and
they are far from solving the problem. They should have exam supervising and
garden watch duties; thus they spend time together with the students.”
AM5: “Counseling teachers should lead classrooms that can be as a separate class
hour like ‘counseling and guidance’ or in some other form.”
AM10: “Counseling teachers should have a different status. But they should try
harder to be successful. At first sight they seem like they are doing nothing. To
change this perception they should work more actively with students.”
AM11: “They should attend courses regularly on a specific schedule, not only
when needed. I would ask them to be with students more and to talk to them at
break times.”
In addition, school administrators were of the opinion that the number of school
counselors had increased, but while doing this, teachers who were not field experts
should not have been appointed as a school psychological counselor. Some of the
ideas were:
AM3: “I would increase their numbers. As there are many problematic students,
they are not productive.”
AM5: “It is not appropriate to appoint other faculty teachers [to counseling
positions]. Other faculty teachers are inefficient when professionalism is needed. If
someone has problems and questions about homosexuality, how can the other
faculty teachers help him?”
AM9: “They are insufficient. We have only one counseling teacher when we need
four actually. For some students we are hopeless. Only the psychological counselor
can help them. Counselor teachers are very supportive at school. We as other
teachers try but we cannot be as effective as them.”
To sum up the findings of the research, school administrators thought school
counselors had an important role in schools as field experts and that they were a
complementary part of the educational system for supporting the shareholders of
education. In addition, an ideal school counselor was deemed to be cheerful with
good communication skills, friendliness, social skills, dedication, and ideal in terms
of personal features. Regarding the counselors’ professional features, school
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administrators thought that an ideal counselor should be well-qualified, experienced,
and open to self-improvement. School administrators were supportive about
counselors’ privileges such as flexible work hours, not supervising classrooms as
other teachers do, having a separate office, and not supervising students at break
times. Teachers seemed to think that these responsibilities were part of their own
jobs. Finally, among the changes to be made in counselors’ duties, administrators
stated that the number of counselors should be increased, teachers who are not field
experts should not be appointed as counseling teachers, counseling teachers should
spend more time with students, and the counselors should give seminars to parents
and other teachers.
Discussion, Conclusion, and Suggestions
This study was carried out with 13 school administrators in the Diyarbakır city
center. Administrators were interviewed about their perceptions on school
counseling services and their expectations of counselors, in terms of both personal
and professional features. In addition, school administrators’ views on school
counselors’ duties and status at school, based on the current findings, were that
school counselors are crucial and necessary for students. This finding matches up
with earlier research findings and conclusions (Ametea & Clark, 2005; Zalaquett,
2005; Meşeci, Özcan, & Bozdemir, 2007; Camadan & Sezgin, 2012; Özabacı, Sakarya,
& Doğan, 2008). School administrators also emphasized that school counselors need
to be experts in the field to solve problems, should prepare plans to coordinate with
other shareholders at school, and should provide support to managers, teachers, and
parents (Camadan & Sezgin, 2012; Camadan & Kahveci, 2013).
Glossoff and Koprowicz (1990) highlight the importance of teamwork in
counseling programs and the role of school counselors in creating teams. CACREP
explains that counselors are expected to be able to carry out consultations with
teachers, managers, and parents. They should also be competent in counseling
subjects to enhance their academic, professional, and social development. With
regard to this competence, another finding of the study is that school administrators
expected school counselors to have certain personal and professional features. Being
social and cheerful, easy to communicate with, friendly, empathic, moral, and
dedicated were among the personal features. Some of the professional features were
having qualifications and expertise in the field, following the recent developments in
counseling, and doing their jobs professionally. In this context, the features that
school administrators expect from an ideal school counselor are consistent with the
existing literature (Kepçeoğlu, 2001; Knoff, Hines & Kromrey, 1995; Halinski, 2009). If
school counselors possess the necessary personal and professional competences, they
will be able to cooperate with school administrators and get their support. Thus, they
will be able to do their jobs more effectively and professionally.
The Ministry of Turkish National Education has been doing some adjustments to
provide proficient and efficient counseling services. For this purpose, regulations
have been put in place, including adjustments and changes for organizing,
193
managing, and maintaining counseling services, since the 1950s (Ministry of
Education Psychological Counseling and Guidance Services Regulation 2009). With
the assumption that school administrators are authorized by the Ministry of
Education to make changes and adjustments related to counseling services,
intriguing findings have been reached. Among them are teachers’ ideas to increase
the number of school counselors and not appoint faculty teachers who are not field
experts. The reason for this is that school counseling is a specific field and should be
done by professionals. It is already well known that the number of counselors at
schools is not enough. The insufficient number of counselors affects the quality of
counseling services adversely (Camadan & Sezgin, 2012). In meeting the demand for
counseling teachers, it is important not to appoint other faculty teachers who are not
field experts (Turkish Psychological Counseling Association, 2013). As counseling
and guidance services are jobs that entail professionalism, appointing people who
lack the necessary education for counseling will affect the quality of the service
adversely (Pişkin, 2006). In regard for the continuum of schools’ psychological
counseling and guidance services, the number of counselor teachers should be
increased and other faculty teachers should not be appointed, as they are not field
experts.
Another finding of the study is that school administrators expect school
counselors to attend classes with students and do different activities with them. This
is because school administrators think that observing students in the classrooms will
be very useful in determining, understanding, preventing, and solving problems. In
parallel to this, according to Güven (2009), if counselors spend most of their time in
their separate office, they will not be able to follow the recent developments in the
field and will not be able to find solutions to the problems. It can be said that
student-counselor integration with in- or out-of-class activities might have a positive
effect on counseling and guidance services. Moreover, school administrators are well
aware that school counseling services are crucial. Thus, school counselors should
have somewhat different privileges from other teachers.
In conclusion, the quality of school counseling services depends on many factors.
The very first is school administrators. School administrators have important roles in
adopting the school counseling program and the success of the counselors. In this
study it was found that school managers are very aware and positive about the
school counseling and guidance field, and about counselor teachers’ duties and
responsibilities. The quality and efficiency of school counseling services should be
increased, and the job description of the counselors should be better clarified by the
Ministry of Turkish National Education to prevent confusion. School administrators
and other shareholders should support the process for creating a common culture
about the professional identity of school counselors. Further studies can be done with
bigger samples, using techniques such as observation, questionnaires, or other data
collection methods to better reflect school administrators’ perceptions.
194
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196
Okul Yöneticilerinin Okul Psikolojik Danışmanlarının Rol ve
Görevlerine İlişkin Algılarının İncelenmesi
Atıf:
Karatas, K. & Kaya, I. (2015). An Investigation of the Perceptions of School
Administrators Towards the Roles and Duties of School Counselors. Eurasian
Özet
Problem Durumu: Günümüzde okul psikolojik danışmanlarının eğitim öğretim
faaliyetlerindeki yeri ve bireylerin eğitsel, kişisel ve mesleki olarak
gelişebilmesindeki aldığı rolün önemi artık yadsınamaz bir durumdur. Öğrencilerin
her yönüyle sağlıklı şekilde gelişebilmeleri ve sosyal hayata hazırlanabilmeleri
sadece öğretim etkinlikleri ile gerçekleştirilemeyeceği için psikolojik danışmanların
öğrencilerin kendi kişiliklerini daha iyi anlamaları ve problemlerine çözüm bulmada
kendilerine yeter bir duruma gelmelerine yardımcı olurlar. Rehberlik eğitim
faaliyetlerinin tamamlayıcı bir parçası olarak düşünüldüğünde okul psikolojik
danışmanının öncülüğünde yürütülen rehberlik ve psikolojik danışma hizmetleri
öğretim etkinliklerinin sağlayamayacağı eksiklikleri gidermekte ve öğrenenlere
destek olmaktadır. Psikolojik danışmanların okul rehberlik ve psikolojik danışma
hizmetlerini yürütüyorken en fazla işbirliği içerisinde oldukları kişiler yöneticiler,
öğretmenler, veliler ve diğer eğitim çalışanlarıdır. Bu gruplar içinde psikolojik
danışmanın yapacağı etkinlikleri en fazla etkileyen kişiler ise okul yöneticileridir.
Bunun için okul psikolojik danışmanlarının okul içi konumları, görevleri ve
sorumluluklarının başta okul yöneticileri olmak üzere diğer paydaşlar tarafından iyi
bilinmesi gerekmektedir. Aksi takdirde psikolojik danışmanlar bazen aldıkları
eğitime, profesyonel olarak belirlenmiş rol ve etkinliklere uygun olmayan görevleri
yerine getirmek durumunda kalabilirler. İlgili alan yazından edinilen bilgilerin
ışığında, son zamanlarda Türkiye’de okul yöneticilerinin okul psikolojik
danışmanların rol ve görevlerine ilişkin algılarını inceleyen ve görüşleri belirleyen
nitel araştırma yapılmamıştır. Okul yöneticileri rehberlik ve psikolojik danışmanlık
programının uygulanmasından birinci derecede sorumludur. Bu sorumluluk
bağlamında okul yöneticileri okul psikolojik danışmanlarla işbirliği halinde olması
gerekmektedir. Bu anlamda, okul yöneticilerinin işbirliği kuracakları okul psikolojik
danışmanların okul içi konumu, kişisel ve mesleki beklentileri ve eğitim-öğretim
çalışmalarında etkililiğinin artırılması gibi konularda algılarını ve görüşlerinin
incelenmesi önemli görülmektedir. Alınan görüşler doğrultusunda ülkemizde
rehberlik ve psikolojik danışmanlık hizmetlerinin başarıya ulaşabilmesi ve okul
psikolojik danışmanların etkililiğinin ve verimliliğinin artırabilmesi adına birtakım
önerilerle ilgili alan yazına katkı getirmesi hedeflenmektedir.
197
Araştırmanın Amacı: Okul rehberlik ve psikolojik danışmanlık hizmetlerinin
yürütülmesinde önemli paydaşlardan olan okul yöneticilerinin okul psikolojik
danışmanların rol ve görevlerine ilişkin algıları incelenmiştir. Araştırmanın alt
amaçları ise; okul yöneticilerine göre okul psikolojik danışmanlarının eğitim öğretim
çalışmalarındaki yeri, okul psikolojik danışmanlardan kişisel ve mesleki özellikler
olarak beklentileri, okul psikolojik danışmanların okul içi statüsü ve görevlerine
ilişkin görüşlerinin açığa çıkarılması gerektiği düşüncesiyle bu araştırma
gerçekleştirilmiştir.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Bu araştırmada okul yöneticilerinin okul psikolojik
danışmanların rol ve görevlerine ilişkin algılarının belirlenmesine ilişkin durum
incelenmesi niteliğinde betimsel bir çalışma olup çalışmada nitel araştırmadır.
Bununla birlikte görüngübilimsel (fenomenolojik) bir desene sahiptir. Bu
araştırmada okul yöneticilerinin okul psikolojik danışmanlarının rol ve görevlerine
ilişkin algı ve görüşleri konu edinildiği için, derinlikli çözümlemelere izin veren
görüngübilimsel desen tercih edilmiştir. Araştırmanın katılımcılarını Diyarbakır
merkez okullarında okul psikolojik danışmanı bulunan 13 okul yöneticisi
oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma verilerinin çözümlenmesinde betimsel analiz tekniği
kullanılmıştır. Betimsel analiz için çerçeve oluşturma aşamasında, okul
yöneticileriyle yapılan görüşme notlarının dökümü yapılmıştır. Araştırmanın
güvenirliğini sağlamak için, araştırmada ulaşılan 4 tema altında verilen görüşlerin
söz konusu temaları temsil edip etmediğini teyit etmek amacıyla 5 Eğitim Bilimci
uzmanın görüşüne başvurulmuştur.
Araştırmanın Bulguları: Okul yöneticileri okullarda görev alan okul psikolojik
danışmanlarının alan uzmanı olarak önemli bir role sahip olduğu ve eğitim
paydaşlarına destek olması açısından eğitimsel ve öğretimsel çalışmaların
tamamlayıcı bir öğesi olarak görmektedirler. Ayrıca, ideal bir okul psikolojik
danışmanından iletişim becerisine sahip, güler yüzlü ve cana yakın, sosyal, özverili,
örnek bireyler olmasını beklerlerken, mesleki özellikler olarak ise alanında
donanımlı, birikimli olması ve sürekli güncel kalması gerektiğini ifade etmektedirler.
Okul psikolojik danışmanların mesai saatlerindeki esneklik, nöbet tutmamaları,
derslere girmemeleri, özel odalarının olması gibi diğer branş öğretmenlerine göre
tanınan birtakım ayrıcalıklar hakkında ise, okul yöneticilerinin çoğu yaptıkları işin
gereği olumlu düşünmektedirler. Son olarak, okul yöneticilerinin okul psikolojik
danışmanların görevlerine ilişkin değişiklik ve düzenleme yapmak istedikleri
konular ise; psikolojik danışmanlarının sayısının artırılması, alan dışı atama
yapılmaması, okul psikolojik danışmanlarının öğrencilerle iç içe olabilmesi amacıyla
birtakım etkinlikler düzenlenmesi, fiziki çalışma koşullarını iyileştirilmesi ve aile ve
öğretmenlere seminer verilmesi yönünde değişiklik ve düzenleme yapılması
gerektiğini dile getirmektedirler.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Rehberlik ve psikolojik danışmanlık hizmetlerinin
nitelikli ve kaliteli olması birçok etkene bağlıdır. Bu etkenlerin başında okul
yöneticileri gelmektedir. Okul yöneticileri tarafından rehberlik programının
benimsenmesi, programın etkililiğine ve başarılı olmasına zemin hazırlayıcı rolleri
vardır. Bu araştırmada rehberlik ve psikolojik danışmanlık hizmetlerinin önemli
198
paydaşlarından biri olan okul yöneticilerinde rehberlik ve psikolojik danışmanlık
alanına ve okul psikolojik danışmanlarının görev ve sorumluluklarına ilişkin olumlu
farkındalık oluştuğu görülmektedir. Okul psikolojik danışmanının sorumluluğunda
yürütülen rehberlik ve psikolojik danışmanlık hizmetlerinin kalitesi ve etkililik
düzeyinin artırılması, olası sorunların önlenmesi için yetkili bakanlık tarafınca okul
psikolojik danışmanlarının görev ve sorumluluklarına ilişkin görev tanımları
netleştirilmelidir. Ayrıca, okul psikolojik danışman mesleki kimliğine ilişkin
okullarda ortak kültürün yayılması için okul yöneticileri başta olmak üzere tüm
paydaşlar tarafından benimsenmesi ve uygulanması için destek sağlamalıdır.
Gelecekte yapılacak benzer araştırmalar için, daha büyük örneklemlerle okul
yöneticilerinin okul psikolojik danışmanların rol ve görevlerine ilişkin algılarını
etraflıca yansıtabilecek görüşme, gözlem, anket gibi veri toplama araç ve yöntemleri
kullanılarak yapılabilir.
The Effect of the Developed Differentiation Approach on the
Achievements of the Students
Esra ALTINTAŞ*
Ahmet S. ÖZDEMİR**
Suggested Citation:
Altintas, E., & Ozdemir, A. S. (2015). The effect of developed differentiation approach
on the achievements of the students. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research,
61, 199-216 http://dx.doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2015.61.11
Abstract
Problem Statement: The present study is of importance for designing a
differentiation approach, which enables gifted students to use their
present potential in mathematics effectively and enables them to develop
their achievement, while looking at the effect of the approach on both
gifted and non-gifted students. Within the scope of the developed
differentiation approach concerning mathematics education of gifted
students, the present study is one of the limited studies with such a focus,
which is why it is thought that it will contribute to the literature. By the
results of the study, it is of great importance.
Purpose of the Study: The purpose of this research is to determine the effect
of a newly-developed differentiation approach for the mathematics
education of gifted middle school students on the achievements of both
gifted and non-gifted students.
Method: Within the scope of this current study, the model with pre-test
and post-test control group among real research models in accordance
with quantitative research method was used. The sample of the study was
composed of 57 gifted and 60 non-gifted 5th and 6th grade students from a
public school and a private school in Maltepe and Cekmekoy districts of
Istanbul. Convenience and purposeful sampling were conducted within
the scope of quantitative sampling in this study. ‘Mathematics
Achievement Test’ and ‘Multiple-Intelligences Domains Inventory’ were
used within the scope of this study. The lessons carried out using activities
stated in the National Education curriculum about the related subjects
were compared with lessons carried out with the activities designed
Corresponding author: Assist. Prof. Dr. Kafkas University, Faculty of Education, Department
of Primary Mathematics Education, Kars, Turkey, [email protected]
** Prof. Dr. Marmara University, Faculty of Ataturk Education, Department of Secondary
Mathematics Education, İstanbul, Turkey, [email protected]
*
200
Esra Altıntaş & Ahmet Ş. Özdemir
according to the differentiation
implementations conducted.
approach
developed
in
three
Findings: The research made in private school showed that there is a
significant difference between current-enriched and overall scores of
gifted students in control and experimental groups after the application on
behalf of the experimental group. The research made in the state school
showed that there is a significant difference between current-enriched and
overall scores of non-gifted students in control and experimental groups
after the application on behalf of the experimental group.
Conclusion and Recommendations: There was a significant increase in the
achievement scores of experimental group students, where the activities
designed according to differentiation approach developed within the
scope of this study, when compared with the control group students
during all of the implementations. This situation shows that activities and
curriculum differentiation studies, which are based on elaboration,
creative thinking, and multiple intelligences increase students’ academic
achievements. Besides, it is seen that the changes based on creativity
strategies on the content, process, product, and learning environments
increase students’ academic achievements. The effectiveness of the
developed differentiation approach should be researched with different
grade levels, on different topics. It is suggested to use developed
differentiation approach periodically for teachers and students to gain
experience. It is further suggested to inform generally all teachers across
the country about how they will guide the process of preparing projects
and for teachers to inform their students about how they will prepare
projects.
Keywords: Giftedness, teaching mathematics, differentiation, multiple
intelligence
Introduction
There exists negative motivation in learning academic lessons in addition to the
deficiency of students’ attention, without the enrichment and differentiation
approaches that are aimed at adding richness and differences to academic lessons,
with regard to mathematics education, especially for gifted students (GS).
Accordingly, the educational needs not being met truthfully in GS give rise to the
athropy of their potential. In the scope of recent research, a differentiation approach
with regard to the mathematics education of GS was developed, with the intention
that this differentiation approach would increase the achievement of both GS and
non-gifted students (NGS) by adding richness and differences to the mathematics
lessons.
The presence of the GS is as old as the human history. However, the education
provided for these children is quite new. The stimulus, tools, and equipment that are
consciously selected and the teaching and learning environments that are consciously
201
organized support these children salubriously and provide them with the ability to
use their potentials at a top level (MEGEP, 2007). There is not a generally accepted
definition for giftedness. While unidirectional approaches classify giftedness only on
the basis of high intelligence, multi-directional approaches classify mental abilities as
a factor among many others, including intelligence domains or skill profiles and a
different type of mental giftedness or creativity (Preckel, Holling, & Wiese, 2006). The
important thing is that gifted students need to be taken care of, by getting an
education appropriate to their needs, which meets their social and psychological
needs as well.
Usiskin was the first person who referred to “improving students’ skills to more
advanced levels”. The core of being gifted can be improved in suitable
circumstances. However, these kinds of circumstances should be created (Karp,
2011). Teachers need to do differentiation for fulfilling cognitive and emotional needs
of the GS and they need to provide mathematical opportunities for their students
(Leikin & Stanger, 2011; Hunt & Seney, 2009). Children and young people should not
be forced to fit into certain stereotypes and individuals should not be prevented from
reaching their potentials (Mattsson & Bengmark, 2011). The important thing is that
there should be prepared approaches and models in proper to the needs, talents, and
intelligences of children.
Enrichment has a structure that encompasses all children—not only for GS, but
for all the children to take advantage of this application—regardless of their level of
abilities (MEGEP, 2007). The general objective of an enrichment method is to increase
the quality and level of learning experiences for all students in any and every part of
the curriculum (Renzulli & Reis, 2008a). The basic objective of teaching enrichment is
to provide independent and effective learning instead of dependent and passive
learning (Renzulli & Reis, 2008b). For all students, it is important to provide
enrichment to present different teaching experiences in the classes.
Differentiation encompasses the teacher’s effort to address the different students
in the classroom. Differentiation means making teaching suitable for fulfilling
individual needs (Tomlinson, 2000). Differentiation can be defined through the target
audience and their needs, interests, and abilities; the content and attainments of the
teaching subject; how the pedagogy will be use to teach content, attainments, and
both, and where the teaching will be carried out in order to apply the curriculum
effectively (Kaplan, 2009). In the view of differentiation, teachers can encompass
different students and by enriching lessons, the quality of education can be
increased.
In recent years, various studies have been conducted to reorganise teachinglearning environments and to realise the modern education principles. Project-based
teaching is the approach that recently attracts much attention and provides
opportunities to use many discipline areas and teaching-learning approaches
together (Korkmaz & Kaptan, 2002). Project–based learning, which includes various
approaches, puts the students at the centre and enables them to access information,
solve problems, make connections with real life, and to learn by doing. This learning
202
approach also provides students the ability to study in process-based,
interdisciplinary, and cooperative learning environments (Atici & Polat, 2010). The
multiple-intelligences approach is used in establishing new schools, defining
individual differences, planning and developing curriculum, and evaluating
educational strategies. It is widely used in terms of its practicability to various
students, subject areas, and grade levels (VanTassel-Baska & Brown, 2009). Creativity
is defined as the people’s natural survival or adapting response in a constantly
changing environment. Psychologist Sternberg defines creativity as a useful and
adaptive, unexpected, and original working and production skill. The other
definitions, such as the one stated by Torrance, also generally includes the necessity
of improvements, changes, and exceptions of a response provided for a problem to
the creativity (Juter & Sriraman, 2011). By including in project activities adjusted to
their multiple intelligences, students can have an advantage of producing different
products and developing their creativity.
The purpose of this research is to develop a differentiation approach for the
mathematics education of GS in middle school and determine the effect of the
developed differentiation approach on the achievements of both GS and NGS. In this
regard, this study is important in terms of designing a differentiation approach for
improving the achievement levels of GS and for enabling them to use their existing
potentials in the most effective way in mathematics lessons. Furthermore, it is also
important in terms of investigating the effects of the developed differentiation
approach on both GS and NGS.
The problem statement can be expressed as the following by moving from these
explanations: ‘Is there an effect of the differentiation approach, which was developed
for the mathematics education of the GS on the achievements of GS and NGS?’. In
accordance with the purpose of this study, which was applied to both GS and NGS,
the answers of the following sub-problem were searched: Is there a significant
difference between the achievement pre-test and post-test results of the GS and NGS
in control and experimental groups?
Method
Research Design
In this study, pre-test post-test with control group model among real experiment
models was used in accordance with the quantitative research methods.
Research Sample
The universe of the study is composed of 5th and 6th grade GS and NGS who are
studying at middle schools in Maltepe and Cekmeköy districts of Istanbul. The
sample of the study consists of 68 GS and 60 NGS in the 5th and 6th grade who are
studying at a public and a private school in Maltepe and Cekmeköy districts of
Istanbul. In this current study, convenience sampling was made in terms of
determining the schools where the study was carried out with the help of familiar
203
teachers and administrators who are known by the researcher for practical reasons,
such as getting permission, ease of transportation, performing applications carefully,
and having convenient communication in addition to purposive sampling being
made since the study was carried out with both GS and NGS in order to reveal the
effect differentiation method developed for GS on NGS.
The data collection instruments, which were used within the scope of this study
are: Mathematics Achievement Test; and Multiple-Intelligences Inventory. The study
was carried out with GS and NGS who are studying at the 5th and 6th grade levels.
The implementation was conducted on different subjects at different grade levels in
this study, which was carried out in a public and a private school. Achievement pretests and post-tests were prepared differently in order to prevent students from
remembering the questions. The pre-test and post-test were composed of entirely
different but parallel questions in each implementation. The teaching practice were
carried out for the ‘Tables and Graphics’ subject for GS who are studying in 5th grade,
the ‘Ratio and Proportion’ subject for the GS who are studying in the 6th grade, and
the ‘Tables and Graphics’ subject for the NGS.
While preparing the achievement tests for the study, questions used in the online
or written publications or course books, which were approved by Ministry of
Education and in various nationwide examinations (such as High School Placement
Exams-Public Boarding Schools and Scholarship Exams), were used in the same way
or by making various changes by the researchers by considering the acquisitions
stated about the subjects in the National Education curriculum. The achievement
tests were created by using these questions. The draft achievement tests were
checked in terms of suitability of the tests to the related acquisition and grade levels
by the researcher, an academician, and three mathematics teachers. The draft
achievement test was carried out with students studying in one higher grade level
than the grade level of the related subject in different primary schools (one class each
and a small sample size) and final control of the tests were made by deciding on the
time needed to be allocated for the tests. In the next level, item analysis (item-total,
item-remaining, item discrimination) of the tests were made according to the
obtained data by having pilot implementation (big sample of approximately 200
persons) with students who are studying in one upper grade level than the grade
level of the related subject. As a result of the item analysis, Cronbach alpha values
(pre-test and post-test were composed of different but parallel questions) of the
achievement tests were changed between 0.760 and 0.858.
First, the dominant intelligences of the students were determined within the
scope of the current study and the lessons were carried on the basis of projects by
determining project themes suitable to creativity strategies and according to
intelligence domains of the students. The ‘Multiple-Intelligences Inventory’ as
prepared by Saban (2005) was used for determining the dominant intelligence
domains of the students. The inventory was in Likert type and composed of ten
204
sections and 80 questions. ‘Multiple-Intelligences Inventory Evaluation Profile’ also
provided by Saban (2005) was used for the evaluation of the inventory scores.
Teaching Material
The Topic-based Differentiation Approach for Mathematics Education of GS
In terms of developing a curriculum differentiation model, some changes were
made in content, process, product, and learning environment of a subject, which was
chosen from the National Education mathematics curriculum. The purpose of the
differentiation approach developed within the scope of this study is to ensure that
teaching is carried out in accordance with the different intelligence domains, skills
and interests of students, that students are responsible from their own learning,
interact with each other, can make peer evaluations, create connections with real life,
fulfil their responsibilities, learn to cooperate with others, have chances to improve
both their creative thinking and communication skills, and have opportunities to
have high-level of acquisition. In this regard, the learning environment was
organized as project-based by using interdisciplinary developed project topics
according to creative thinking strategies and in accordance with the interests and
skills of the students by considering dominant intelligence domains of students and
high level acquisitions. While designing the differentiation model, the models of
Williams, Maker, Kaplan, Autonomous Learner, Maker Matrix, and multiple
intelligences of Gardner were used. All of these models were developed for GS and
they have been used all over the world for designing lessons for GS. In the developed
differentiation approach, students were faced with different, exciting project topics,
which were suitable to their skills and interests and addressing extra acquisitions.
Data Analysis
Statistical analyses were made by collecting achievement pre-post test and
Multiple Intelligence Inventory data, which were carried out with GS and NGS.
While calculating scores, rounding was made according to the two digits after coma.
All the analyses were made in 95% confidence interval and p<0.05 values were
accepted as statistically significant. While analysing the pilot studies of the
achievement tests, the scores were accepted as the number of true questions. But in
pre-post test analysis, scores were calculated by changing them into the 100-scoring
system. The item-remaining, item-discrimination, and item-total indices were
calculated by conducting item analysis to achievement tests after pilot practice and
accepting the significance level as 0.05. In conclusion, the final versions of the tests
were decided. The reliability of the tests differs between 0.780 and 0.854. In
determining control and experimental groups, the overall scores of the test were
taken into account without looking at the current, attainment, and enrichment scores
in pre-achievement test. The activities based on the differentiation approach within
the scope of the study were compared with the activities stated in the National
Education curriculum for the related subject. Since there are questions for both
current grade level acquisitions and enriched acquisitions in achievement tests,
current acquisition score, enriched acquisition score, and overall scores (current
acquisition score+ enriched acquisition score) were calculated.
205
Non-parametric tests were used in less-populated classrooms (the number of data
is less than 30) for analysing the data. In studies where the classrooms were crowded
(the number of data is more than 30), descriptive statistics were examined for
analysing the normality of the data and Shapiro-Wilk normality test was used since
the number of data was less than 50. In this sense, dependent group t-test and
independent group t-test (parametric tests) were used for the analyses of the scores
that fulfilled the conditions of normality and Mann Whitney-U and Wilcoxon Signed
Ranks Test (non-parametric tests) were used for the analysis of the scores that could
not fulfil the conditions of normality. The collected data were analysed by using
Multiple Intelligences Inventory and the intelligences that scored between 30 and 40
in the inventory were accepted as ‘highly developed’.
Results
Findings Regarding the Mathematics Achievement Test and Interpretations
In this part, the analysis of the achievement pre-post tests, which were carried out
in public and private schools, were given.
Private School Achievement Test Analysis (Fifth Grade: Tables and Graphics)
An achievement test was carried out in order to determine the control and
experimental groups before the implementation and it was determined that there
was not a significant difference between groups according to Mann Whitney-U test
results (U=69.00, p=0.28>0.05). But from the groups, the one with a smaller mean
rank was selected as the experimental group (12.31), and the one with a bigger mean
rank was selected as the control group (15.57).
Mann Whitney-U Test comparison regarding achievement test scores of GS in
control and experimental groups before and after implementation were given in
Table 1.
206
Table 1.
Mann Whitney-U Test Comparison Regarding Achievement Test Scores of GS in Control
and Experimental Groups before and after Implementation
Score
Group
N
Mean Rank
Mean Sum
PreOverall
Control
14
15.57
160.00
Experimental
13
12.31
218.00
PostOverall
Control
14
7.89
110.50
Experimental
13
20.58
267.50
PreCurrent
Control
14
19.43
272.00
Experimental
13
8.15
106.00
PostCurrent
Control
14
7.50
105.00
Experimental
13
21.00
273.00
PreEnriched
Control
14
15.07
211.00
Experimental
13
12.85
167.00
PostEnriched
Control
14
10.25
143.50
Experimental
13
18.04
234.50
U
69.00
5.50
15.00
0.00
76.00
38.50
According to Table 1, there is not a significant difference between enriched
(U=76.00, p=0.45>0.05) acquisition scores and overall (U=69.00, p=0.28>0.05) scores of
GS in control and experimental groups before the teaching practice. There is a
significant difference in favour of control group between the current scores (U=15.00,
p=0.00<0.05) of the groups before the implementation. However, there is significant
difference in favour of the experimental group between the overall (U=5.50,
p=0.00<0.05), current (U=0.00, p=0.00<0.05), and enriched (U=38.50, p=0.01<0.05)
acquisition scores of the groups after implementation.
Private School Achievement Test Analysis (Sixth Grade: Tables and Graphics)
Achievement test was carried out in order to determine the control and
was not a significant difference between groups according to Mann Whitney-U test
results (U=102.00, p=0.66>0.05). But from the groups, the one with a smaller mean
rank was selected as the experimental group (14.80), and the one with a bigger mean
rank was selected as the control group (16.20).
Mann Whitney-U Test comparison regarding the achievement test scores of GS in
the control and experimental groups before and after implementation were given in
Table 2.
207
Table 2.
Mann Whitney-U Test Comparison Regarding Achievement Test Scores of GS in Control
and Experimental Groups before and after Implementation
Score
Group
N Mean Rank
Mean Sum
PreOverall
Control
15
14.80
222.00
Experimental
15
16.20
243.00
PostOverall
Control
15
8.00
120.00
Experimental
15
23.00
345.00
PreCurrent
Control
15
14.20
213.00
Experimental
15
16.80
252.00
PostCurrent
Control
15
10.77
161.50
Experimental
15
20.23
303.50
PreEnriched
Control
15
16.80
252.00
Experimental
15
14.20
213.00
PostEnriched
Control
15
8.00
120.00
15
23.00
345.00
Experimental
U
102.00
0.00
93.00
41.50
93.00
0.00
According to Table 2, there is not a significant difference between pre-overall
(U=102.00, p=0.66>0.05), pre-current (U=93.00, p=0.41>0.05), and pre-enriched
(U=93.00, p=0.40>0.05) scores of GS in the control and experimental groups. But,
there is a significant difference in favour of the experimental group between the postoverall (U=0.00, p=0.00<0.05), post-current (U=41.50, p=0.03<0.05), and post-enriched
(U=0.00, p=0.00<0.05) scores of GS in the control and experimental groups.
Primary School 2 Achievement Test Analysis (Sixth Grade: Tables and Graphics)
Achievement test was carried out in order to determine the control and
was not a significant difference between groups according to independent group ttest results (
, p=0.40>0.05). But from the groups, the one with a smaller
mean rank was selected as the experimental group (27.21), and the one with a bigger
mean rank was selected as the control group (28.68).
Mann Whitney-U Test comparison regarding the achievement test scores of NGS
in control and experimental groups were given in Table 3.
208
Table 3.
Mann Whitney-U Test Comparison Regarding Achievement Test Scores of NGS in
Control and Experimental Groups
Score
Group
N
Mean Rank
Mean Sum
PreCurrent
Control
32
30.09
963.00
Experimental
28
30.96
867.00
PostCurrent
Control
32
16.53
529.00
Experimental
28
46.46
1301.00
PreEnriched
Control
32
33.88
1084.00
Experimental
28
26.64
746.00
Postenriched
Control
32
16.52
528.50
Experimental
28
46.48
1301.50
U
435.00
1.00
340.00
0.50
According to Table 3, there is not a significant difference between pre-current
U=435.00, p=0.84>0.05) and pre-enriched (U=340.00, p=0.10>0.05) scores of NGS in
the control and experimental groups. But, there is a significant difference in favour of
the experimental group between the current (U=1.00, p=0.00<0.05) and enriched
(U=0.50, p=0.01<0.05) scores of NGS in the control and experimental groups after
implementation.
Independent Group t-test comparison regarding the achievement test scores of
NGS in the control and experimental groups were given in Table 4.
Table 4.
Independent Group t-test Comparison Regarding Achievement Test Scores of
NGS in Control and Experimental Groups
Score
Pre-Overall
Post-Overall
(
Group
N
Mean
SS
Control
32
28.68
5.57
Experimental
28
27.21
7.86
Control
32
27.00
7.24
Experimental
28
67.53
6.09
sd
t
58
0.84
58
-23.26
According to Table 4, there is not a significant difference between the pre-overall
, p=0.40>0.05) scores of the experimental and control groups. But, there is
a significant difference in favour of the experimental group between the post-overall
(
, p=0.00<0.05) scores of the experimental and control groups.
209
Conclusion, Discussion, and Suggestions
The research made in private school showed that there is a significant difference
between current-enriched and overall scores of gifted students in the control and
experimental groups after the application on behalf of the experimental group.
The research made in the state school showed that there is a significant difference
between current-enriched and overall scores of non-gifted students in the control and
experimental groups after the application on behalf of the experimental group.
All of the implementations carried out within the scope of this study fit with the
following studies: with Kok (2012) and Kurtulus (2012), since the study included the
teaching practices based on creative thinking; with Kok (2012) in addition to
creativity making differentiation by relying on a teaching model; with Poonpon
(2011), Denis Celiker (2012), Kasarcı (2013), and Yılmaz (2015) since the study was
based on project-based learning; with Tabuk (2009), Bas and Beyhan (2010) since the
multiple intelligences method was used in project-based and cooperative teaching;
with Adodo and Agbayewa (2011), since skill grouping and homogeneous groupings
were made; with Altınsoy (2011), Uzunoz and Akbaş (2011), Yalmancı and Gozum
(2013), and Kaplan and Yılmaz (2015) since the study was based on multiple
intelligences theory; with Luehmann (2009), Fakolade and Adeniyi (2010), Al-Zoub
(2011), and Singh (2013), since the lessons were carried out according to enriched
activities; and with Simpkins, Mastropieri and Scruggs (2009), Kadum-Bošnjak and
Buršic-Križanac (2010), Reis, McCoach, Little, Muller ve Kaniskan (2011), Gorman
(2011), and McCoach, Gubbins, Foreman, Rubenstein, and Rambo-Hernandez (2014),
since curriculum differentiation was conducted.
There was a significant increase in the achievement scores of the experimental
group of students where the activities designed according to differentiation approach
developed within the scope of this study, when compared with the control group of
students during all of the implementations. This situation shows that activities and
curriculum differentiation studies, which are based on elaboration, creative thinking,
and multiple intelligences increase students’ academic achievements. Besides, it is
seen that the changes based on creativity strategies on the content, process, product,
and learning environments increase students’ academic achievements.
Recommendations
It is suggested to use the developed differentiation approach with other grade
levels in addition to the grade levels from this study, with other topics in
mathematics lessons, and with other lessons. Thus, the effectiveness of the developed
differentiation approach can be researched with different grade levels, and on
different topics. Project topics designed according to the developed differentiation
approach can be re-designed by considering different process changes and different
creativity strategies. Thus, teachers can make different enrichments. It is suggested to
use the developed differentiation approach periodically for teachers and students to
gain experience. Thus, it can be easy to use the developed differentiation approach in
lessons and teachers can enrich the lessons for clarifying. It is further suggested to
210
collect data by practicing the differentiation method by determining nationwide pilot
schools. It is suggested to inform generally all teachers across the country about how
they will guide the process of preparing projects and for teachers to inform their
students about how they will prepare projects. During the lessons, which were
carried out with activities based on the developed differentiation approach, the
subjects of which acquisitions would continue in the next grade were covered. It is
suggested to analyse the effectiveness of the developed differentiation method by
determining the acquisitions that will not be used in the next grades and then
conduct studies where these acquisitions are enriched profoundly, in less crowded
classrooms individually and in crowded classrooms in groups with the help of an
interdisciplinary consultant.
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Geliştirilen Farklılaştırma Yaklaşımının Öğrencilerin Başarıları
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Özet
Problem Durumu: Araştırmanın problem cümlesini şöyle ifade edebiliriz: “Ortaokula
gitmekte olan üstün zekalı öğrencilerin matematik eğitimine yönelik geliştirilen
farklılaştırma yaklaşımının, üstün zekalı öğrencilerin ve üstün zekalı olmayan
öğrencilerin başarıları üzerinde bir etkisi var mıdır?”
Araştırmada şu alt probleme cevap aranmıştır: Kontrol ve deney grubundaki üstün
zekalı öğrencilerin ve üstün zekalı olmayan öğrencilerin başarı öntest ve sontest
sonuçları arasında anlamlı bir farklılık var mıdır?
Araştırma üstün zekalıların matematik dersinde var olan potansiyellerini en etkili
şekilde kullanabilmelerine, başarı düzeylerini arttırabilmelerine yönelik bir
farklılaştırma yaklaşımı tasarlanması bakımından ve geliştirilen farklılaştırma
yaklaşımının hem üstün zekalı öğrencilerin hem de üstün zekalı olmayan öğrenciler
üzerindeki etkisine bakılması bakımından önem taşımaktadır. Bunun için de ileride
örnek teşkil edecek ve üstün zekalılara eğitim veren öğretmenlerin de
yararlanabileceği bir farklılaştırma yaklaşımı ve bu yaklaşıma dayalı derslerin
tasarlanması planlanmıştır.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Bu araştırmanın amacı ortaokula gitmekte olan üstün zekalı
öğrencilerin matematik eğitimi için yeni geliştirilmiş bir farklılaştırma yaklaşımının
hem üstün zekalı hem de üstün zekalı olmayan öğrencilerin başarıları üzerindeki
etkisini tespit etmektir.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Mevcut araştırma kapsamında, nicel araştırma deseni
kapsamında gerçek araştırma modellerinden ön test son test kontrol gruplu model
kullanılmıştır. 2012-2013 eğitim öğretim yılı güz yarıyılında gerçekleştirilen bu
çalışmanın evrenini İstanbul ili Maltepe ve Çekmeköy ilçelerinde yer alan
ortaokullarda 5. ve 6. sınıflarda eğitim görmekte olan üstün zekalı öğrenciler ve
üstün zekalı olmayan öğrenciler, örneklemini ise İstanbul ili Maltepe ve Çekmeköy
ilçelerinde bulunan bir devlet okulu ve bir özel okulun 5. ve 6. sınıflarında eğitim
görmekte olan toplam 57 üstün zekalı öğrenci, 60 üstün zekalı olmayan öğrenci
oluşturmaktadır.
Mevcut araştırmada izin alma problemleri, ulaşım kolaylığı, uygulamaların gerekli
titizlikle yürütülmesi ve rahat iletişim sağlanabilmesi gibi pratik nedenlerle
araştırmacının tanıdığı idareciler ve öğretmenler vasıtasıyla uygulama okullarının
belirlenmesi sebebiyle uygun örnekleme, bununla birlikte üstün zekalı öğrencilere
yönelik olarak geliştirilen farklılaştırma yaklaşımının üstün zekalı olmayan
öğrenciler üzerindeki etkisini de ortaya koyabilmek amacıyla hem üstün zekalı hem
215
de üstün zekalı olmayan öğrencilerle çalışılması sebebiyle de amaçlı örnekleme
yapılmıştır.
Araştırmanın Bulguları: Özel okulda yapılan çalışmada (5. Sınıf) kontrol ve deney
gruplarındaki üstün zekalı öğrencilerin uygulama öncesi zenginleştirilmiş kazanım
ve genel puanları arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmazken, mevcut puanları
arasında kontrol grubu lehine anlamlı bir farklılık vardır. Ancak uygulama sonrası
mevcut kazanım, zenginleştirilmiş kazanım ve genel puanları arasında deney grubu
lehine anlamlı bir farklılık vardır. Kontrol grubundaki öğrencilerin uygulama öncesi
ve sonrası mevcut kazanım, zenginleştirilmiş kazanım ve genel puanlarında düşüş
gözlenirken, deney grubundaki öğrencilerin uygulama öncesi ve sonrası mevcut
kazanım, zenginleştirilmiş kazanım ve genel puanlarında artış olmuştur. Kontrol ve
deney gruplarındaki üstün zekalı öğrencilerin uygulama öncesi başarıları arasında
anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmazken, uygulama sonrası başarı puanları arasında deney
grubu lehine anlamlı bir farklılık vardır.
Özel okulda yapılan çalışmada (6. Sınıf) kontrol ve deney gruplarındaki üstün zekalı
öğrencilerin uygulama öncesi mevcut kazanım, zenginleştirilmiş kazanım ve genel
puanları arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmazken uygulama sonrası mevcut
kazanım, zenginleştirilmiş kazanım ve genel puanları arasında deney grubu lehine
anlamlı bir farklılık vardır. Kontrol grubundaki öğrencilerin uygulama öncesi ve
sonrası genel ve mevcut puanlarında bir artış gözlenirken, uygulama öncesi ve
sonrası zenginleştirme puanları arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmamaktadır.
Deney grubu öğrencilerinde ise uygulama sonrası genel, mevcut ve zenginleştirme
puanlarında artış olmuştur.
Devlet Okulun’da yapılan çalışmada (6. Sınıf) kontrol grubundaki üstün zekalı
olmayan öğrencilerin uygulama sonrası mevcut puanlarında artış, zenginleştirme
puanlarında ise azalma gözlenmektedir. Uygulama öncesi ve sonrası genel başarı
puanları arasında ise anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmamaktadır. Deney grubundaki
üstün zekalı olmayan öğrencilerin uygulama sonrası mevcut, zenginleştirme ve genel
puanlarında artış gözlenmektedir. Kontrol ve deney gruplarının uygulama öncesi
mevcut, zenginleştirme ve genel puanları arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmazken
uygulama sonrası mevcut, zenginleştirme ve genel puanları arasında deney grubu
lehine anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmaktadır.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Yapılan araştırma kapsamında geliştirilen
farklılaştırma yaklaşımına yönelik olarak tasarlanan derslerin yapıldığı deney grubu
öğrencilerinin kontrol grubu ile kıyaslandığında uygulama sonrası başarı
puanlarında anlamlı bir artış olmuştur. Bu durum da göstermektedir ki;
zenginleştirilmiş, yaratıcı düşünme temelli, proje tabanlı, baskın zekaları baz alan
aktiviteler ve müfredat farklılaştırma çalışmaları öğrencilerin akademik başarılarını
arttırmaktadır. Ayrıca yaratıcılık stratejileri temel alınarak yapılan içerik, süreç, ürün
ve öğrenme çevresi değişikliklerinin öğrencilerin akademik başarılarını arttırdığı
görülmektedir.
Geliştirilen farklılaştırma yaklaşımının araştırma kapsamında uygulanan sınıf
seviyelerine ek olarak diğer sınıflarda da uygulamalarının yapılması önerilir.
Geliştirilen farklılaştırma yaklaşımının araştırma kapsamında uygulanan konulara ek
olarak matematik dersindeki diğer konularda da uygulamalarının yapılması önerilir.
216
Geliştirilen farklılaştırma yaklaşımının farklı derslerde de uygulamalarının yapılması
önerilir. Geliştirilen farklılaştırma yaklaşımına dayalı olarak tasarlanan proje
konuları farklı süreç değişiklikleri ve farklı yaratıcılık stratejileri gözönünde
bulundurularak yeniden dizayn edilebilir. Öğretmenlerin ve öğrencilerin deneyim
kazanabilmeleri için, belirli zaman aralıklarında geliştirilen farklılaştırma
yaklaşımının kullanılması önerilir. Ülke çapında pilot okullar belirlenerek geliştirilen
farklılaştırma yaklaşımının uygulamalarının yapılarak veriler toplanması önerilir.
Genel anlamda ülke çapında tüm öğretmenlerin proje hazırlama sürecine nasıl
rehberlik edecekleri ve öğrencilerin de nasıl proje hazırlayacakları konusunda
bilgilendirilmeleri önerilir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Üstün zekalılık, matematik öğretimi, farklılaştırma, çoklu zeka
The Analysis of Elementary Mathematics Preservice Teachers’
Spatial Orientation Skills with SOLO Model
Ahmet Şükrü ÖZDEMİR*
Sevda GÖKTEPE YILDIZ**
Suggested Citation:
Ozdemir, A. S., & Goktepe Yildiz, S. (2015). The analysis of elementary mathematics
preservice teachers’ spatial orientation skills with SOLO model. Eurasian
Abstract
Problem Statement: The SOLO model places responses provided by
students on a certain level instead of placing students there themselves.
SOLO taxonomy, including five sub-levels, is used for determining
observed structures of learning outcomes in various disciplines and grade
levels. On the other hand, the spatial orientation skill is the ability to
visualize an object’s view from a different perspective. A number of
studies on examining preservice teachers’ spatial abilities have been
performed. In this study, elementary mathematics preservice teachers’
spatial orientation skills as components of spatial skills were evaluated
through the SOLO model in ways that are different from other researches.
Purpose of the Study: The purpose of this study was to analyze the spatial
orientation skills of elementary mathematics preservice teachers by using
the SOLO model. In addition, responses of students who were at specified
levels (low-middle-high) according to the Purdue Spatial Visualization
Test scores were also classified. Preservice teachers’ responses between
different dimensions were also examined according to SOLO taxonomy.
Method: The present research was a qualitative study and a case study
method was employed. The sample of the study included junior
elementary mathematics preservice teachers from a state university.
Firstly, the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test was carried out with eightyone students and then clinical interviews were conducted with six
students according to three levels which were specified by looking at the
Prof. Dr. Marmara University, Ataturk Faculty of Education, Istanbul, Turkey,
[email protected]
** Corresponding author: Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Education, Istanbul, Turkey,
[email protected]
*
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Ahmet Şükrü Özdemir & Sevda Göktepe Yıldız
results of the test in this study. The students’ answers were placed into a
suitable SOLO level according to an evaluation scale by analyzing each of
the eight questions used in the Geometrical Achievement Test prepared by
the researchers.
Findings: Elementary mathematics preservice teachers’ responses in a
geometrical achievement test relating to spatial orientation skills were
generally on a multistructural level according to SOLO taxonomy.
Whereas the responses of preservice teachers who were on the low and
middle levels were mostly on a multistructural level, the responses of the
students on the high level were on a relational level. In addition, the
responses of preservice teachers from two-dimension to three-dimension
were mostly on a relational level and the responses from three-dimension
to two-dimension were mostly on a multistructural level.
Conclusion and Recommendations: Results obtained indicated that preservice
teachers were not generally successful at combining their information
within a consistent structure in terms of spatial orientation skills. They
could only evaluate situations which were independent from each other
separately. Therefore, students had surface learning rather than deep
learning. Obtained data can be evaluated with a different taxonomy and a
comparison could be made between these two models in further studies.
Keywords: SOLO taxonomy, spatial ability, clinical interview
Introduction
The SOLO Model has been developed by analyzing the Piaget’s studies on the
development theory in a detailed manner. The Model helps teachers by evaluating
learning outcomes by testing understanding (Halloway, 2010). The SOLO Model can
be used for evaluating students’ cognitive knowledge (Biggs & Collis, 1991; Jurdak,
1991; Lian & Idris, 2006). It is also used for determining observed structures of
learning outcomes in various disciplines and grade levels (e.g., Pegg & Coady, 1993;
Lam & Foong, 1996; Chick, 1998; Jones, Thornton, Langrall, Mooney, Perry, & Putt,
2000; Groth & Bergner, 2006; Dudley & Baxter, 2009). SOLO taxonomy is also being
used to define and interpret mathematical thinking skills of students and their
understanding regarding specific concepts in mathematics (e.g., Pegg & Coady, 1993;
Lam & Foong, 1996; Pegg & Davey, 1998; Jones, et al., 2000; Money, 2002; Groth,
2002; Wongyai & Kamol, 2004; Lian & Idris, 2006). Therefore, SOLO taxonomy is a
different way to evaluate students or preservice teachers’ mathematical
understanding and some skills. In addition, a number of different studies on the
evaluation of preservice teachers’ spatial skills have been performed (e.g., Unal, 2005;
Baki & Guven, 2007; Yolcu, 2008; Dursun, 2010; Nagy-Kondor, 2014; Sezen Yuksel &
Bulbul, 2014; Ozdemir & Goktepe Yildiz, 2015; Sezen Yuksel & Bulbul, 2015; Goktepe
Yildiz, Goktepe Korpeoglu, & Korpeoglu, 2015). The aspect of this study that makes
it different from other studies is evaluating their spatial skills through the SOLO
219
model. This is important because it is one of the first studies that includes both the
SOLO model and spatial skills and will enlighten future studies. In addition, it is
thought that this study may provide opportunities for preservice teachers to see and
remove their deficiencies by having preservice teachers raise awareness for their own
visual skills.
Each thinking level stated in the SOLO model includes five sub-levels of
response. These levels are also called “SOLO Taxonomy.” These are prestructural,
unistructural, multistructural, relational, and extended abstract levels. As the
complexity of the responses increases, the level increases. In addition, as the level
increases, skills such as making consistent explanations, creating relations, and
thinking by considering more than one situation also increase. The information about
SOLO taxonomy is as follows (Biggs & Collis, 1991; Celik, 2007):
Prestructural Level: The answers of the students are not sufficient. The aspects of
the problem which does not lead you to the solution frequently distract students’
attention. The way that the students find a solution does not lead them to a correct
solution and they take steps which are suitable to a phase in a lower level.
Unistructural Level: The student focuses on the problem but uses only a
relational data for the solution. The student cannot understand the value of the used
data in whole and the relation of the data with others. Therefore, the answers of the
student may not be consistent.
Multistructural Level: The student uses multiple data which lead to a solution but
cannot grasp the relation among those data. Therefore, some inconsistencies can be
seen in the answers of the student.
Relational Level: The student uses all of the data which leads to answers to
problems and understands their value as a whole and the relation between them. The
student constructs a consistent structure.
Extended Abstract Level: The student thinks beyond the data used in the problem
while reaching a solution and makes generalizations. The student can create new
thinking styles.
The basic difference between unistructural level and multistructural level is the
use of multiple related data on a multistructural level. The student finds the solution
by following certain steps on a multistructural level and makes operations such as
defining and ranking the data. While passing from a multistructural level to a
relational structure level, it is necessary to approach the data with a broader
perspective after the data has been defined. After defining the data which help you to
find a solution on a multistructural level, these data are put into a whole on a
relational level. The student further extends generalizations that he finds in an
extended abstract level and makes more advanced inferences (Pegg & Davey, 1998;
Celik, 2007). Thus, passing from a relational level to an extended abstract level is the
most difficult, but also the most desired part.
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The student considers many things at the same time on relational structure and
extended abstract structure levels and makes correlations between them. As a result,
the student does not establish relationships on a unistructural level as he or she
focuses on a single structure and there is no other direction. On a multistructural
level, multiple data are used by the students but the student cannot make a
correlation between these directions. A generalization is obtained in an extended
abstract but this generalization is ahead of the current situation (Hattie & Brown,
2004). The relationships between SOLO levels can be summarized as mentioned
above.
On the other hand, spatial orientation skill is the ability to visualize an object’s
view from a different perspective (Contero, Naya, Compnay, Saorin, & Conesa,
2005). Strong and Smith (2002) gave such examples of spatial orientation as a
swimmer who changes his direction when he dives but can determine his position
when he turns or a pilot who knows his position when he maneuvers.
It is necessary for teachers to be self-sufficient in visual-spatial areas to be able to
develop their students’ spatial aspects. In addition, it will be useful to know the level
and geometrical background information of preservice teachers; this information is
necessary for them to be successful in spatial geometry lessons. In conclusion, they
will have opportunities to see and complete their deficiencies before starting their
careers.
In line with the above, the main aim of this study was to analyze the spatial
orientation skills of elementary mathematics preservice teachers according to the
SOLO model. The research question: “What is the level of elementary mathematics
preservice teachers’ spatial orientation skills according to SOLO taxonomy?” guided
this study. The level of students’ responses was at which specified level (low-middlehigh) according to SOLO levels was also researched. In addition, their responses for
the questions between different dimensions (from two dimensions to two
dimensions, from two dimensions to three and from three dimensions to two and
from three dimensions to three) were classified according to SOLO levels.
Method
Research Design
A qualitative approach was used in the present research. A case study method
was employed to analyze elementary mathematics preservice teachers’ spatial
orientation skills; this method allows searching in a selected subject in detail (Cohen,
Manion, & Morrison, 2000). Since clinical interviews provide an opportunity to
deeply analyze students’ thinking processes (Guven, 2006), the spatial skills of
preservice teachers were evaluated through clinical interviews. In addition, the
descriptive analysis method was used in the phase of analyzing qualitative data.
221
Research Sample
The sample of this research included junior preservice teachers who were
enrolled in the Department of Elementary Mathematics Education in a state
university in Turkey. Firstly, the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test (PSVT) was
conducted with eighty-one preservice teachers and then clinical interviews were
carried out with six preservice teachers. Purposeful sampling (Patton, 2002) was
employed to select six interviewees. According to the Purdue Spatial Visualization
Test scores, Merve and Taner were at the low level, Elif and Gamze in the middle
level and Bilal and Emre were in the high level. Preservice teachers voluntarily
participated in the research. The names used for the preservice teachers are their nick
names.
Research Instruments
Data were collected through the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test (PSVT) and
Geometrical Achievement Test prepared by the researchers. In addition, clinical
interviews were conducted with students in light of the geometrical achievement test
questions.
Purdue Spatial Visualization Test (PSVT)
The Purdue Spatial Visualization Test was used for the selection of students
participating in clinical interviews. The test was created by Guay in 1977 and
composed of three sections and 36 questions. There were 12 multiple choice
questions in each section (Bodner & Guay, 1997). The sections were as follows:
Developments, Rotations, and Views. One example for the questions used in the
Purdue Spatial Visualization Test is as follows.
Figure 1. An example question in the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test
Geometry Achievement Test
The Geometry Achievement Test, which tests students’ spatial orientation skills,
was prepared by the researchers and was also used during clinical interviews. The
222
questions were organized in a way that requires moving in the dimensions
themselves and between dimensions. The test consisted of eight problems. It was
considered appropriate to conduct a pilot study for guiding the researchers before
clinical interviews and for giving pre-information to them about how they would
analyze and interpret the data. In accordance with the data obtained through the
pilot study, an evaluation scale was created regarding how the problems were
evaluated by giving examples to competencies which correspond to each level. The
first and second questions in the test were testing preservice teachers’ spatial
orientation skills from two-dimension to two-dimension, the third and fourth
questions were concerned with going from two-dimension to three-dimension, the
fifth and sixth questions examined participants’ skills from three-dimension to twodimension, and the last two questions tested their spatial skills from three-dimension
to three-dimension. The pilot study was carried out with sixty-six senior elementary
mathematics preservice teachers. After conducting validity and reliability studies, the
final version of the test was created. An example of the questions used in the
Geometry Achievement Test is presented below:
Figure 2. An example question in the Geometry Achievement Test
This problem required preservice teachers to think from three-dimension to twodimension. This question was accepted as suitable for evaluating spatial orientation
skills since spatial orientation was defined by McGee (1979) as not to confuse when
different orientations of a spatial object were given. They were asked to transfer
views of a three-dimensional figure which was made from unit cubes from three
different aspects (front, right, and top) into a two-dimensional plane.
While the responses provided for the above problem were analyzed with the
evaluation scale according to SOLO taxonomy, the explanations stated for each level
were as follows:
In the prestructural level, the student cannot fully understand what is asked in
the question. He cannot correctly draw the view of the object from any of the
directions. In the unistructural level, the student understands what is asked in the
question but is interested in only one aspect. For example, he transfers only one view
of the three-dimensional object into a two-dimensional plane. In the multistructural
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level, the student uses all of the directions given in the question. He draws all the
views from the right, front and top for this question. However, he cannot predict
whether or not to use the view of the other directions for drawing the view from one
direction. He cannot provide consistent answers when it is asked whether or not
there is a correlation between right-left, front-back and top-lower views of the
figures. In the relational level, the student knows exactly what to do for the solution.
He draws all of the views from all directions and knows how he can use different
directions while drawing. He can make different correlations when it is asked
whether or not there is a correlation between right-left, front-back and top-lower
views of the figures. In the extended abstract level, the student does not have any
difficulty in transferring three-dimensional objects into a two-dimensional plane. He
completes his drawing quickly. He creates rules or makes correct generalizations for
the relations between figures by making correlations between the different views of
the figures.
Clinical Interviews
The clinical interviews were carried out using audio recorders at the seminar
room of the school. Each interview lasted approximately 60 minutes. During the
interviews, the students were asked to answer questions one by one; they were also
asked to explain how they found the solutions in detail. The following additional
questions were posed to students: “What kind of a generalization do you make about
this question?” “How did you make this generalization?” and “What can be your
conclusion as a result of the desired rotation move?” The spatial orientation skills of
preservice teachers were attempted to be determined according to SOLO taxonomy,
as well as by asking different questions to students in accordance with their
responses to questions.
Procedures
Figure 3. The Flowchart showing the procedures
In this study, the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test was conducted with eightyone elementary mathematics preservice teachers and an alpha reliability co-efficient
224
was found to be 0.834 according to KR-20 reliability analysis. As stated by Kalayci
(2010), the scale was highly reliable.
Two different researchers evaluated the level of the preservice teachers’
responses obtained via clinical interviews according to SOLO taxonomy. Inter-coder
reliability was calculated with the formula determined by Miles and Huberman
(1994). The researchers stated that reliable coding occurs in cases when this value is
over 70. In this study, since this value was found to be approximately 96%, it was
concluded that the scale, which was developed for this study in which spatial skills
of the preservice teacher were analyzed according to the SOLO model was consistent
and reliable.
Data Analysis
The data obtained are summarized and interpreted according to pre-determined
categories in descriptive analysis. The purpose of this kind of analysis is to present
collected data in an organized way to the readers and described systematically and
overtly (Yildirim & Simsek, 2011). In cases when researchers put the students’
responses into different SOLO levels, a consensus was reached after discussing the
probable best solution for the suitable level; the response was then put into a suitable
level.
Results
The levels of the students’ responses regarding the spatial orientation skills
according to SOLO taxonomy are given in this part. Firstly, the findings regarding
forty-eight responses in total (to eight questions) which were stated by six students
used in the geometry achievement test were included. The evaluations between
dimensions are also presented. Finally, the levels of the responses are placed
according to the levels of the students (low, middle, and high).
Table 1.
The Overall Evaluation of Preservice Teachers’ Spatial Orientation Skills
SOLO
Pre
Unistructural Multistructural Relational
Levels
structural
Number of 0
10
27
11
Responses
Extended
Abstract
0
In terms of spatial orientation skills, 27 of the preservice teachers’ responses were
on a multi-structural level, 11 of them were on a relational level, 10 of them on a
unistructural level and there were not any responses on prestructural or extended
abstract levels.
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Table 2.
The Level of 2D-2D Spatial Orientation Skills of Preservice Teachers
Students
Question 1
Question 2
Merve
Unistructural
Multistructural
Taner
Unistructural
Unistructural
Elif
Multistructural
Multistructural
Emre
Unistructural
Multistructural
Bilal
Relational
Relational
Gamze
Unistructural
Multistructural
All of the responses of Taner showed features of a unistructural level, Elif’s
responses were at a multistructural level and Bilal’s responses were on a relational
level. Merve, Emre, and Gamze responded mostly on a multistructural level and on a
unistructural level least often. There were not any responses which were suitable to
the features of prestructural and extended abstract levels. When we analysed in
general, the responses of elementary mathematics preservice teachers to the
questions testing spatial orientation skills from two-dimension to two-dimension
were mostly on a relational level and, least often, on a unistructural level.
Table 3.
The Overall Evaluation of 2D-2D Spatial Orientation Skills
SOLO
Pre
Unistructural Multistructural
Levels
structural
Number
0
5
5
of
Responses
Relational
2
Extended
Abstract
0
For the questions assessing 2D-2D Spatial orientation skills, five of the preservice
teachers’ responses were on a unistructural level, five of them on a multi-structural
level, two of them on a relational level and there were not any individuals on
prestructural and extended abstract levels.
Table 4.
Students
Question 3
Question 4
Merve
Multistructural
Multistructural
Taner
Relational
Multistructural
Elif
Relational
Relational
Emre
Unistructural
Relational
Bilal
Relational
Relational
Gamze
Unistructural
Multistructural
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All of the responses of Merve were on a multistructural level and all of the
responses of Elif and Bilal were on a relational level. Taner responded to questions
mostly on a relational level and, least often, on a multi-structural level. Most of the
responses of Emre displayed relational level features and unistructural level features
were displayed the least often. In Gamze’s responses, multistructural level was seen
most and unistructural level was seen least often. There were not any responses on
prestructural and extended abstract levels. When we analysed in general, the
responses of the elementary mathematics preservice teachers to the questions testing
spatial orientation skills from two-dimension to three-dimension were mostly on a
relational level and, least often on a unistructural level.
Table 5.
SOLO
Pre
Levels
structural
Number
0
2
4
of
Responses
Relational
6
Extended
Abstract
0
For the questions assessing 2D-3D spatial orientation skills, two of the responses
of preservice teachers was on a unistructural level, four of them were on a
multistructural level, six of them were on a relational level and there were not any
individuals on extended abstract and prestructural levels.
Table 6.
Students
Question 5
Question 6
Merve
Relational
Multistructural
Taner
Unistructural
Multistructural
Elif
Multistructural
Multistructural
Emre
Relational
Multistructural
Bilal
Multistructural
Multistructural
Gamze
Multistructural
Multistructural
Merve and Emre were mostly relational level and were least often on a
multistructural level. All of the responses of Elif, Bilal and Gamze were on a
multistructural level. The responses of Taner displayed mostly multi-structural
features and unistructural features the least often. There were not any students in
prestructural and extended abstract levels. When we analysed in general, the
responses of the elementary mathematics preservice teachers to the questions testing
spatial orientation skills from three-dimension to two-dimension were mostly on a
relational level and least often on a unistructural level.
Table 7.
SOLO
Pre
Levels
structural
Number
0
1
9
of
Responses
Relational
2
227
Extended
Abstract
0
For the questions assessing 3D-2D spatial orientation skills, one of the responses
of preservice teachers was on a unistructural level, nine of them were on a
multistructural level, two of them on a relational level and there were not any
individuals on extended abstract and prestructural levels.
Table 8.
Students
Question 7
Question 8
Merve
Multistructural
Multistructural
Taner
Multistructural
Multistructural
Elif
Unistructural
Unistructural
Emre
Multistructural
Multistructural
Bilal
Multistructural
Multistructural
Gamze
Relational
Multistructural
While all of the responses of Merve, Taner, Emre, and Bilal displayed
multistructural features, all of the responses of Elif displayed unistructural level.
Gamze’s responses displayed mostly relational features and multistructural features
least often. There were not any students on prestructural and extended abstract
levels. When we analysed in general, the responses coming from the elementary
mathematics preservice teachers to the questions testing spatial orientation skills
from three-dimension to three-dimension were mostly on a relational level and on a
unistructural level least often.
Table 9.
SOLO
Pre
Levels
structural
Number
0
2
9
of
Responses
Relational
1
Extended
Abstract
0
For the questions assessing 3D-3D spatial orientation skills, two of the preservice
teachers’ responses were on a unistructural level, nine of them were on a multistructural level, one of them was on a relational level and there were not any
individuals on extended abstract structure and pre-structural levels.
228
Table 10.
The Evaluation of Preservice Teachers’ Spatial Orientation Skills according to their Levels
2D-2D
2D-3D
3D-2D
3D-3D
Low
Merve
US
MS
MS
MS
R
MS
MS
MS
Taner
US
US
R
MS
US
MS
MS
MS
Middle
Elif
MS
MS
R
R
MS
MS
US
US
Gamze
US
MS
US
MS
MS
MS
R
MS
High
Bilal
R
R
R
R
MS
MS
MS
MS
Emre
US
MS
US
R
R
MS
MS
MS
US: Unistructural
MS: Multistructural
R: Relational
Merve, who was on the low level according to the Purdue Spatial Visualization
Test, gave responses on a multistructural level mostly and on a unistructural level
least often to the questions requiring thinking from two dimension to two dimension.
The responses of Taner who was at the same level to these questions were on a
unistructural level. Finally, low level students’ responses to the 2D-2D questions
were mostly on a unistructural level. While Merve was on a multistructural level for
questions requiring thinking from two-dimension to three-dimension, Taner was on
a relational level mostly and on a multistructural level least often. In questions
requiring a passing between these two dimensions, preservice teachers who were on
a low level were on the multistructural level. In questions requiring passing from
three-dimension to two-dimension, while Merve was least often on a multistructural
level, she was mostly on a relational level. Taner was on a unistructural level least
often and on a multistructural level mostly. The responses that they provided for
these questions between these dimensions were mostly on multistructural level. In
questions requiring passing from three-dimension to three-dimension, both Merve
and Taner were on a multistructural level for these four questions.
Elif, who was on the middle level according to the Purdue Spatial Visualization
Test, responded on a multistructural level for the questions requiring thinking from
two dimension to two dimension; however, Gamze responded on a multistructural
level the most and a unistructural level least often. In conclusion in this dimension,
the responses of students who have low level spatial visualization skills were on a
multistructural level. In questions requiring thinking from two-dimension to threedimension, while Elif was in the relational level, Gamze was on a unistructural level
least often and on a multistructural level most often. In questions requiring passing
between these two dimensions, middle level preservice teachers were generally on a
relational level. The responses provided by Elif and Gamze for all the questions
requiring passing from three-dimension to two-dimension were on a multistructural
level. For the questions requiring passing from three-dimension to three-dimension
while Elif responded according to unistructural level, Taner responded according to
a multi-structural level least often and a relational level most often. Therefore, most
of their responses were on a unistructural level.
229
Bilal, who was on the high level according to the Purdue Spatial Visualization
Test, responded on a relational level for the questions requiring thinking from two
dimension to two dimension but Emre who was at the same level responded on a
multistructural level most often and a unistructural level least often. In conclusion,
most of the responses of the students on a high level were on a relational level. In
questions requiring thinking from two-dimension to three-dimension, Bilal was on a
relational level for all questions, Emre was on a unistructural level least often and a
relational level most often. In questions requiring passing from three-dimension to
two-dimension, Bilal was on a multistructural level least often and a relational level
most often. Emre was on a relational level for both questions. When we looked at the
responses to these questions requiring passing between two dimensions, it was seen
that they were mostly on a multistructural level. In questions requiring passing from
three-dimension to three-dimension, both Merve and Taner were on a
multistructural level for all four of these questions.
Discussion and Conclusions
Elementary mathematics preservice teachers were mostly on a multistructural
level in terms of spatial orientation skills, which is one of the components of spatial
skills. With the help of this information, it was seen that preservice teachers were not
successful at combining their information within a consistent structure in terms of
spatial orientation concepts. They could only evaluate situations which were
independent from each other separately (Celik, 2007).
It was concluded that the responses of students for the questions assessing spatial
orientation skills from two-dimension to two-dimension were generally on
unistructural and multistructural levels. The responses of preservice teachers from
two-dimension to three-dimension were mostly on a relational level. The responses
of preservice teachers for the questions assessing spatial orientation skills from threedimension to two-dimension were mostly on a multi-structural level. When
tridimensionality was added to the questions, there was a decrease in the levels of
responses. This is an expected result because the abstraction level and the difficulty
of questions have been increasing. While the levels determined for the questions
requiring thinking from two-dimension to two-dimension differed from the levels in
the studies carried out by Groth and Bergner (2006), Lian and Idris (2006), and Celik
(2007) as they were in an upper level, similar results were obtained from the
problems between the other dimensions.
The responses of preservice teachers who were in the low and middle levels were
mostly on a multistructural level; they had superficial learning rather than in-depth
learning (Hattie & Brown, 2004). Also, preservice teachers tried to use more data in
solving problems. The responses of students who were on the high level according to
the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test were on a relational level for questions
requiring thinking from two-dimension to two-dimension and from two-dimension
to three-dimension. They performed what was asked of them by correlating given
concepts regarding spatial orientation skills. For example, they were able to draw an
230
object after its right, top, and front view had been given to them by visualizing; they
could also create correlations between their views from different directions. The
displayed relational level’s features by predicting the fact that one figure’s right view
and left view are symmetrical to each other. The highest level in transforming
between dimensions in terms of spatial orientation skills belongs to this part. When
we looked at the responses that they provided for the questions requiring thinking
from three-dimension to two-dimension and three-dimension to three-dimension, it
was seen that they were generally on a multistructural level. Therefore, the level of
responses decreased when tridimensionality was added. With the help of this
information, it was concluded that pre-service teachers who were on a high level
could generally be on a multistructural level or relational level. In the SOLO model,
as was advocated by Biggs and Collis (1991), we can see that we cannot place
students into one level. One level could not be determined for these students;
however, it was shown that they were in a more advanced level as it was expected
for them to be in the half relational level. When we examined the studies of the SOLO
model, although the subjects were different, the findings obtained from the studies of
Groth and Bergner (2006), Lian and Idris (2006) and Celik (2007) showed that the
participants stayed under the relational level; but in this study, the responses of
preservice teachers who had high level spatial visualization skills also displayed the
features of a relational level. With this side, this study had an aspect which was
different from the other studies. This was an important result on behalf of having
quality education that preservice teachers’ SOLO levels were slightly above middle
level.
The data obtained in this study were analyzed according to thinking levels of the
SOLO model. The same data can be evaluated with a different taxonomy and a
comparison can be made between these two models, so that the subject was
considered with a different perspective. In this way, additions can be made if there
are any missing or overlooked points. SOLO model can be suggested to researchers
who would like to use an alternative model as the model classifies the responses
given in the current situation by the students instead of placing students into classes
individually.
For the research, eight questions were asked and the responses of the students
classified according to the levels. In addition, an evaluation was made by asking two
questions from each of the dimensions (from two-dimension to two-dimension, from
two-dimension to three-dimension, three-dimension to two-dimension, threedimension to three-dimension). In this study, since the clinical interview method
was used, though the number of the questions was less, more specific results can be
obtained by increasing the number of questions at the spatial skill components of the
students and specified dimensions. In another method, Celik (2007) preferred to
make a more sensitive evaluation by adding weak or strong to the response levels of
the students in their studies. While determining the competencies for each level,
features expected during weak and strong situations can be added.
The study was carried out with six elementary mathematics preservice teachers.
There can be more students or preservice teachers from different majors or teachers
231
who are in the in-service teacher training courses. Later on, the collected data can be
compared so that contributions can be made to improve the current study.
Acknowledgments
This article is a part of Goktepe’s (2013) master thesis and was presented at the
first International Eurasian Educational Research Congress in İstanbul, Turkey.
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İlköğretim Matematik Öğretmen Adaylarının Uzamsal Yönelim
Becerilerinin SOLO Modeli ile İncelemesi
Atıf:
Ozdemir, A. S., & Goktepe Yildiz, S. (2015).The analysis of elementary mathematics
preservice teachers’ spatial orientation skills with SOLO model. Eurasian
Journal of Educational Research, 61,217-236.
Özet
Problem Durumu: SOLO modeli Piaget’in gelişim teorisi üzerine yaptığı çalışmalar
ayrıntılı bir şekilde incelenerek geliştirilmiş olup, model öğrencilerin kendilerini bir
seviyeye yerleştirmek yerine problemlere verdikleri cevapları bir seviyeye
yerleştirmektedir. Ayrıca farklı sınıf seviyelerinde ve farklı disiplinlerde öğrenme
çıktılarının gözlemlenen yapılarını belirlemeye yardımcı olmaktadır. Benzer şekilde
SOLO taksonomisi matematikte de öğrencilerin belli kavramlarla ilgili anlamalarını
ve matematiksel düşünme becerilerini tanımlamak ve yorumlamak için
kullanılmaktadır. SOLO modelinde yer alan her bir düşünme evresi beş alt seviyeyi
içermektedir. Bunlar yapı öncesi, Tek yönlü Yapı, Çok Yönlü Yapı, İlişkisel yapı ve
Genişletilmiş Soyut yapı seviyeleridir. Cevapların karmaşıklığı arttıkça seviye
yükselmektedir. Diğer taraftan uzamsal yeteneğin bir bileşeni olan uzamsal yönelim
becerisi ise bir cismin görüntüsünü başka bir açıdan zihinde canlandırabilme
becerisidir. Literatürde öğretmen adaylarının uzamsal yeteneklerini çeşitli şekillerde
inceleyen çalışmalar bulunmaktadır. Bununla birlikte öğretmen adaylarının uzay
geometri derslerinde öğrenme-öğretme süreçlerinde başarılı olabilmeleri için gerekli
geometrik alt yapılarının ve seviyelerinin ne olduğunu bilmek faydalı olacaktır.
Böylelikle öğretmen adayları mesleğe başlamadan önce eksiklerini görme ve
tamamlama imkânı bulacaklardır. Bu çalışma da ise diğer çalışmalardan farklı olarak
ilköğretim matematik öğretmen adaylarının uzamsal yönelim becerileri SOLO
Modeli aracılığıyla incelenmiştir.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Çalışmanın temel amacı ilköğretim matematik öğretmen
adaylarının uzamsal yönelim becerilerini SOLO modeline göre incelemektir. Bu
amaçla “İlköğretim matematik öğretmen adaylarının uzamsal yönelim becerileri
SOLO Taksonomisine göre hangi seviyelerde yer almaktadır?” problemine cevap
aranmıştır. Ayrıca öğrencilerin cevaplarının Purdue Uzamsal Görselleştirme
Testinde belirlenen seviyelerine göre (düşük-orta-yüksek) hangi SOLO düzeylerinde
yer aldığı araştırılmıştır. İlaveten öğretmen adaylarının farklı boyutlar arasındaki (iki
boyuttan iki boyuta, iki boyuttan üç boyuta, üç boyuttan iki boyuta, üç boyuttan üç
boyuta) sorulara verdikleri cevaplar da SOLO düzeylerine göre sınıflandırılmıştır.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: İlköğretim matematik öğretmen adaylarının uzamsal yönelim
becerilerini inceleyen bu çalışma nitel bir araştırmadır. Seçilen bir konunun
derinlemesine ayrıntılı bir şekilde araştırılmasına olanak veren durum çalışması
yöntem olarak belirlenmiştir. Çalışmaya bir devlet üniversitesinde ilköğretim
235
matematik öğretmenliği programının üçüncü sınıfında öğrenim gören öğretmen
adayları katılmıştır. Öncelikle seksen bir öğretmen adayına Purdue Uzamsal
Görselleştirme (PUGT) testi uygulanmış ve sonrasında bu teste göre üç farklı
seviyede seçilen toplam altı öğretmen adayıyla klinik mülakatlar gerçekleştirilmiştir.
Klinik mülakatlarda kullanılmak üzere öğrencilerin uzamsal yönelim becerilerini
farklı boyutlar arasında ölçen “Geometri Başarı Testi” araştırmacılar tarafından
hazırlanmıştır. Öğrencilerin cevapları pilot çalışma sonrasında oluşturulan
değerlendirme ölçeğine göre uygun SOLO seviyelerine yerleştirilmiştir. Klinik
mülakatlar ile nitel olarak elde edilen verilerin analizinde betimsel analiz yapılmıştır.
Geometri Başarı testinde yer alan sekiz soruya altı öğrencinin verdiği toplam kırk
sekiz cevap değerlendirilmiştir.
Araştırmanın Bulguları: İlköğretim matematik öğretmen adayları uzamsal yeteneğin
bileşenlerinden biri olan uzamsal yönelim becerileri açısından ağırlıklı olarak Çok
Yönlü Yapı seviyesindedir. İki boyuttan iki boyuta, iki boyuttan üç boyuta, üç
boyuttan iki boyuta ve üç boyuttan üç boyuta uzamsal yönelim becerilerini ölçen
sorulara ilköğretim matematik öğretmen adaylarından gelen cevaplar en fazla
İlişkisel yapı seviyesinde en az da Tek Yönlü Yapı seviyesinde yer almaktadır.
Uzamsal görselleştirme testine göre düşük ve orta seviyede olan öğrencilerin
cevapları çoğunlukla Çok Yönlü Yapı seviyesinde iken yüksek seviyedeki
öğrencilerin cevapları İlişkisel yapı seviyesindedir. Araştırmadan elde edilen diğer
bulgulardan bazıları şunlardır: Uzamsal yönelim becerilerinde Purdue Uzamsal
Görselleştirme testine göre yüksek düzeyde yer alan öğrencilerin cevapları iki
boyuttan iki boyuta ve iki boyuttan üç boyuta düşünme gerektiren sorularda ilişkisel
yapı seviyesindedir. Çalışmaya katılan tüm öğrencilerin üç boyuttan iki boyuta ve üç
boyuttan üç boyuta geçişi gerektiren sorulara verdikleri cevaplara bakıldığında ise
genel olarak Çok Yönlü Yapı seviyesinde oldukları görülmektedir. İki boyuttan üç
boyuta düşünmeyi gerektiren sorulara öğretmen adaylarının verdikleri cevaplar
çoğunlukla İlişkisel yapı seviyesinde iken, üç boyuttan üç boyuta düşünmeyi
gerektiren sorularda cevapların seviyesi Çok Yönlü Yapı şeklindedir.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: İlköğretim matematik öğretmen adayları SOLO
taksonomisine göre genel olarak Çok Yönlü Yapı seviyesinde olduklarından,
öğretmen adaylarının uzamsal yönelimin ilişkili kavramları açısından sahip
oldukları bilgileri tutarlı bir yapı içerisinde birleştirmede başarılı olamadıkları
görülmektedir,
sadece
birbirinden
bağımsız
durumları
ayrı
ayrı
değerlendirebilmektedirler. Düşük ve orta seviyedeki öğretmen adaylarının
cevapları çoğunlukla Çok Yönlü Yapı seviyesinde yer almaktadır dolayısıyla
derinlemesine değil daha çok yüzeysel kalan bir öğrenmeye sahiptirler ayrıca
öğretmen adayları problemlerin çözümünde birden fazla veriyi kullanmaya
çalışmıştır. Elde edilen bulgulara göre sorulardaki üç boyutluluk seviyesi arttıkça
öğrencilerin verdikleri cevapların SOLO taksonomisine göre seviyeleri düşmektedir.
Farklı çalışmalarda daha çok öğrenci ile ya da daha farklı branşlardaki öğretmen
adaylarıyla ya da hizmet içinde yer alan öğretmenlerle çalışılabilir. İleriki çalışmalar
için öneri olarak elde edilen veriler farklı bir taksonomi ile değerlendirilebilir ve
SOLO taksonomisi ile karşılaştırması yapılabilir. Böylelikle çalışma farklı bir bakış
236
açısıyla da ele alınmış olur, eksik kalan, gözden kaçırılan yönler varsa eklemeler
yapılabilir. Alternatif bir değerlendirme yöntemi kullanmak isteyen araştırmacılar
SOLO modelini kullanabilirler.
Anahtar Sözcükler: SOLO taksonomisi, uzamsal yetenek, klinik mülakat
In Regards to Higher Education Strategy, Assessment of
Educational Activities in Public Universities: The Case of
Turkey
Ezgi CEVHER*
Hasan YÜKSEL**
Suggested Citation:
Cevher, E., & Yuksel, H. (2015). In Regards to Higher Education Strategy,
Assessment of Educational Activities in Public Universities: The Case of
Turkey, Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 61, 237-256
Abstract
Problem Statement: With the increasing importance of information and
research, the importance of education and training has also increased.
Especially in higher education institutions, educators have started to
instruct students in accordance with the requirements of the modern era,
and universities have influenced the international and national
competitive powers in the educational domain. Nowadays, universities in
developed countries are not only the organizations that execute education
and training services, but they are also the institutions that produce more
academic studies to enhance their environments, contribute to society
through their projects, and integrate with business and industry
organizations. In connection with these goals the higher education sector
can improve the performances of many universities and reconstruct them
by changing and improving conditions. These changes can only be
possible with appropriate strategies.
Purpose of the Study: This study reveals the present situation regarding
education in public universities and aims to determine strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Within the framework of Turkey’s
higher-education strategy, the current state of the universities is discussed
and certain suggestions were made.
Method: Considering that the main field of activity in universities is
“training and education”, the public universities in Turkey have been
evaluated in this study via a content analysis of the strategic plans of
“training and education activities”. In total, the plans of 90 out of 103 state
*
Asst. Prof. Dr. Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta Vocational School, Department of Management
and Organization, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected].
**
Corresponding Author: Asst. Prof. Dr. Cankiri Karatekin University, Faculty of Economics and
Administrative Sciences, Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, Cankiri, Turkey,
[email protected].
238 Ezgi Cevher & Hasan Yüksel
universities were analyzed according to a qualitative analysis. The dataset
obtained was converted into numbers by means of the SPSS 15.0 program
using frequency analysis.
Results and Findings: Assessing the dataset obtained, one third of the
universities stated that “maintaining a diversity of programs, enhancing
social activities, achieving a close interaction between the students and
academicians, and increasing quality and accreditation” were among their
strengths. As for their weaknesses, “inadequacy of interaction with
graduates; inadequacy of social fields; inadequacy of health, culture, and
sport facilities; inadequacy of foreign language education; inadequacy of
library opportunities; scarcity of graduate programs; inadequacy of
psychological counseling and guidance services; inadequacy of
scholarship support; scarcity of application-oriented studies; and
inadequacy of educational material” were listed. Nearly half of the
universities regard “exchange programs” as opportunities, and they focus
on the “Bologna Process and Exchange”. On the other hand, “increasing
the number of public and private universities” is seen as a threat.
Conclusions and recommendations: As a result of the study, the categories for
strengths in the higher education strategy include “education field, social
activity, life culture, and communication”. The weaknesses mentioned by
the universities, as stated in the higher-education plan, can be
strengthened with the strategies involving “physical opportunities,
communication, social activities, life culture, scholarship and part-time
work
opportunities,
student
satisfaction,
and
educational
implementations”. For the eradication of the threats, one of which is the
increasing number of public and private universities, educational
strategies can be implemented at the correct times within the framework
of the Bologna Process”.
Key Words: Instruction, Organization, Strategic Planning, University
SWOT Analysis
Introduction
In the organizations that adapt themselves to the requirements of knowledge in
society, an increase in knowledge has become especially important within the fields
in science and technology. In this atmosphere in which knowledge and research are
becoming of greater significance, the quality of education has also been enhanced.
Therefore, education is the main avenue of change and developments, including in
its acquisition and pervasive improvements in every field. Especially students who
are in line with the modern age have obtained their educations in higher education
institutions, and the universities, themselves, have affected international competitive
power. For this reason, the “strategic applications of higher education” are given
emphasis in Turkey, and the country's goal is that the universities reach the
standards of education found in developed countries. The main objective of this
study is to ascertain the standards of “education” in higher education institutions,
particularly for public universities. The dataset obtained is assessed within the scope
of the “strategic applications of higher education” prepared by the Higher Education
239
Council. At the same time, some assessments and suggestions concerning the current
state of the public universities are given as well.
Public Universities within the Framework of Higher Education Strategies
We can reasonably say that there are micro and macro factors that affect
competition among higher-education institutions. Education, which can be seen as
one of these factors, has a great impact on the competition among universities
(Kaldirimci, 2003, p.119). Increasing the number of students is only feasible with
correct strategies and implementations within the services of education. In order to
get competitive advantage and to implement these sorts of strategies, the current
state of the institutions needs to be examined in an accurate way (Hepkul &
Kagnicioglu, 1992).
Throughout the world, education has had social and economic outcomes (Fried et
al., 2006, p. 6). The positive contributions of education, particularly in the fields of
higher education, are recognized as being economically and socially necessary all
over the world. However, it is critical that we place an emphasis on the contextual
framework of education itself before we can mention the importance of education in
higher education institutions. The lexical definition of education refers to the work of
educating oneself in a particular field (Turkce Sozluk, 2005, p.605). Nowadays,
education is seen as the state of behavioral change for specific purposes; it can be
achieved within the individual’s life itself and is a kind of development of one’s
capabilities for people and society in an appropriate and balanced manner (Aklan,
1979, p.4).
Education can also be defined as a process that creates awareness about oneself
within the area of learning that allows the individual to select from and develop
mental capabilities. In this process, adapting to changing conditions, updating skills
and behaviours in an ongoing way, and creating convenient learning atmospheres
are of great significance (Genc and Eryaman, 2008, p. 94). Additionally, education is
the main avenue for the qualified training of people and for the formation of one’s
life, personality and character. Hence, each person comes to the fore as the product of
the educational atmosphere in which he/she lives, and it is in this atmosphere that
the individual is able to differentiate him- or herself from others. The increasing
stress on education turns it into a programmable and sustainable tool. With this tool,
each country establishes its own education system to meet the needs of qualified
people in its society (Soyler, 2008, p.427). In summary, education is a perpetual
process of developing knowledge and experience and is an instrument for the
welfare of each individual and society (Kumar & Ahmad, 2008).
The changes taking place in other sectors of society have influenced education as
well. The market economy, competition, and the enlargement of knowledge society
and its systems have created an impact on education (Chareonwongsak, 2000).
Higher education, the highest point in the education system, develops the abilities of
the qualified people that society needs, on the one hand (Report of European
Commission, 2013), and, on the other hand, it contributes to the production of new
knowledge and technology by encouraging academic study and research that
contributes to the development of societies (Yuksek, 2002, p. 262). The expected
functions of higher education are to educate people; promote science and research;
meet the needs of the human resource, which are also the needs of the economy; and
contribute to the development of productivity. In this context, the functions of higher
education institutions can be summarized as those involving education, the
production of academic knowledge and research, and community service (Ozdem,
2008, p.115). Since the beginning of the 19th century, education has become the
ultimate function of higher education institutions (Kavak, 1990: 19), which means
that one of the main objectives of universities is to educate people. The process of
educating people includes equipping students with necessary knowledge and
capabilities, creating research excitement, and improving the cultures of citizenship
and life. The first part of this process in the universities can be carried out by the
academic staff as pioneers in classrooms, laboratories, and libraries, while the second
part will be realized through interaction within the students’ lives (Turkiye’nin
Yuksekogretim Stratejisi, 2007).
The public universities in Turkey, which were established within the scope of the
Higher Education Law 2547, are organizations that include faculties, vocational
schools, colleges, conservatories, and application and research centers, all for the
benefit of society. They have a mixed financial system. Considering that the higher
education sector costs the country 550 billion dollars, it is inevitable that the
universities will compete. Thus, the enhancement of their strategies is a sort of
sinequanon. Increasing the performance of Turkey’s universities to meet the
standards and structures of developed countries is only possible with the correct
strategies and the implementation of those structures. In Turkey, the strategic
approaches to education are stated in the following (Turkiye’nin Yuksekogretim
Stratejisi, 2007):
1. Physical Facilities: In order to enhance the quality of life at the universities, there
should be a renovation of the facilities, where possible. Other services relating to
accommodations, nourishment, health, sport, and entertainment are among the
services provided by universities. They are also important components of life
quality.
2. Communication: The relationship between the academic staff and students must be
formed on the basis of respect, and the interaction between students and
academic staff must be fostered.
3. Social Activities and Life Culture: Students must be involved in organizations that
make them pioneers in different fields like philosophy, art, sport, and various
hobby domains.
4. Scholarship and Part-Time Job Opportunities: Scholarships and part-time work are
the services that universities provide for students who have poor financial
situations to fund their educations.
5. Student Satisfaction: Universities must attach importance, in formal and informal
ways, to student views about the courses and exams and must be sensitive to
student criticism, which is crucial for both the quality and improvement of
education and the establishment of democratic culture.
6. Process of Bologna and Exchange Programs: The exchange programs within the
framework of the Bologna Process and the MOUs signed by the universities are
expected to contribute to an end to the deficiencies in this area.
7. Student Clubs and Activities: Student clubs are important tools for the socialization
of the students. The development of these clubs and the encouragement of active
241
membership will contribute to a more active university life. Based on the idea
that the education of students not only depends on courses but on the university
atmosphere as a whole, universities must have student organizations. In
developed countries all around the world, student councils form the most critical
aspect of the democratic culture and management processes. These institutions
define themselves as the mechanisms through which students communicate their
opinions and wishes to the university administration, and they develop the
relationship between university students and societies. In Turkey, improving and
supporting student organizations, like those found in developed countries, are
ways that university administrations can encourage students' active participation
in university life and the democracy and freedom of thought that are the most
critical objectives of higher education.
8. Implementations of Education: The implementations of education include
application-oriented education, foreign language education, the enhancement of
the number of these units, differentiation in departments and programs, the
update of new educational technologies, distance learning and other education
systems, the end to discrimination on the basis of secondary school education,
and the revision and restructuring of programs in vocational schools.
New technologies, new student profiles, new providers and shareholders,
globalization, and the increase in competition among higher education institutions
have become the factors that now determine and transform higher education (Levine,
2001). In the study conducted by Owlia and Aspinwall (Owlia & Aspinwall, 1996, p.
19), the researchers determined that the participants in the educational services of
higher education institutions are the students, academic staff, and employees.
According to these researchers, “adequate equipment, facility of transportation,
accommodation opportunities, qualified and sufficient academic staff,
communication skills, and accountability constitute the quality standards in higher
education.” Based on these findings, the strategies in higher education need to
encompass these factors, which means that the educational standards offered to
students must be in line with the requirements of the private sector and therefore
need to be revised again (Wood, 1998, p. 168).
The various aspects of higher education in Turkey are open to debate because of a
study conducted by UNESCO, which states that problems with resources, admission,
quality, private universities, traditional rather than global ideologies, innovation, and
autonomy do exist (Cepes, Unesco, p. 27). For that reason, universities are not
institutions that depend solely on local resources, but rather they also have universal
mechanisms for international contexts (De Angelis, 1998). The studies conducted by
Romero and Rey (2002) revealed that public universities aim at state-based
production, while the priority of private universities is to obtain the maximum profit.
At this point, public universities are better than private universities with regard to
research, quality, and costs (Romero & Rey, 2002, p. 1-24).
A Case Study on Public Universities with Regard to their Educational Domains
In Turkey, Strategic Planning was made law with the State Financial
Management and Controlling Law, 5018, which became compulsory for the state
institutions. The objective of this regulation is to strengthen the relationship between
budget and the institutions’ plans and policies (Strategic Planning, 2015). In Strategic
Planning, there are statements of vision and mission, objectives, strategies, and
SWOT Analysis (Stratejik Planlama Kilavuzu, 2006). The preparation of the Strategic
Planning agenda, which has become a kind of “must” for state institutions and
public universities, has been the responsibility of the universities as a whole in recent
years. These agendas consist of “SWOT Analysis, statements of mission and vision,
objectives, strategies, performance indicators, and activities” (Atan, 2008, p.416).
Universities adhering to these parameters prepare their term plans and put them into
effect. This study was prepared by taking into account the strategic plans of the
universities, which determine their educational domains and conditions. The criteria
used for the SWOT Analysis in higher education strategies were analyzed. The
reason for the SWOT Analysis is that it outlines the positive and negative sides of the
research, as well as the solutions and opportunities (Dyson, 2004, p.632). Therefore,
the SWOT Analysis is a tool that determines the goals and the internal and external
factors of an organization clearly so that they can be added to strategic planning
(Chen & Bruneski, 2007, p.2). In this way, the current conditions of education in the
universities were revealed and discussed within the framework of higher education
strategies.
Method
Research Design
The objective of this study is to ascertain the current situation of the public
universities and to assess their conditions within the framework of higher education
strategy in Turkey and within this framework, content analysis as a sort of
qualitative method, was used.
Study Group
The research group consisted of public universities in Turkey. Out of 108 public
universities, the strategic plans of 90 of them, as well as their educational
perspectives, were analyzed by considering “strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats” and by establishing some codes. SWOT Analyses were done to
determine the criteria that affect their educational strategies, which include “physical
facilities, communication, social activities, life culture, scholarship and part-time job
opportunities, student satisfaction, the Bologna Process and exchange programs,
student clubs and their activities, and educational implementations”.
The research is qualitative in nature and includes observation, interview, and
document analysis. In this qualitative research, content analysis was used. The
analysis contains oral and written materials, which are categorized by message
objectives. Then these messages are systematically converted into numbers
(Tavsancil & Aslan, 2001, p.22). Content analysis was used to reveal the objective,
measurable, and verifiable explanations of the communications, which are explicit
and concrete (Fiske, 1990, p.176). While selecting the sample, goal-oriented sampling
was used, which was associated with the aim of the research (Marshall & Rossman,
2006, p.262). As for the method of the research, “document analysis” was used
because it was compatible with the research problem. Written strategic plans were
also analyzed (Yildirim, 2011, p.187).
243
The codification procedures prepared were developed by the authors based on
the literature, which was also analyzed by the experts in this domain. The coding
procedures used within this context were both valid and reliable. The content
validity of this procedure was also considered, and it was developed based on codes
and sub-codes. The strategic plans and datasets of 90 public universities were
analyzed with SPSS 15.0, and they were transformed into numbers that were
analyzed with frequency analysis later on. The main codes of strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats were established by using “education sub-codes”. If the
sub-codes under the main codes in the strategic plans were “available”, they were
given a “1” for the number. If they were not, they were coded as “0”. The datasets
were discussed depending on the scope of Turkey’s higher education strategies,
which were determined according to 8 strategic approaches. These approaches were
also supported by suggestions we give.
1.
2.
3.
Strengths
a. Adequate classrooms and laboratories
b. Interactions between students and teachers
c. Increase in social and cultural activities
d. Availability of social and cultural activities
e. Scholarship and part-time job opportunities
f.
Structure of student involvement in technology
g. Increase in student satisfaction
h. Increase in quality and enhancement of accreditation
i.
ECTS Implementations
j.
Student club activities
k. Surplus in the number of graduates
l.
Foreign language education
m. Increase in the units
n. Diversity of the programs
o. Lifelong learning and certification
p. Lifelong learning center
q. Application-based departments
r.
Fewer students per academic staff member
s. Update of educational contexts
Weaknesses
a. Inadequacy of social opportunities
b. Inadequacy of communication with graduate students
c. Inadequacy of health, cultural, and sports activities
d. Inadequacy of guidance and psychological services
e. Unavailability of career center
f.
Inadequacy of scholarship opportunities for students
g. Inadequacy of application-oriented education
h. Inadequacy of foreign language implementation
i.
Inadequacy in the number and variety of graduate programs
j.
No renovation of vocational schools
k. Inadequacy of educational materials
Opportunities
a. Progress in the area of exchange programs
b. Opportunities from the Bologna Process
4.
c.
d.
Threats
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Opportunities based on international demand
Opportunity for distance education
Location in earthquake regions
Inadequacy of dormitories
Socially inadequate provinces
Increasing number of private universities
Other universities and their elections
Problem of employment
Changes in the laws and regulations
Poor quality of secondary school education
Open admission to vocational schools
Data Analysis
In the research, the strategic plans and educational perspectives of 90 public
universities were analyzed by considering “strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats”. Based on these categories, subcategories were determined by
considering educational purposes. Then these subcategories were coded via the
dataset of “present state analysis”, which was also included in the strategic plans.
The data gathered on the issue of “education” in this sample is organized in the
following table.
Table 1.
Educational Strengths of Public Universities
Frequency
Yes
34
32
26
No
56
58
64
90
90
90
Percentage
(%)
Yes
No
37,8
62,2
35,6
64,4
28,9
71,1
26
4
21
18
64
86
69
72
90
90
90
90
28,9
30,0
23,3
20,0
71,1
70
76,7
80,0
100
100
100
100
18
16
72
74
90
90
20,0
17,8
80,0
82,2
100
100
16
10
8
74
80
82
90
90
90
17,8
11,1
8,9
82,2
88,9
91,1
100
100
100
6
6
5
5
5
84
84
85
85
85
90
90
90
90
90
6,7
6,7
5,6
5,6
5,6
93,3
93.3
94,4
94,4
94,4
100
100
100
100
100
Strenghts
Diversity of the programs
Increase in social activities
Interaction between students and the
academic staff
Quality and accreditation Increase
Student involvement in technology
Active student clubs
Lifelong Learning Center and
certification
Update in the contexts of education
Infrastructure for foreign language
education
Increase in units
ECTS Implementations
Opportunities for scholarships and
part-time work
Application-oriented departments
Fewer students per academic staff
Adequate classrooms and laboratories
Increase in student satisfaction
Increase in number of graduate
students
Total
Total
%
100
100
100
245
Generally, it is of great importance for both interior and exterior participants to
update the educational programs, that is to say, the curricula. As stated in Table 1,
the public universities have “program diversity” with 37,8% which can be regarded
as a crucial strength for them. The main reasons for this strength are that the
universities have the capabilities to work in collaboration with industry and other
sectors, pursue innovations, open new programs, and follow international policies.
Diversity of programs suggests that students who get an education at the universities
with a large number of preferred fields and with different types of programs have
the advantage compared to others. As to higher education strategies, an increase in
the number of programs offered can be regarded as implementations of educationoriented strategies (Table 1).
The term education involves concepts such as plan, objectives, changing
behaviours, and being social culturally (Aklan, 1979, p.4). Because education refers to
experiences outside school as well, individuals are always in close contact with their
social environments due to education. Additionally, education is effective in
influencing human beings and shaping their characters (Soyler, 2008, p.427).
Therefore, the other functions of the universities shed light on education socially as
well as culturally. A result of this study states that there is an increase in the social
activities in 35,6% of public universities in Turkey. Universities have large
organizations such as student clubs and councils for the social activities that provide
opportunities for leadership, psychology counseling, travelling, social activities, and
sports events (Lombardi et al., 2001, p.2-14). From this perspective, social activities
play a very crucial role in education. This strength is associated with the “social
activities and life culture” strategy found in the higher education strategy. A
Another result of the study states that communication between students and
academicians, determined at 28,9% in Turkey, is a further strength of the public
universities. A great many universities claim that they respond to the level of student
satisfaction by putting an emphasis on “interaction between the academicians and
students”. In the context of organization, “customer satisfaction with services and
products” is regarded as a fundamental method for universities to gain competitive
advantage. Since communication is strategically important for education, strategies
for better communication have begun to be implemented in the universities (Table 1).
Providing a quality university education is also of great significance in Turkey.
Practices for increasing quality in education must be encouraged because quality
plays a critical role in competitive advantage. According to Table 1, 28,9% of the
universities have increased their quality and strengthened their accreditation. In
recent years, the quality-oriented education system in the universities is of great
importance for both international policies and the internalization of the accreditation
studies. For that reason, implementing the necessary quality standards both
nationally and internationally is a very powerful way of triggering competitive
advantage at the universities. As the implementation of these standards coincides
with the expectations for quality in higher education, shareholder satisfaction will be
achieved in many fields. This compatibility is only possible with the provision from
concrete components of universities to the capabilities, from attitudes and context to
the reliabilities (Table 1).
Universities are at the forefront of technological developments and the
adaptation of them to real life, as well as the transfer of theoretical knowledge from
education to industry. Universities are also critical institutions for establishing a
bridge between education and industry through the research, development, and
implementation of new technologies (Buget, 1996, p.34). In conjunction with the issue
of developing technology, it is compulsory that policies be made that allow public
universities to have technological facilities that provide services to students.
Fundamentally, the technology programs found in most universities, the electronic
registration systems, and the online course selection enhance students’ lives. 30,0% of
the universities in our study put an emphasis on their “technological student affairs”.
Considering the rapid pace in the development of technology and technology’s goaloriented idealism, it is essential that we use these programs and automation systems
in other fields (Table 1).
Another strength of the universities that is related to students is the “active
students clubs”. Universities revealed that 23,3% of them meet the need for student
clubs. Via clubs, which can be regarded as an arena for student activity, students
develop their capabilities in “leadership, management, and team spirit”. Student
clubs constitute the social sphere of education at universities and are an advantage to
them. Students clubs and their activities are also mentioned in the higher education
strategy and must be implemented by universities (Table 1).
The percentage of the universities that emphasize lifelong learning centers and
certification work is 20%. Thanks to these centers, universities provide study in
different fields through “courses, seminars, and conferences” and award certificates
to students. These activities make lifelong learning centers attractive. Additionally,
20% percent of the universities are successful in updating their curricula. Updating
courses on the basis of contexts, in other words providing curricula that serve
various sectors, will pave the way for students to become well-qualified. Programs
and curricula that are continually being updated are advantageous for the
development of students socially as well as educationally (Table 1).
The percentage of the universities that regard a strong infrastructure in foreign
language education as important is 17,8%. “English prep classes,” which are so
prevalent in the public universities, are the most important tool of foreign language
education. These prep classes, which improve students’ foreign language skills, are
obligatory in the technical, health, and social fields. 11% percent of the universities
are effective in their implementations of European-quality credit systems. The
transfer of European-oriented science and culture from member states to Turkey
results in socio-political and cultural advantages as well as financial ones. In this
context, the Process of Bologna, ECTS studies, and the standardization of diplomas
require that we treat differences in a standardized way. Services that are in line with
quality standards will be useful in gaining competitive advantage for both national
and intentional students. In recent years, with the implementations of international
education policies and standards, endeavors for compatibility with international
quality standards started. Educating the students with courses that coordinate with
international programs is the most important indicator of these efforts. Obtaining
quality in each field will enhance competitive advantage as well (Table 1).
The percentage of the universities that provide scholarships and part-time work
is 8,9%, which can be regarded as low. This criterion, in which the universities
judged themselves as strong, shows that these services are inadequate for the
students economically. Giving priority to application-based programs in the public
247
universities can be regarded as a sort of strength for them. 6,7% of the universities
found application-centered programs an advantage (Table 1).
On the other hand, 56,7% of the universities considers that fewer students per
academician is an advantage that has a great impact on research and development
because the fewer the students per academic staff member enhances the service
quality offered (sharing time among students, close communication, etc.) and does
not restrict time for academic research. The percentage of the universities that views
student satisfaction as a strength is 5,6%. The majority of graduate students believe
that one function of a university is to provide a type of network, which is one of their
criteria for student satisfaction.. We can safely say that the universities that view
student satisfaction as a strength are rare and do not reflect the general (Table 1).
Table 2.
The Weaknesses of Public Universities in Education
Frequency
Weaknesses
Total
Yes
No
Inadequate communication with
graduate students
41
49
Inadequacy of social services
41
Scarcity of health, culture, and
sports facilities
34
Inadequacy of foreign language
education
Inadequacy of libraries
Percentage
(%)
Total
%
Yes
No
90
45,6
54,4
100
49
90
45,6
54,4
100
56
90
37,8
62,2
100
32
58
90
35,6
64,4
100
29
61
90
32,2
67,8
100
25,6
74,4
100
23,3
76,7
100
80,0
100
Scarcity of graduate programs
23
67
90
Scarcity
of
psychological
counseling and guidance services
21
69
90
Lack of a career center
18
72
90
Inadequacy of scholarship support
to students
16
74
90
17,8
82,2
100
Inadequacy of implementationoriented education
15
75
90
16,7
83,3
100
Inadequacy
materials
13
77
90
14,4
85,6
100
of
educational
20,0
The highest percentage among the weaknesses in the universities is the “lack of
communication with graduate students”. Universities state that 45,6% of them have
difficulty in establishing communication with their graduate students, a problem that
can be prevented through “counseling services for graduate students, continuity of
interaction with graduates, following graduates, and gaining advantage from
graduates”. Interaction and cooperation with graduates and following up on them
are of great importance to universities. With regard to communication in higher
education, we note that the lack of communication with graduate students suggests a
lack of communication with external shareholders. At this point, we feel that the
importance of an interactional style of communication with internal shareholders, as
well as external ones, should be considered (Table 2).
Other weaknesses determined as a result of the study are the inadequacy of areas
for social events, at 45,6%, and the scarcity of health, culture, and sports facilities, at
37,8%. These weaknesses could stem from the fact that public universities possess a
limited amount of space and a limited number of physical facilities, which is a
disadvantage that results from space being taken up by health, counseling,
internship, and social services. Enhancing social and cultural activities that appeal to
students increases the quality of life at universities. However, the weakness in this
area for public universities is the lack of space and physical facilities, a problem that
means that public universities must revise their policies on this issue (Table 2).
Moreover, 35,6% of public universities specified that “inadequacy of foreign
language education” is a weakness for them that stems from a university offering
instruction in only a preferred foreign language. However, public universities in
general do not offer enough foreign language education. In Turkey, the universities
that meet the requirements for foreign language education are the private ones. Thus,
our study indicates that increasing foreign language education in the public
universities will attract students (Table 2).
To tie back into our topic of educating students for the modern age, we promote
the idea that students need to have adequate physical facilities, modern laboratories,
libraries, and technological opportunities. Providing these services enhances the
quality of education. However, 32,2% of public universities mention that they have
inadequate library facilities. There are few books, which are the most important tools
of research and development, and most of the universities do not subscribe to an
adequate number or variety of academic journals. Finding concrete solutions to the
inadequacy of these resources, both qualitatively and quantitatively, would be
beneficial for research and development activities and for the student improvement
as well (Table 2).
In spite of the fact that graduate studies are so prevalent, programs for graduate
studies in our universities are too limited. Undergraduate studies are given priority
because of an increase in the young population, a situation that has been studied
under the title “Scarcity of graduate programs”. As the academic and technological
infrastructures are considered for the MA, MS, MBA, and PhD programs, universities
must place an emphasis on developing the capacity and diversity needed for
graduate programs (Table 2).
Another educational need at the universities is “counseling services”. However,
the percentage of universities that voice their concerns over the inadequacy of
counseling services is only 23,3%. Offering qualified psychological counseling and
guidance programs to students will improve the students’ lives socially, as well as
psychologically. In addition, career centers are the places that encourage students
toward a particular path or career by means of their capabilities. 20% percent of the
public universities do not have career centers, which results in the vicious cycle of
career planning studies. All of these things mentioned must be considered well in
advance of higher education strategy planning (Table 2).
249
In the category of strengths, the number of universities that mention the presence
of scholarship opportunities is limited. So, according to Table 2, 17,8% of public
university administrations are concerned about scholarship opportunities, which
appears as the second weakness following budget deficiency (the budgets given to
universities are not enough to support them). Thus, giving adequate support to
students financially through scholarship opportunities is crucial (Table 2).
Lastly, the other important points mentioned are “inadequacy of implicational
studies” and “inadequacy of educational materials”. The universities of developed
countries attach particular importance to innovation since they do not have many
restrictions on educational materials and laboratory facilities. Therefore, enhancing
implicational studies would be a great advantage for Turkish universities. Offering
students internships, establishing ties with industrial liaisons, and giving priority to
practice rather than theory can all contribute to the development of implicational
studies (Table 2).
Table 3.
Opportunities in Public Universities
Frequency
Opportunities
Total
Yes
No
Exchange programs
53
37
Bologna Process
19
International student demands
Opportunity for distance
education
Percentage
(%)
Total
%
Yes
No
90
58,9
41,1
100
71
90
21,1
78,9
100
16
74
90
17,8
82,2
100
15
75
90
16,7
83,3
100
One of the opportunities that the universities seek is progress in international
cooperation. Within the scope of Erasmus, a great many students go to other
countries to receive an education because there are plenty of researchers who take
part in research projects (Senatalar, 2008, p. 359-361). 58,9% of the public universities
in Turkey regard these exchange programs as an opportunity. This need is also
highlighted in the Bologna Process. The student and academic staff exchange that
began with the Erasmus Program – and the European identity that resulted from this
program – is the standard suggestion for knowledge sharing that has developed new
approaches and perspectives in education. The European-originated scientific and
cultural heritage leads to financial, socio-political, and cultural contributions to
Turkey. In this context, ECTS works with the Bologna Process and the
standardization of diplomas entails the restructuring of differences in a standardized
way (Tatlidil, 2009, p.331). Furthermore, 17,8% of the universities take international
exchange programs into account and consider the demands of having international
students an opportunity (Table 3).
Parallel to the changes in the development and sharing of knowledge, as well the
means of applying them to practical and future life, the methods of acquiring
education have also changed. Some traditional applications started to change with
the Internet and the network that it offers. “Distance learning” can be numbered
among the advantages for students since this type of education becomes an activity
that is free of any limit, building, or campus. Thus, without going to schools, the
students can get certificates and diplomas via distance education (Bayrak and Senis,
2009, p.32-33). The percentage of the universities that consider this method as a kind
of advantage is 16,7% (Table 3).
Table 4.
Educational Threats to Public Universities
Frequency
Threats
The presence of other universities
Total
Yes
No
44
46
Percentage
(%)
Total
%
Yes
No
90
48,9
51,1
100
42,2
57,8
100
The increasing number of private
universities
38
52
90
Changes in the laws and
regulations
22
68
90
24,4
75,6
100
Inadequacy in the number of
dormitories
22
68
90
24,4
75,6
100
Inadequacy of social life in the
provinces
21
69
90
76,7
100
The problem of employment
19
71
90
21,1
78,9
100
Low quality of secondary school
education
17
73
90
18,9
81,1
100
Student admission to vocational
schools without any exam
15
75
90
16,7
83,3
100
The factor of earthquakes
9
81
90
10,0
90,0
100
23,3
An increasing number of the universities in Turkey have also accelerated their
efforts to compete, and the universities are now in rivalry with one another. 48,9% of
the public universities regard the preferences of other universities as a risk for them.
Private universities in Turkey, established according to the 130 Article of the
Constitution, are seen by the public universities as a risk as well. For 42,2% of the
public universities, the increasing number of private universities is a risk for them
because the private universities offer alluring opportunities to the student
candidates. 24,4% of the universities regard laws and regulations as a type of threat
since the foundations of these universities were aligned with these legal systems. To
put it clearly, the related articles of Higher Education Law 2547 affect the education
at the universities, so they are a sort of risk (Table 4).
251
Another threat is the scarcity of “accommodations facilities”. 24,4% of the
universities mention the scarcity of dormitories, which is significant because
accommodations are a sinequanon of student life. As for the inadequacy of social
activities in the provinces, 23,3% of the universities state that it poses a risk for
university education in Turkey because social mobility in the cities and social
activities play a critical role in student preferences (Table 4).
21,1% of the universities reveal that the students’ future employment
opportunities are a particular risk for them. Fluctuations in the economy and changes
in economic policy influence not only the universities but also the country as a
whole. These changes can be viewed as a threat because they create instability within
the job market (Table 4).
Low-quality education in the secondary schools is seen as another threat to
universities. The central exam for the placement of students has been used in Turkey
for many years. But, central exams have been harshly criticized because they create a
harsh rivalry among the students and furnish some private institutions with
unearned money. Another drawback of this system is the practice of guiding a
student toward a particular field or career that becomes compulsory for the student.
16,7% of the universities regard “Student Admission to Vocational Schools Without
Any Exam” as a threat, which can be interpreted as a statement that open admission
to some vocational schools decreases the quality of education (Table 4).
Lastly, 10% of the public universities stated that their geographical locations are
risky because of earthquakes. Most people like to live in the cities that are
geographically convenient and far from the risk of earthquakes. Therefore, students
tend to prefer universities in the cities located away from earthquake regions (Table
4).
Discussion and Conclusions
The primary aim of this study is to reveal the strengths and the weaknesses of the
current situation of public universities in Turkey and to assess their conditions
within the framework of higher education strategy and within this framework,
content analysis as a sort of qualitative method, was used.
The research is qualitative in nature and includes observation, interview, and
document analysis. In this qualitative research, content analysis which is used to
reveal the objective, measurable, and verifiable explanations of the communications,
which are explicit and concrete (Fiske, 1990, p.176) was used because the analysis
contains oral and written materials, which were categorized by message objectives.
Then, these messages were systematically converted into numbers (Tavsancil &
Aslan, 2001, p.22).
Depending on the data obtained, one third of the universities stated that
“diversity of the programs, increase in social activities, close interaction between
academician and student, and increasing quality and accreditation” are their
strengths. In spite of its low degree, these universities implemented strategies for
educational activities, social activities, the enhancement of life culture, and
communication that were mentioned in the strategy of the Higher Education Council
which is in line with the results conducted on the American universities that suggest
facilities to their students through student clubs like leadership opportunity, social
activities, travelling and sport event opportunity (Lombardini, 2001: 2-14, 5).
As for the weaknesses of the public universities in Turkey, “inadequacy of
interaction with graduate students; inadequacy of social fields; lack of health, culture,
and sport facilities; inadequacy of foreign language education; inadequacy of
libraries; scarcity of graduate programs; inadequacy of psychological counseling and
guidance services; inadequacy of scholarship support,; scarcity of implementationoriented studies; and inadequacy of education materials” can be included in this
category. All of these problems can only be reversed through the implementation of
higher education strategies.
Considering the universities in Europa, international cooperation is very
important for the vision of the university (Senatalar, 2008: 359). Virtually all of the
universities regard exchange programs as a kind of advantage, and so they focus on
“Bologna Process and Exchange” strategies. The mobility of students and
academicians in recent years and educational activities that are in line with European
standards are the particular indicators of success in these areas. The increasing
number of state and private universities is seen as a threat, a concern that can only be
resolved through the correct implementation of higher education strategies at the
right time.
Based on the data and its interpretations, we can safely state that higher
education strategies are only partly implemented in Turkey, and new strategies need
to be developed for physical facilities, communication, social activities and life
culture, student clubs and activities, scholarship and part-time work opportunities,
the applications of different types of education, and the Bologna Process”.
Compared to other universities in the world, European universities put greater
stress on exchange programs and the development of international cooperation.
American universities have seen significant improvement in “advertisement,
research, the quality of students, and faculty positions.” And, Asian universities have
attempted to increase their research funds as well as the number and quality of their
academicians. The universities in all three of these areas can be taken as examples by
Turkish universities.
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Özet
Problem Durumu: Çalışmada bilimsel özerkliğe ve kamu tüzel kişiliğine sahip
üniversitelerin Eğitim-öğretim alanında üstünlükleri, zayıf oldukları alanlar,
Eğitimde fırsat olarak gördükleri noktalar ve Eğitime yönelik tehditleri
araştırılmıştır.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Bu araştırmanın amacı Türkiye’deki kamu üniversitelerinin
Eğitim-öğretim faaliyetlerinin mevcut durumunu tespit etmek, elde edilen
bulgularla, Türkiye’nin Yükseköğretim stratejisinde yer alan Eğitim öğretim
stratejileri ile karşılaştırmaktır. Elde edilen bulgularla Türkiye’ deki kamu
üniversitelerinin Eğitim alan stratejileri, Türkiye Yükseköğretim Stratejisi
çerçevesinde tartışılmış, Eğitim alan stratejilerine yönelik değerlendirmeler ve
öneriler sunulmuştur.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Araştırmada, yöntem olarak nitel analiz tekniklerinden biri
olan içerik analizi kullanılmıştır. Türkiye’de faaliyetlerini sürdüren toplamda 103
kamu üniversitesinden 90’ının stratejik planına bu analiz uygulanmıştır. Stratejik
planlarda yer alan “SWOT analizi” bölümleri araştırmanın analiz birimlerini
oluşturmaktadır.
İçerik analizi, bir metindeki değişkenleri ölçmek amacıyla
sistematik, tarafsız ve araştırmacı tarafından istenirse verileri sayısallaştırarak da
yapılabilen analizdir. Analizde, araştırmacılar tarafından, alan yazın destekli
kodlama yönergesi hazırlanmış ve 90 üniversitenin stratejik planlarından yer alan
“SWOT Analizi” bölümlerinden elde edilen veriler bu yönergeye göre SPSS’te
kodlanmış, frekans ve yüzdelikleri hesaplanarak bulgular incelenmiştir.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Öneriler: Araştırmanın bulguları güçlü yönlere yönelik
“program çeşitliliği, sosyal faaliyet artışı, öğrenci-akademisyen yakın iletişimi, kalite
ve akreditasyonun artması”; zayıf yönlere ilişkin “mezunlarla iletişim yetersizliği,
sosyal alan yetersizliği, sağlık kültür spor olanaklarının yetersizliği, yabancı dilde
Eğitim yetersizliği, kütüphane yetersizliği, lisansüstü program sayısı azlığı,
öğrenciye dönük rehberlik hizmeti yetersizliği, burs desteğinin azlığı, uygulamalı
Eğitimlerin azlığı, Eğitim materyal yetersizliği”; fırsat alanı olarak “değişim
programları” ; tehdit olarak da “diğer kamu ve vakıf üniversitelerindeki artış” ları
şeklinde çıkmıştır.
Buna göre araştırmanın bulguları değerlendirildiğinde, üniversitelerin güçlü yan
olarak belirttikleri kriterlerin Yükseköğretim stratejilerinden “Eğitim alanı, sosyal
etkinlik ve yaşam kültürü, iletişim” stratejilerine uygun olduğu söylenebilir. Bu
stratejileri kısmen dikkate aldıkları düşünülebilir. Amerikan üniversitelerinin
kulüpler vasıtasıyla öğrencilerine liderlik fırsatı sunmaları, sosyal aktivite, seyahat
fırsatları ve spor fırsatları sunmaları (Lombardini, 2001, p.5) burada Türkiye
üniversiteleri için örnek alınabilir. Üniversitelerin özellikle dile getirdikleri zayıf
yanlar, Yükseköğretim stratejisinde de yer aldığı şekliyle “fiziki imkânlar, iletişim,
sosyal etkinlikler ve yaşam kültürü, burs ve part-time iş imkânları, öğrenci
memnuniyeti, Eğitim uygulamaları” stratejileri ile güçlü hale getirilebilir. Bu zayıf
yönlere ilişkin geliştirilecek bu stratejik boyutlar kamu üniversitelerini daha güçlü
hale getirebilir. Günümüzde Alman Üniversitelerinden etkilenerek büyük gelişme
gösteren Amerikan üniversitelerinin rekabet çevresini, seçkin öğrenciler, fakülte
konumları, araştırma olanakları ve öğretim biçimleri oluşturmaktadır (Lombardini,
2001, p.2-14). Üniversitelerin neredeyse yarısının fırsat olarak gördüğü değişim
programları da Yükseköğretimin “Bologna süreci ve değişim” stratejisine uygundur.
Özellikle öğrenci-akademisyen değişimlerinin yurt dışı üniversitelerle yapılması,
üniversiteleri Avrupa standartlarında Eğitim statüsüne taşıyacaktır. Zaten bugün
Avrupa üniversitelerine bakıldığında bu üniversitelerde de uluslararası
işbirliklerinin artırılması bir fırsat olarak görülmektedir (Senatalar, 2008, p.359).
Tehdit olarak görülen alanlarda ise “diğer kamu ve vakıf üniversitelerindeki artış”lar
ifade edilmiştir. Rekabet ortamında üniversitelerin rekabetten kaçması mümkün
olmayacağı için, rekabet stratejilerini geliştirmesi ve bunu Egitim öğretim
stratejileriyle bütünleştirmesi önemli bir hamle olacaktır. Bu noktada da özellikle kısa
ve uzun vadeli değişim programlarının Asya ve Afrika ülkelerine yoğunlaşarak
devam etmesi önerilebilir zira hem Asya hem de Afrika Yuksekogretim öğrencileri
bugün dışarıdaki üniversiteleri tercih etmektedirler (El Samani ve El Saheikh, 2007,
p.2-6). Araştırmanın bulgularından ve genel değerlendirme ve yorumlardan yola
çıkılarak, araştırmaya dâhil olan kamu üniversitelerinin mevcut durumları,
Yuksekogretim stratejilerinin “kısmen” uygulandığı sonucunu ortaya çıkarmıştır.
Fiziki imkânlar, iletişim, sosyal etkinlikler ve yaşam kültürü, öğrenci toplulukları ve
faaliyetleri, burs ve part-time iş imkânları, farklı Egitim uygulamaları, Bologna süreci
kapsamında Egitim-öğretim faaliyetlerinin geliştirilmesi gerektiğini bu çalışmanın
sonuçlarına göre Turkiye’deki kamu üniversitelerine önerilebilir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Egitim, Orgut, Stratejik Plan,Üniversite SWOT Analizi
Submission Checklist
Makale Sunumu Kontrol Çizelgesi
Indicate that this submission is ready to be considered by this journal by checking off
the following.
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Manuscript Agreement:
I / We hereby accept that, the article after being accepted for publication in the Eurasian
Journal of Educational Research (EJER), the author (s) as, all rights related to the article has
been transferred to the ANI PUBLISHING under the laws of the , "copyright transfer".
Makale Eurasian Journal of Educational Research (EJER) dergisinde basıma kabul
edildikten sonra, yazar(lar) olarak; makale ile ilgili tüm hakları, “Telif Hakkı Devir”
yasaları uyarınca, ANI YAYINCILIĞA devrettiğimizi kabul ediyoruz.
Manuscript Submission:
I have prepared my manuscript based on the criteria listed below and I accept all submission
conditions.
Makalemi aşağıda belirtilen kriterlere göre hazırladım ve makale gönderme koşullarının tamamını kabul ediyorum.
Indicate that this submission is ready to be considered by this journal by checking off the following.
Aday makalenin değerlendirilmeye hazır olduğunu aşağıdakilerin her biri ile karşılaştırarak kontrol ediniz.
The manuscript is a report of original educational research or a discussion article
on research topics in education.
1
Aday makale, eğitim alanıyla doğrudan ilgili bir araştırma ya da tartışma
yazısıdır.
The submission has not been previously published, nor sent to another journal for consideration.
2
Sunulan çalışma daha önce herhangi bir yerde yayınlanmamıştır, başka bir derginin incelemesinde değildir.
Within a year, I have not submitted a manuscript to EJER as an author or coauthor for review other than this manuscript.
3
Son bir yıl içerisinde, yazarı olduğum ya da yazarları arasında bulunduğum başka bir çalışma değerlendirilmek üzere EJER’e sunulmamıştır.
All authors of this manuscript are subscribers of the EJER and accept to pay 300
EURO for the cost of proofreading and 10 loose copies of their articles if the
manuscript is accepted.
4
Bu aday makalenin tüm yazarları EJER’e abonedirler ve aday makalenin
kabul edilip basılması halinde makalelerinin İngilizce son okuma (proofreading) ve 10 serbest kopya gönderimi nedeniyle oluşan 675 TL maliyeti
Anı Yayıncılık'a ödemeyi kabul ederler.
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The entire manuscript is written in English.
5
Aday makalenin bütününün yazım dili İngilizce’dir.
The original manuscript is typed on A4 paper. The margins are 2.5 cm.
6
Aday makale kenar boşlukları 2.5 cm olan A4 kağıda yazılmıştır.
Each paragraph is longer than two sentences.
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Her bir paragraf en az üç cümle içermektedir.
The entire manuscript - including quotations, references, author note, content
footnotes, figure captions, and all parts of tables – is double-spaced.
8
Aday makalenin tamamı, alıntılar, kaynakça, şekil ve tablo başlıkları da
dahil olmak üzere çift aralıklı yazılmıştır.
The submission file is in Microsoft Word document file format. 12-point Times
New Roman font is used in entire manuscript.
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Aday makale, tamamında 12 punto Times New Roman yazı tipi kullanılarak hazırlanmış bir Microsoft Word dokümanıdır.
The text has had the authors' names removed. If an author is cited, "Author" and
year are used in the bibliography and footnotes, instead of author's name, paper title,
etc. The author's name has also been removed from the attached document.
Aday makale, yazar adları çıkarılarak sunulmuştur. Eğer yazar kendisine
atıfta bulunduysa yazarın adına ve çalışma başlığına yer verilmeyecek, sadece “Author” yazılarak çalışmanın yılı belirtilecektir. Eklenen dosyada yazar
adı belirtilmeyecektir.
The title is 10 to 12 words.
Aday makalenin başlığı 10-12 sözcük uzunluğundadır.
The maximum length of the manuscript-including structured abstract in English, tables, and references is 6000 words. This limitation does not include Turkish extended abstract (750-1000 words)which is placed after the references section.
Aday makale, İngilizce abstract, tablolar ve kaynakça vb. tüm ögeler dahil olmak
üzere en fazla 6000 sözcüktür. Kaynakça’nın ardından yer verilen uzun Türkçe
özet (750-1000 sözcük) bu sayıya dahil değildir.
The article is preceded by English Structured Abstract of not more than 400 words and not
less than 300 using five required headings: Problem Statement, Purpose of Study, Methods,
Findings and Results, and Conclusions and Recommendations. (These headings may
need some adaptation in the case of discussion papers: Background, Purpose of Study,
Sources of Evidence, Main Argument, and Conclusions). More information available
from (http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/authors/rereabstracts.asp)
Yapılandırılmış İngilizce öz 300-400 sözcük uzunluğunda olup, aday makalenin başında yer almakta ve Problem Durumu, Araştırmanın Amacı, Araştırmanın Yöntemi, Araştırmanın Bulguları, Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri başlıklarını içermektedir. Bu başlıklar tartışma yazıları için: Çalışmanın Temeli,
Çalışmanın Amacı, Kanıt Kaynakları, Ana Tartışma ve Sonuçlar şeklinde olabilir.
Eğitim Araştırmaları
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Daha fazla bilgi için
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/authors/rereabstracts.asp adresine başvurunuz.
Following the structured abstract in English four to six keywords are included.
14
Yapılandırılmış İngilizce özden sonra 4-6 anahtar sözcüğe yer verilmiştir.
An extended (750-1000 words) Turkish structured abstract is placed following
the “References” section using five required headings: Problem Statement, Purpose of
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Study, Methods, Findings and Results, and Conclusions and Recommendations.
(These headings may need some adaptation in the case of discussion papers: Background, Purpose of Study, Sources of Evidence, Main Argument, and
Conclusions). More information available from
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/authors/rereabstracts.asp
Kaynakça’dan sonra 750-1000 sözcükten oluşan Türkçe yapılandırılmış
öze yer verilmiştir. Türkçe yapılandırılmış öz Problem Durumu, Araştırmanın Amacı, Araştırmanın Yöntemi, Araştırmanın Bulguları, Araştırmanın
Sonuçları ve Önerileri başlıklarını içermektedir. Bu başlıklar tartışma yazıları için: Çalışmanın Temeli, Çalışmanın Amacı, Kanıt Kaynakları, Ana Tartışma ve Sonuçlar şeklinde olabilir. Daha fazla bilgi için;
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/authors /rereabstracts.asp
Following the Turkish structured abstract, four to six keywords are included.
Uzun Türkçe özetten sonra 4-6 anahtar sözcüğe yer verilmelidir.
References are not cited in the structured abstracts in English and in Turkish.
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İngilizce abstract ve Türkçe öz içerisinde atıfta bulunulmamıştır.
The format of headings, tables, figures, citations, references, and other details follow the APA 6 style as described in the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, 6th edition, available from http://www.apa.org
18
Aday makalenin başlıkları, tabloları, şekilleri, atıfları, kaynakçası ve diğer
özellikleri tamamen APA altıncı baskıda belirtildiği şekildedir.
All illustrations, figures, and tables are placed within the text at the appropriate
points, rather than at the end.
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Aday makalenin şekilleri ve tabloları metin içerisinde bulunmaları gereken uygun yerlere yerleştirilmiştir. Makale sonunda sunulmamıştır.
Citations in the text of the document include the author's surname, the
year of publication, and, when there is a specific quote from a source
used, a page number where the quote is located in the text.
Example:
Nothing seemed so certain as the results of the early studies (Tatt, 2001, p.
445). It was precisely this level of apparent certainty, however, which led to
260
a number of subsequent challenges to the techniques used to process the
data (Jones & Wayne, 2002, p. 879). There were a number of fairly obvious
flaws in the data: consistencies and regularities that seemed most irregular,
upon close scrutiny (Aarns, 2003; West, 2003, p. 457).
With studies by two authors, always include both author names:
(Anderson & Bjorn, 2003)
As Anderson and Bjorn (2003) illustrated in their recent study
As recently as 2003, a prominent study (Anderson & Bjorn) illustrated
When a study has 3, 4, or 5 authors, include the names of all the authors
the first time the work is cited:
(Anderson, Myers, Wilkes, & Matthews, 2003)
For all subsequent citations of this work, use "et al.":
(Anderson et al., 2003)
When a work has 6 or more authors, use et al.:
(Bell et al., 2003)
For unsigned works, include the title, enclosed in parentheses. Put quotation marks for short work titles, and italicize the titles of reports, books,
and other significant works:
("Recent Developments," 2004)
(Dictionary of Tetrathalocigistic Diseases, 2004)
Metin içindeki atıfları üstte verilen örneklere uygundur.
Three levels of headings are used: Level 1, Level 3 and Level 4. The headings
are formatted as follows:
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading (Level 1)
Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading (Level 3)
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. Start
writing after the period (Level 4).
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Aday makale içerisinde üç farklı düzey başlık kullanılmıştır. Düzey 1,
Düzey 2, Düzey 3. Başlıklar bu düzeylere uygun olarak aşağıdaki şekilde
biçimlendirilmiştir:
Ortalı ve Her Sözcüğün İlk Harfi Büyük Yazılmış Başlık (Düzey 1)
Tam Sola Dayalı, İtalik ve Her Sözcüğün İlk Harfi Büyük Yazılmış Başlık (Düzey 3)
İçeriden, itatik, tamamı küçük harflerle yazılmış ve nokta ile bitten başlık.
Noktadan sonra normal metin yazımına devam edilmeli (Düzey 4).
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References are listed in alphabetical order. Each listed reference is cited in
text, and each text citation is listed in the References. Basic formats are as
follows:
Haag, L., & Stern, E. (2003). In search of the benefits of learning Latin.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 174–178.
Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York:
Wiley.
Eğitim Araştırmaları
261
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1990). Cooperative learning and
achievement. In S. Sharan (Ed.), Cooperative learning: Theory and research
(pp. 173–202). New York: Praeger.
Turkish References Only:
Çınkır, Ş., & Çetin, S. K. (2010). Öğretmenlerin okullarda mesleki çalışma
ilişkileri hakkındaki görüşleri [Teachers’ opinions about the professional
working relationships in schools ]. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi,
1 6(3), 353-371.
Article in an Internet-only journal/Periodical, database
Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from
http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html
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More information is available from:
http://citationonline.net/CitationHelp/csg04-manuscriptsapa.htm#references
Kaynakçanın yazımı üstte verilen örneklere uygundur.
Order of the main parts in the manuscript is as follows:
Main title in English (max. 12 words)
Structured abstract (min. 300- max.400 words length)
Keywords (in English, min. four-max. six)
Main text
References
Main Title in Turkish (max. 12 words
Extended structured abstract (min.750-max.1000 words length in Turkish)
Keywords (in Turkish, min. four-max. six)
Aday makaleyi oluşturan ana öğeler aşağıdaki düzendedir:
İngilizce Ana Başlık (En fazla 12 sözcük)
Yapılandırılmış İngilizce Abstract (En az 300, en fazla 400 sözcük)
Anahtar Sözcükler (İngilizce, en az dört, en fazla altı)
Ana Metin
Kaynakça
Türkçe Ana Başlık (En fazla 12 sözcük)
Yapılandırılmış Türkçe Öz (En az 750, en fazla 1000 sözcük)
Anahtar Sözcükler (Türkçe, en az dört, en fazla altı)
Structure of the Manuscript should be as follows:
Manuscript Title
English Abstract (350-400 words) Sub-headings:
Problem statement:…
Purpose of Study:…
Method:….
Findings and Results:….
Conclusions and Recommendations:…
262
Keywords:..
Introduction Method (sub-headings):
Research Design
Research Sample
Research Instrument and Procedure
Data Analysis
Results, Discussion and Conclusion, References
Extended Turkish Abstract (750-1000 words) Sub-headings:
Problem Durumu:….
Araştırmanın Amacı:….
Araştırmanın Yöntemi:…
Araştırmanın Bulguları:…
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri:…..
EJER editor reserves the right to reject manuscripts and not to publish it
that do not comply fully with the EJER Manuscript Submission Guidelines.
25
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Öğrenci Aboneliği: ........................................................................ :
Tek Sayılar İçin:
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Kurumlar ...................................................................................... :
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