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ALATOO ACADEMIC STUDIES ISSN: 16945263 omnim Volume 3 Number 1 Year 2008 CONTENTS SOCIAL SCIENCES ALATOO ACADEMIC STUDIES International Scientific Journal a publication of International Ataturk Alatoo University Address: Microregion Thunguch, Gorky Street, 72048 Bishkek KYRGYZSTAN Tel: +996 312 631425 +996 312 631426 Fax: +996 312631428 Email: [email protected] Журнал Кыргыз Республикасыны
н Юстиция министирлигинд
е катталган, каттоо куболугу № 969. TURKISH IMMIGRATION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION CONTEXT Sureyya Yigit
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ETHNIC IDENTITIES IN KYRGYZSTAN: THE CASE OF RUSSIAN MINORITY Halim Nezihoglu
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THE MARKET ECONOMY AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN KYRGYZSTAN AFTER THE DISSOLUTION OF THE SOVIET UNION Yasar Sari
24
ORTADOĞU’DA TÜRKÇE ÖĞRETİM KİTAPLARININ TARİHSEL GELİŞİMİ VE GÜNÜMÜZDEKİ DURUMU Candemir Doğan
31
НЕВЕРБАЛЬНАЯ КОММУНИКАЦИЯ В ТЕАТРЕ И ЖИВОПИСИ Г. Е. Крейдлин
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IMPLICATIONS OF INTERENT AND E
COMMERCE ON LABOUR MARKET Sumanjeet Singh
50 INTERGOVERNMENTAL FISCAL RELATIONS AND DEGREE OF THE FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION IN THE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC Seyfi YILDIZ &Yaşar AYYILDIZ
57
ORIGINS OF JADIDISM – FROM BUKHARA TO THE MIDDLE VOLGA AND BACK…… THE IMPORTANCE OF TATAR EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS Scott Willis
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KAMU YÖNETİMİNDE ÇAĞDAŞ GELİŞMELER VE TÜRKİYE Eyüp ZENGİN & Cemal ÖZTAŞ
85
ЛИНГВОДИДАКТИКА РУССКИХ ЧАСТИЦ В ШКОЛЕ И ВУЗЕ Алимпиева Л.В.
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APPLIED SCIENCES ELECTRONIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (EIS) for INTERNATIONAL ATATURK ALATOO UNIVERSITY Mustafa Simsek
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QBASIC: A PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS M. Zakirova & N. Ari
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Alatoo Academic Studies………………………………….………………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 ALATOO ACADEMIC
STUDIES
ISSN: 1694-5263
Volume 3 - Number 1 - Year 2008
(International Scientific Journal)
a
publication
of
International Ataturk Alatoo University
Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN
February 2008
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Alatoo Academic Studies………………………………….………………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 4
Alatoo Academic Studies………………………………….………………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 AIM AND SCOPE OF THE JOURNAL Alatoo Academic Studies is a peer-reviewed refereed journal published semiannually by International
Ataturk Alatoo University (Bishkek, capital of Kyrgyz Republic), one of leading international universities of both
Kyrgyzstan and Central Asia with its multi-language focus in education. The journal’s mission is to enlarge
Eurasian scholarsip in different fields. The journal intends to deal with subjects ranging from economics,
business, politics, humanities, sociology, religion, linguistics, applies sciences, engneering and other fields. The
regional focus, Eurasian one, has a special place in the journal’s mission. So, those articles concerning Eurasian
scholarship will be specially welcomed by the journal. The journal’s focus is the problems and new phenomena
caused by social, economic, political, cultural changes in newly independent states of the ex- Soviet Union. Since
transition brought many different things to the related countries, the journal especially seeks original papers
dealing with all aspects of these changes. Though the major focus of the journal is on Eurasia, papers dealing
with other subjects can also be acccepted. Especially, inter disciplinary studies having views from different
perspectives are valued for the journal. The journal accepts articles, research notes, book reviews, etc. in
English, Turkish, Kyrgyz and Russian languages.
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Alatoo Academic Studies………………………………….………………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 EDITOR Prof. Dr. Erol ORAL,
International Ataturk Alatoo University (Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN)
COEDITOR Prof. Dr. Mariam EDILOVA, International Ataturk Alatoo University (Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN)
JOURNAL COORDINATORS Ibrahim KELES, International Ataturk Alatoo University (Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN)
Talant ASAN UULU, International Ataturk Alatoo University (Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN)
JOURNAL MAILING ADDRESS: International Ataturk Alatoo University
Microregion Tunguch Gorky Street, 720048, Bishkek, KYRGYZSTAN
JOURNAL WEB ADDRESS: www.iaau.edu.kg/aas JOURNAL CONTACT EMAILS: Ibrahim KELES & Talant ASAN UULU, (journal coordinators) at [email protected], [email protected]
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Alatoo Academic Studies………………………………….………………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 JOURNAL SCIENCE BOARD Prof. Dr. Erol ORAL
(Kyrgyzstan)
Acad.Prof.Dr.Altay BORUBAEV (Mathematics)
Kyrgyz National Attestation Committee
(Kyrgyzstan) Prof. Dr. Ibrahim HASGUR, (Statistics & Law)
TBMM (Turkey)
Prof. Dr. Mariam EDILOVA, (Philosophy)
Kyrgyz State University (Kyrgyzstan)
Prof. Dr. Valentin BABAK (Information
Technology in Economics)
Kyrgyz Technical University (Kyrgyzstan)
Prof. Dr. Vildan SERIN (Central Asian Economies)
Fatih University (Turkey)
Prof. Dr. Beyshebay Usubaliev (Kyrgyz Language)
East University named Mahmoud Kashgary
Barskany (Kyrgyzstan)
Prof. Dr. Tashpolot SADYKOV (Turkish Language)
(Kyrgyzstan)
Prof. Dr. Nurdan ASLAN, (Economics)
Marmara University (Turkey)
Prof. Dr. Sadık ACAR,
Dokuz Eylul University (Turkey)
Prof. Dr. Ismail OZSOY, (Economic History)
Prof. Dr. Asylbek IBRAEV (Phonetics)
(Kyrgyzstan)
Prof. Dr. Hasan SELCUK, (Law)
Marmara University (Turkey)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zinaida KARAYEVA (Literature)
Kyrgyzstan International University (Kyrgyzstan)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Georgiy MRAOSHNICHENKO
(Artificial Intelligence, Cryptology)
(Kyrgyzstan)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Muhsin HALIS, (Management)
Sakarya University (Turkey)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Orozbek KOCOGULOV (Physics)
(Kyrgyzstan)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mustafa OKMEN (Local
Governments & Urbanization)
Celal Bayar University (Turkey)
Assis. Prof. Dr. Mehmet ORHAN (Econometry)
Assis. Prof. Dr. Vedat KIRAY, (Electronics,
Robotics & Fuzzy Logic)
(Kyrgyzstan)
Assis. Prof. Dr. Mesut YILMAZ, (Ecomomics)
Suleyman Demirel University (Kazakhstan)
Assis. Prof. Dr. Mustafa AKIN, (Development
Economies) Maltepe University (Turkey)
Assis. Prof. Dr. Ahmet AKIN (Finance)
Assis. Prof. Dr. László VASA, (Management)
Szent István University (Hungary)
Assis. Prof. Dr. Ghiyath NAKSHBENDI (International Business) Sangamore Group (USA)
Assis. Prof. Dr. Lutfu SAGBANSUA, (Operations
Management) International Ataturk Alatoo
University (Kyrgyzstan)
Assis. Prof. Dr. Nizamettin BAYYURT
(Quantitative Techniques)
Assis. Prof. Dr. Ihsan YILMAZ, (Socio-legal studies,
Law and Politics, Religion and Secularism)
University of London (United Kingdom)
Assis. Prof. Dr. Cihan BULUT, (Economic Policy)
Qafqaz University (Azerbaijan)
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Alexander TSOY (Russian
Language) Litarature Institute of A.M. Gorki
(Russian Federation)
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 CALL FOR PAPERS AND SUBMISSION GUIDELINES CALL FOR PAPERS Alatoo Academic Studies is a double-blind refereed journal which seeks togather original and
unpublished academic papers. The journal accepts original papers dealing with scholarship in economics,
business, international relations, humanities, sociology, religion, linguistics, literature, applied sciences,
engineering, etc. Those papers focusing on newly independent states will be especially welcomed. The journal
accepts articles, research notess, book reviews. The manuscripts can include theoretical, conceptual, empirical
and case study meaningful contributions which will advance our understanding in the related areas. The journal
is semiannually published. The deadlines for submissions are March 1 and September 1. All submissions will be
subjected to “double blind” peer review.
SUBMISSION GUIDELINES Papers should be submitted via e-mail (in word format) to [email protected] or [email protected].
BEFORE YOUR SUBMISSION, PLEASE READ CAREFULLY (PROOF-READING) YOUR PAPER TO MAKE
SURE IT HAS NO SPELLING AND GRAMMAR MISTAKES, AND FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS STATED BELOW TO
FORMAT YOUR PAPER. PAPERS WITH MISTAKES AND WRITTEN NOT CONFORMING TO THE FORMAT
GUIDELINES BELOW WILL BE RETURNED TO THE CORRESPONDING AUTHOR(S)
Paper format: The submission will include
- The title of the paper,
- Name of author(s) and affiliation(s),
- Contact information of the corresponding author
- An abstract of maximum 250 words (all papers should also include an abstract written in English if the paper
is not written in English) - Key words (up to 5)
- All papers should be double-spaced with 11 font size (Times New Roman)
- Margins should be (4 cm) at the left, (2.5cm) at the top, bottom and right
- Before and after paragraphs 6 cm.
- Limits: Approximately 20 pages. If your paper is longer than these limits, we recommend you to shorten it
before the submission. Reference Style Please use in-text reference style, not endnotes style! Examples:
…Fisher and Madet (2000) state that…
…this result has been obtained in a recent study (David, 1997).
At the end of your paper, please give the full citation as indicated below:
Journal Articles
Fisher, J. and Madet, G. (2000), Implications of Globalisation, Journal of Business Development, 34(2): 102-123
Books
Mariam, G. J. (1999), Managing the Change, Basic Books: New York.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Papers
David, H. (1997), Radon Risk Models', in A.R. Knight and B.Harrad (eds.) Indoor Air and Human Health,
Proceedings of the Seventh Life Sciences Symposium; 29-31 October 1981; Knoxville, USA. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp
69-78.
Chapters in Edited Books
Teece, D.J. (1987), Capturing Value from Technological Innovation: Integration, Strategic Partnering and Licensing
Decisions, in R.B. Guile and H. Brooks (eds.) Technology and global industry: Companies and Nations in the World
Economy, Washington DC: National Academy Press, pp.19-38.
Dissertations
Salk, J.E. (1992), Shared Management Joint Ventures: Their Developmental Patterns, Challenges and Possibilities,
Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
MA.
Online documents
Van de Vliert, E. (2002), Thermoclimate, Culture, and Poverty as Country-level Roots of Workers' Wages, [www
document] http://www.jibs.net (accessed 13 January 2003).
Online journal articles
Van de Vliert, E. (2002), Thermoclimate, Culture, and Poverty as Country-level Roots of Workers' Wages, Journal of
Business, doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400007
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 SOCIAL SCIENCES 11
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 TURKISH IMMIGRATION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION CONTEXT
Sureyya Yigit
Lecturer in International Relations
Department of International Relations
The word immigrate, meaning to come to a foreign country, originates from the Latin: immigrare, to
go into. It’s existence is probably even older than Latin, as ever since time began people have been
changing their homes, some voluntarily, others by force. Therefore, the story of migration is an ancient one.
The aim of this paper is to highlight the historical rights that were given by the European Union with regard
to Turkish migration in general, and towards Turkish workers in particular.
Since the Turkish application over twenty years ago the issue of Turks has received much attention
(Yigit, 1996). In fact, the free circulation of newer member states citizens visiting and working in other
member states has also aroused much concern in Britain and other “northern” member states (Yigit, 2000).
One can therefore state that it is not solely the issue of Turkish workers but of migration in general that is a
matter of concern within the EU.
The Commission Opinion of 18 December 1989, on Turkey's application to the European Union
highlighted an important issue area: namely, the vital issue of free movement for workers. The Commission
Opinion stated that "Access of Turkish labour to the Community labour market .... gives rise to fears,
particularly while unemployment remains at a high level within the Community" (Commission of the
European Communities, 1989:7). Given that continuing high unemployment trends are still evident within
the member-states; this issue has therefore remained a problem area within the general context of TurkeyEU relations.
The Commission Report on the Structure of the Turkish Economy, separate from the Opinion,
stated that "in April 1988 some 2,4 million Turkish nationals were living abroad (of whom over one million
are workers). They are to be found primarily in the Federal Republic of Germany (1.5 million of which 0.6
million are workers)" (Commission of the European Communities, 1989:39). Germany was and remains the
most important member state in lieu of free movement for Turkish workers, as so many are situated within
its borders. With the advent of German unification in 1990, more relatively unskilled labour from Eastern
Germany was acquired. This, obviously negatively affected the already bleak employment situation in what
was the dynamo of the Union.
When one reads through the Rome Treaty, the articles relating to the free movement of persons
come under the section entitled "Foundations of the Community". Due to this fact they are rightfully
considered a fundamental and necessary element in a common market which had adopted and supports a
liberal market economy. The aim of free movement of persons is toward the greatest possible freedom of
movement for all the factors within this particular factor of production.
The concept of free movement actually predates the Rome Treaty and the European Economic
Community, as Article 69 of the Paris Treaty accepted the removal of "any restriction based on nationality
upon the employment in the coal and steel industries of workers who are nationals of Member States and
have recognised qualifications in a coalmining or steelmaking occupation".
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 The legal basis for the free movement of workers in the Rome Treaty is to be found in Article 48,
which secures the right of workers to move freely throughout the member states, to accept offers of
employment actually made, to reside in the member states where he or she is employed and to remain in
the territory after employment has ceased.
Article 48(2) of the Rome Treaty implied the abolition of all discrimination based upon nationality
between workers from Member States regarding employment, pay and other conditions. This meant that no
Member State could make any distinction between Community nationals from the point of view of
employment, pay or working conditions.
Article 3(c) of the Rome Treaty states that the Communities activities include "the abolition, as
between Member States, of obstacles to freedom of movement for persons". Such actions are a
prerequisite for the aim of Article 2 which intends to establish "a common market and progressively
approximating the economic policies of Member States, to promote throughout the Community a
harmonious development of economic activities".
The Treaty provisions relating to free movement are directly applicable in the Member States. The
scope of these fundamental rights is confined to the movement of persons and services between Member
States, Having regard to the fact that it is a fundamental right, the free movement of persons must be
liberally interpreted, and the right reserved to Member States to impose restrictions intended to protect
public order or public security becomes exceptional in nature.
The granting of these rights to free movement are subject only to limitations justified by
considerations of Article 48(3) "public policy, public security or public health" 1. It appears from the
limitations laid down by Article 3, which the Rome Treaty does not aim for complete equality of treatment
with respect to nationals.
Thus, in practical terms free movement of Community workers not only rests on Community law,
but its true extent becomes fully apparent only through the regulations which may be adopted by Member
States in the context of the limitations laid down in Article 48(3).
The development of case law relating to such limitations is of particular importance. As Member
states are entitled on these grounds to impose limits on freedom of movement, it is useful to analyze the
interpretation given to the essential content of the concept of public policy in European law. The Courts of
the FRG, experiencing large scale foreign worker immigration, interpreted the concepts of public security
and policy on the basis of national law criteria. The European Court of Justice (ECJ) held in the Van Duyn
case2 , that these concepts did form a part of European law “and where, in particular, it is used as a
justification for derogating from the fundamental principle of freedom of movement for workers, must be
interpreted strictly, so that its scope cannot be determined unilaterally by each Member State without being
subject to control by the institutions of the Community".
Therefore, to be clear in understanding exactly what free movement means, Lodge (1989) states, it
is understood to declare that any citizen of any EU country, provided he/she complies with local
requirements can work anywhere within the Community. Such persons however must have a valid passport
or a national identity card. For the worker, therefore, freedom of movement implies free access to jobs
1 In the Paris Treaty, which established the ECSC, only public health and public policy were mentioned. Public
security, as such was omitted.
2 See Case 41/74 [1974] ECR 1337.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 available in all Member States, especially where demand is high and where the wage levels and working
conditions are better.
The official position of the EC is straightforward, as free movement of workers was, as mentioned,
part of the framework of the Treaty of Rome itself. However, the original Six had to start from a position of
considerable restriction on labour movement and it was not until 1968 that work permits were abolished and
preferences for home country workers no longer permitted. This situation was applicable to all members
including Spain and Portugal, for whom special transitional arrangements had been negotiated concerning
entry restrictions to last until 1993. These arrangements were significantly longer than the time allowed for
earlier applicants, due to the fact that Spanish and Portuguese workers were relatively less skilled than
other Community workers, and their integration would create further unemployment problems within the
Community.
It must be noted, however, that there is no definition of a "worker" for the purposes of the Treaty,
nor even in subsequent Directives. "Workers" within the meaning of Article 48 are persons in salaried
employment. The term "worker" is defined solely by reference to EC law (cases 75/63; 53/81; 139/85;
66/85) and even though free movement in Article 48 is not expressly limited to nationals of member states,
the prevailing view that the term only covers nationals of member states had expressly confirmed by the
ECJ in Caisse d'allocations familiales v Meade (Iktisadi Kalkinma Vakfi, 1986:18). As for persons not in
work but seeking employment in other countries they may cross borders if they comply with local
requirements and have a valid passport. Returning to defining a worker, in Levin (Case 53/81) the ECJ
noted some characteristics, such as the existence of a relationship of employment, that the employment
concerned must be real and effective and not simply marginal or ancillary.
Some regulations also conferred certain rights on members of a worker's family, even if they were
non-Community nationals. Nationals of non-Community countries may benefit from the provision on free
movement only as the spouses or relatives of workers or self-employed persons who are nationals of a
member state. It is clear that nationals of non-Community countries cannot qualify as workers or selfemployed persons in their own right for the purposes of Community Law. That does not necessarily mean
that their legal position is regulated entirely by national law. This is clear to see, as if the non- Community
national can show a connection with a worker or self-employed person who is either a national of a member
state other than that in which he/she is working, or who works in the member state of his nationality, but
whose situation is not excluded from the scope of Community Law as being wholly internal to that state, will
the free movement provisions apply. Though having said this, if the circumstances are otherwise, the
treatment of non-Community nationals remains largely a matter for each member state.
Therefore, the area of free movement of workers is a central issue concerning full membership or
(as will be illustrated) associate membership. The importance attached to both areas can be seen in the
Treaty of Rome (Article 48) for the former, and the Greek and Turkish Association Agreements of the early
1960s.
The issue of free movement received greater attention due to the dual condition of Germany
attaching significant importance toward labour migration for obvious reasons, and of Greece having already
been granted concessions concerning this issue. Thus the Turkish ' side was adamant, as in other areas, on
negotiating a similar outcome, thus keeping in accordance with one of Turkey's Foreign Policy principles:
following, and where necessary, imitating Greece.
The two central articles directly affecting and foreseeing free movement are firstly; Article 12 of the
Ankara Agreement which unequivocally states "The contracting parties agree to be guided by Articles 48,
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 49 and 50 of the Treaty establishing the Community for the purpose of progressively securing freedom of
movement for workers between them" (Official Journal of the European Communities, 1973).
Article 36 of the Additional Protocol contains the most important agreement on this issue. The
article reads, "Freedom of movement for workers between member states of the Community and Turkey
shall be secured by progressive stages in accordance with the principles set out in Article 12 of the
Agreement of Association between the end of the 12th and the 22nd year after the entry into force of that
Agreement" (State Planning Organization, 1987:10). Therefore, one can see that these two articles provide
the cornerstone of the Treaties, and highlight the importance of the Community finalising full access to the
Community labour market by 1st December 1986.
The most important item to bear in mind with reference to this specific article is the fact that it
foresees free movement before full membership, i.e. that social consolidation precedes economic
integration. For it to be seen as a unilateral consolidation by the Community would be erroneous, as it
concerns mutual concessions towards a free movement for workers of both parties.
At the time of the Ankara Agreement, there was already a precedent for the concept of mutual free
movement; via the Athens Agreement. Up until now, even including the Europe Agreements with the
countries of East and Central Europe, these are the only Treaties in which explicit procedures were
expressed, and so it makes sense to briefly compare the two.
At first glance one notices that both regarded the realisation of free movement for all parties
concerned. Whereas the Additional Protocol stated the Association Council would arrange the stages
leading towards free movement, the Association Council established by the Athens Agreement was to be
tied to the decisions based on the Treaty of Rome.
The Athens Agreement's sixth article stated the earliest date for realisation was at the end of the 22
year transition stage i.e. 1962 + 22 = 1984. The Additional Protocol did not, it must be said, include the
phrase concerning "earliest date", though it did set the start and concluding dates for free movement i.e.
1964 + 12 = 1976 and 1976 + 10 = 1986.
The crux of the interpretative difference lies in the phrase "guided by" in the Ankara Agreement and
based "under" in the Athens Agreement. One characteristic that ought to be borne in mind, especially
regarding this issue, are the practical similarities in so many areas between both Treaties. Therefore, is it
valid to state that the Treaties were exactly the same in their spirit, but perhaps not in their wording? One
must be reminded here, that this validity must be questioned as one only has the wording itself to rely on.
Though one could suggest, rather than argue over the wording, why not look at the important issue covering
intentions?
Progressing onwards from this line of thought would lead to a circular argument, as, are not
intentions expressed in words? This is most definitely a tautology, but with regard to free movement, has
there, or has there not, been a definite timescale provided via Article 36? The Turkish side has as Saracoglu
(2000) and Birand (1983) have written consistently believed so and stated so. Furthermore, it must be
remembered that the economic climate of the early and the late
1960s was and is very different to the economic climate of the mid 1990s. As during 1969-70, when
the Additional Protocol was being negotiated, the Community wanted Turkish labour, especially Germany.
According to Saracoglu (The Turkish negotiator at the time of the Association talks and later
Ambassador to the EC) the term "guided by" was incorporated for legal reasons. The situation at the time of
negotiation centered on the obvious acceptance of the Transitional period's varying features being
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 negotiated and decided in the future. Following on from this, alongside the intent of the various Rome Treaty
Articles being implemented within the context of Association, legal worries were expressed in incorporating
such articles into the Treaty, and the matter was resolved by allowing those articles to "guide". The use of
such a word, in later years, was to gain an importance over and above the original idea behind it. The
word/s were usurped, in comparison to their original intent, implying that certain articles in the Rome Treaty
were not to be incorporated into the Association, but only to guide in such matters (i.e. meaning they were
watered down). Here, it must be arrangements as the Community in terms of implementation.
To better understand the negotiating positions and thus the attitudes and intentions of both sides, it
would be helpful to quote an especially poignant example. In January 1963, the Turkish delegation
presented their version of a provisional agreement, within which free movement was to start at the earliest,
in 22 years time, though until then, to be guided by the Rome Treaty Articles. The Association Council was
to establish various stages leading unto the desired aim.
The Community stance was negative from the start and the Commission was of the opinion that not
even a mention of free movement was necessary within the Preparatory phase3. Such an issue could be
taken up during meetings discussing the rules for the Transitory stage4, alongside other economic and
social issues. Faced with a firm position, the Turkish delegation did not insist too much on this issue and
initially appeared to have disregarded it as a priority issue.
As the negotiations were nearing their conclusion, more emphasis was laid upon free movement, at
the behest of the Turkish Employment Ministry. The EC finally accepted that the issue of free movement
could be investigated by the Association Council during the Preparatory Stage. This acceptance was
expressed in a letter dated 12 September 1963, the same day that the whole Association Agreement was
signed. This was presumably due to the unbridgeable time constraint.
The letter itself contains two interesting points. First, the EC not only grants its acceptance to allow
the issue of free movement to be looked into, but also (by mentioning Article 4), matters generally relating to
the beneficial working of the association via the convergence of Turkish economic policies toward the
Communities. Secondly, the concession in the letter is to allow the Association Council to investigate "the
problems of Labour in Turkey during the Preparatory stage". This sounds contradictory as Article 4, which is
mentioned, concerns the development of joint actions, of converging, and here, only the labour in Turkey is
to be investigated. Reading between the lines, the reference to Article 4 is the view held by the Turkish side.
Turkey could take up the issues during the Preparatory stage and via persistent insistence turn it into a joint
action measure. The EC however, as stated earlier, was determined to disregard the free movement issue
during the preparatory stage, thus the jurisdiction granted to the Association Council was not the whole
issue of labour migration, but of labour problems in Turkey. If Turkey were to bring forward the issue of
exporting Turkish workers to the Community, a ready made rejection was already prepared for within the
letter. Despite such foresight and preventative measures, the Community's worries were not realised as the
Turkish side did not make much use of the potential contained in the letter.
When considering the fact that Article 36 has referred to Article 12 of the Ankara Agreement, which,
in turn, refers to Article 49 of the Rome Treaty, it must be accepted that the Association Council, when
deciding on the stages towards free movement is not completely free, as in some respects the realisation of
certain actions are set out by the aforementioned article in the Rome Treaty.
3
4
The Preparatory period lasted from 1964 to1972
The Transitional period lasted from 1973 to 1995.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 The Community, in terms of social integration presented three preliminary requirements: equality in
working conditions, equality in pay and equal treatment in employment. The Additional Protocol only
covered 2/3 via Article 37, i.e. pay and working conditions. The Athens Agreement did not include such
open, clear articles concerning these matters, though it did make direct references to Article 48 of the Rome
Treaty, once again highlighting the fact that in certain instances the aims of both Treaties were the same
and, perhaps, in certain areas the means employed were not identical.
Article 39 (2) of the Additional Protocol relating to entitlements towards social insurance schemes
"create no obligation on member states to take into account periods completed in Turkey". The Athens
Agreement, via Article 44 (2) makes direct reference to Article 51 (a) of the Rome Treaty where all periods
in question are covered. Therefore, both the Rome Treaty and the Athens Agreement accept the inclusion
of time worked outside of the Community in calculations toward social benefits, whereas the Additional
Protocol does not.
As can be seen from the relevant legal texts the issue of free movement in the context of Turkish
workers was a most important one from the viewpoint of the European Union. Despite the fact that certain
rights were foreseen, these never materialized within the Turkish road to membership. There is a lack of
consensus within legal scholars from the EU concerning these rights and obligations. In conclusion, one
may well wonder why it is important to question an issue which the wind of time has ruffled but moved on. It
is important to query legal obligations due to the fact that if past actions have conveniently overlooked
various agreed measures then it can be indicative of future intentions too. Looking at the current state of
negotiations between the EU and Turkey there are no public statements concerning limitations over the
rights of Turkish workers, only transitional periods whereby full implementation and realization of benefits
will be delayed are at issue. Though given the fact that previous assurances probably have been signed, but
not kept, in good faith, this is an area that should weigh heavily not only upon Turkish decision-makers but
on all Turkish citizens too. As with most issues related to enlargement of the EU, time will tell how this
matter will be dealt with.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Birand., Mehmet Ali., Türkiye'nin Avrupa Macerası 1959-1999, Dogan Kitap, Istanbul,
2000.
2. Commission of the European Communities., Commission Opinion on Turkey’s Request for
Accession to the Community. Brussels, 18 December 1989. p.7
3. Commission of the European Communities., The Turkish Economy: Structure and
Developments. SEC (89) 2290 Final. Brussels, 18 December 1989. p.39
4. Iktisadi Kalkinma Vakfi., Avrupa Ekonomik Toplulugu’nda Iscilerin Serbest Dolasimi Nasil
Saglandi” IKV Yayinlari, No: 21, Istanbul. 1986. p.18
5. Lodge, Juliet., (ed). The European Community and the Challenge of the Future. London,
Pinter Publishers1st edition, 1989.
6. Official Journal of the European Communities 1973, No. C113/4
7. Saracoglu, Tevfik., Avrupa Ekonomik Toplulugu, IKV Yayinlari, Istanbul. 1983.
8. State Planning Organisation., Additional Protocol Financial Protocol. Ankara, 1987. p.10
9. Yigit, Sureyya,. “From Here to Eternity - Turkey, the European Union and the Customs
Union”. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, Vol.X, No: 1, 1996.
10. Yigit, Sureyya,. “Sir Edward Heath’s ideas and actions concerning Europe.” Ideas About
Europe Conference Proceedings, Centro de Estudios Europeos, Universidad De Navarra,
Spain., 2000.
17
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 ETHNIC IDENTITIES IN KYRGYZSTAN: THE CASE OF RUSSIAN MINORITY Halim Nezihoglu
International Ataturk Alatoo University, Department of International Relations
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
As Hutchinson and Smith noted, the English adjective ethnic derived from the ancient Greek word
ethnos. The ancient Greeks used the word to refer to a number of people who shared some cultural and/or
biological characteristics. They used that term towards other people who, in their view, were peripheral and
barbarian (Hutchinson & Smith,1996). A. Smith defines ethnie as ‘a named human population with myths of
common ancestry, shared historical memories, one or more elements of common culture, a link with a
homeland and a sense of solidarity among at least some of its members.’ An ethnic group or ethnicity is a
population of human beings whose members identify with each other, either on the basis of a presumed
common genealogy or ancestry, or recognition by others as a distinct group, or by common cultural,
linguistic, religious, or territorial traits (Smith, 1986). Schermerhorn defines ethnic group as ‘a collectivity
within a larger society having real or putative common ancestry, memories of a shared historical past, and a
cultural focus on one or more symbolic elements (i.e., kinship patterns, physical contiguity, religious
affiliation, language, tribal affiliation, nationality, etc.) defined as the epitome of their peoplehood’. He also
made a distinction between groups in a society according to their size and power: majority group and elite
as dominant groups, mass subjects and minority group as subordinate groups (Schermerhorn, 1996).
An ethnic group may overlap or even coincide with a nation, especially when national identity is
defined primarily in terms of common origin. Members of nations may also identify with each other, often
presuming common ancestry, and are generally recognized by others as a distinct group with a specific
name. Nations tend to have a common identity: mostly cultural, usually linguistic, and sometimes religious.
An ethnic group that is also a nation may be the titular nation of a nation-state. The terms ‘nation’ and
‘ethnic group’ sometimes are used interchangeably; the differences between them are sometimes quite
vague. However, the term ‘ethnic group’ generally refers only to members of non-dominant groups. An
ethnic group is less mobilized for political action than a nation. In other words, an ethnic group will not
demand a political autonomy and independence while a nation might. In the case of Kyrgyzstan, for
instance, the Russians, Uzbeks, Uygurs, Dungans, etc. are all ethnic groups and minorities, while the
Kyrgyz are titular nation, majority and dominant group. Some of the ethnic groups in Kyrgyzstan might be
regarded as an extension of nations with their nation-states, for instance, Russia for Russians or Uzbekistan
for Uzbeks. Some of these ethnic groups, like Russians, are immigrants that settled in the region during
Tsarist or Soviet period. Some of them, like some of the Uzbeks, have lived in the same place for several
centuries as natural part of the region. For example, the Kyrgyz and the Uzbeks lived together under
Khokand Khanate. Some other ethnic groups that came from neighboring countries, such as Uygurs or
Dungans, do not have a nation-state belonging to them as titular nation, outside Kyrgyzstan.
There are definite boundary markers between ethnic groups in a society. According to Nash some
of these markers of difference are deep such as kinship, commensality, and common cult, but some are
surface pointers such as dress, language, physical features, house architecture and interior arrangements,
ritual calendars, specific taboos, etc. (Nash, 1996). Each ethnic group has unique characteristics, compared
with the other ethnic groups in a society. They may differ from each not only in their typical characteristics
and their status in the political or economic hierarchy, but in their internal cohesion and solidarity as well.
Handelman has categorized ethnic groups into four levels: (a) ethnic category, the loosest level of
incorporation, where there is a sense of the boundary between the group and outsiders; (b) in the ethnic
network, there is regular interaction between ethnic members; (c) in the ethnic association, the members
develop common interests and political organizations to express these at a collective level; and the (d)
ethnic community, which possesses a permanent, physically bounded territory, over and above its political
organizations (Nash, 1996). In Kyrgyzstan, ethnic categories and labels can be differentiated from each
other in a clear way; however, it should be emphasized that even within an ethnic group whose members
share a precise ethnic label there is tremendous heterogeneity. This heterogeneity stems from the variety in
terms of social class and education, geographical region, family structure and kinship ties, preferences
about the way of life, etc. Because of this within-group variation, ethnic membership alone may not predict
18
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 behaviors and attitudes (Phinney, 1996). In case of the Kyrgyz, cultural difference between the south (i.e.,
Osh) and the north (i.e., Bishkek) constitute an important element of their ethnic identity. Instead of this
variation, the titular nation, the Kyrgyz, and ethnic groups in Kyrgyzstan as broad categories have clear-cut
within-group sense of belonging and apparent markers, compared with ethnic groups in several other
nation-states in the world. Though they seem to be definite compartments, the society does not seem to be
divided into isolated compartments. There is a common culture (and even a super identity), as a legacy of
the Soviet culture and identity and whose specific indicators can be observed in use of Russian language,
food practices, television viewing, entertainment habits, etc., that pervades and integrates the society. Up to
the present time, this Soviet legacy as a cementing force could not be replaced with a super national identity
of the new nation-state.
At individual or societal level, ethnic identity refers to the extent to which one identifies with a
particular ethnic group(s). It refers to one’s sense of belonging to an ethnic group and the part of one’s
thinking, perceptions, feelings, and behavior that is due to ethnic group membership. The ethnic group
tends to be one in which the individual claims heritage. Ethnic identity is separate from one’s personal
identity as an individual, although the two may reciprocally influence each other. According to Phinney,
there are three important aspects of ethnicity: (a) the cultural values, attitudes, and behaviors that
distinguish ethnic groups; (b) the subjective sense of ethnic group membership (i.e., ethnic identity) that is
held by group members; and (c) the experiences associated with minority status, including powerlessness,
discrimination, and prejudice (http://www.uky.edu/Classes/FAM/357/fam544/ethnic_identity.htm). Four
major components of ethnic identity (Faranda & Nolle, 2003):
Ethnic awareness (understanding of one’s own and other groups)
Ethnic self-identification (label used for one’s own group)
Ethnic attitudes (feelings about own and other groups)
Ethnic behaviors (behavior patterns specific to an ethnic group)
Academic writers on ethnicity can be divided into two broad camps: ‘primordialists’ and
‘instrumentalists’. Primordialists take ethnicity as a natural given and stress primordial ties. On the other
side, instrumentalists emphasize social construction and political manipulation of ethnicity by the elite
(Elebayeva et al, 2000).
ETHNIC IDENTITIES IN KYRGYZSTAN
One of the most challenging tasks of the leadership in Kyrgyzstan is the reconciliation between, on
the one hand, their desire to emphasize Kyrgyz national identity and to revive titular cultural paradigms
which would also satisfy the majority and the titular nation of the country, whose authentic identity had been
buried by the suppressive policies of Moscow for several decades, and on the other, the need to formulate
an inclusive civic-based national identity and territorial citizenship in order not to exclude and dissatisfy nonKyrgyz ethnic groups, who constitute a significant proportion in the population of the country. It is not so
much clear for today whether the ruling and intellectual elite would be able to develop a single but
inclusionary and synthesized national identity that is acceptable for all constituent elements, or continue with
dualism by referring to both titular national identity and territorial citizenship within the framework of Soviet
legacy without developing a strong and unitary national identity, or adopt a pluralism on a democratic
ground, in which diverse identities would autonomously coexist, or adopt an assertive Kyrgyz nationalism by
Kyrgyzification.
When Kyrgyzstan became independent in 1991, the government granted citizenship to all
permanent residents without considering their ethnic origins. The government hoped this would increase the
loyalty of different ethnic groups toward the government and ensure the stability by helping to reduce the
likelihood of ethnic tensions in the country where there is a high level of ethnic diversity (see Table 1.). After
the ethnic clashes between the Kyrgyz and Uzbeks in Osh just before the independence, and as the
Russians and many Russian-speakers complained that they would be treated as second-class since Kyrgyz
was made the official state language in 1993, the newly independent state adopted an inclusive Kyrgyzstani
identity. ‘Kyrgyzstan is our common home’ became an official slogan. Russian language was stated in
official speeches as ‘interethnic communication language’, and accepted as a second official language in
19
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 the constitution in 2001 (Akcali, 2003). Thus, the main purpose of the ethnic policy of the newly independent
Kyrgyzstan was the consolidation and solidification of diverse ethnic groups together with the majority, the
Kyrgyz, on the basis of Kyrgyzstani identity. Kyrgyz government granted citizenship to all its residents,
irrespective of their ethnic origin. The state adopted a civic identity that guarantees equal opportunities to all
citizens of the Republic without making any discrimination based on the background of the people. Russian
language continued to keep its privileged status, and compulsory learning of Kyrgyz language was
postponed (Esman, 1996). By regarding the multiethnic composition of the country, the ethnic tension in
1989 and 1990, and large-scale emigration from the country and brain drain, such an inclusionary ethnic
policy seemed to be the most rational option in order to attain national solidarity and political stability while
transiting within hard economic conditions to a new political and economic system. Ethnic harmony was
seen as a prerequisite for Kyrgyzstan to make any progress (Sengupta, 1997).
Table 1. Ethnic Composition of Kyrgyzstan in 1990s (%)
ETHNICITY 1990 1999 Kyrgyz
52
61
Russian
21
16
Uzbek
13
13
Others*
14
10
* Ukrainian, German, Tatar, Uighur, Dunghan, Korean, Kazakh, Tajik, Meskhet Turks, etc.
Source: Reports on the Turkic Republics, TICA, Ankara, 1994; Büşra E. Behar (ed.), Bağımsızlığın
İlk Yılları, (Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1994); Regina Faranda and David B. Nolle, “Ethnic Social
Distance in Kyrgyzstan: Evidence from a Nationwide Opinion Survey”, Nationalities Papers, Vol.31, No.2,
June 2003.
As the Kyrgyz government adopted a pluralist and inclusive Kyrgyzstani identity after the
independence, ethnic identities developed not in political but in cultural framework, and so did not go to
extremes. Soviet system allowed folkloric performances belonging to different ethnic groups. As long as
national or ethnic feelings were manifested in folkloric (not political) context, they were not regarded as
dangerous by the communist elite in Moscow. Such an allowance would be even useful as it would provide
a certain degree of satisfaction and so reduce any potential nationalist pressure and tension. National
traditions and symbols of the past or folkloric rituals (those of not dangerous) either continued in the same
way or were ritualized in a new way and for a new purpose during the Soviet period. However, these rituals
provided an important base and became valuable materials for the revival of ethnic identity after the
independence. Thus, Soviet legacy contributed to the revival of ethnic identities in cultural framework. Most
of the members of different ethnic groups regard Kyrgyzstan as ‘homeland’. Although they might have
emotional linkages with their ancestral homeland, most of them view Kyrgyzstan as their permanent
residence and do not think to leave this country. Their ethnic identity gained to a significant degree a
territorialized character, and so they seem to be capable of full integration into the civic nation without
forgetting their ancestral identity. Accordingly, interethnic relations in general have displayed a positive and
peaceful tendency since the independence. Most of the citizens of Kyrgyzstan are satisfied with positive
level of interethnic relations in the country (see Figure 1.). According to the survey as seen in the figure
below, made by Faranda and Nolle, the majority of the members of different ethnic groups in Kyrgyzstan
view ethnic relations as good not only at national but at local level as well (see Figure 2.) (Medish, 1997).
20
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Figure 1. Perceptions of Ethnic Relations at the National Level as Good
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Very
good
Good
Total 79%
Kyrgyz 82% Russian 66% Uzbek 84%
Question: Would you describe the relations among nationalities residing in the nation as a
whole as very good, somewhat good, somewhat bad, or very bad?
Figure 2. Perceptions of Ethnic Relations at the Local Level as Good
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Very
good
Good
Total 87%
Kyrgyz 90% Russian 78% Uzbek 89%
Question: Would you describe the relations among nationalities residing in your own
city/region as very good, somewhat good, somewhat bad, or very bad?
Source: Regina Faranda and David B. Nolle, “Ethnic Social Distance in Kyrgyzstan: Evidence from
a Nationwide Opinion Survey”, Nationalities Papers, Vol.31, No.2, June 2003.
Russian minority in Kyrgyzstan enjoy the most tolerant atmosphere, compared to the other former
Soviet republics. Russian language also enjoys the most privileged status, not seen in the other republics as
well. The other ethnic minorities and their languages do not enjoy the same status. This situation is
understandable as a legacy of the Soviet past. However, all ethnic groups living in Kyrgyzstan enjoy a very
tolerant atmosphere. Different ethnic groups regard the Kyrgyz people as tolerant, and do not feel
21
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 themselves isolated or excluded, and are likely to accept them as neighbor or friend (see Table 2.)
(Saunders, 2006).
Table 2. Acceptance of Different Relationships with the Kyrgyz by Different Ethnic Groups
Russian (%)
Yes
To have Kyrgyz
as a neighbor
To have Kyrgyz
as a friend
90.7
Uzbek (%)
95.0
Other (%)
97.1
No
5.6
2.8
0.5
Refused to answer
0.6
0.0
1.0
I find it hard to say
3.1
2.2
1.4
Total
100
100
100
Yes
88.5
92.6
98.1
No
8.8
5.4
0.3
Refused to answer
0.8
0.0
1.0
I find it hard to say
1.9
2.0
0.7
Total
100
100
100
According to the results of the survey, carried out by Ainura Elebayeva, nostalgia over the Soviet
past among minorities of the Kyrgyz Republic disappeared almost entirely. Ethnic groups today accept the
post-Soviet realities, acknowledging that the collapse of the Soviet Union is an irreversible fact. Majority of
them understand that Kyrgyzstan is their home country, and perceive themselves as citizens of this state.
However, they are not likely to accept the ethnocentric and exclusionary concept of the nation and would
like to have equality in all areas. Some of them are still uncertain about their future, indicating their desire to
migrate.
In conclusion, because of the legacy of the past, there are strong dynamics of integration between
different ethnic groups of the society in Kyrgyzstan. As long as the non-Kyrgyz ethnic groups enjoy a secure
life, do not feel themselves excluded and discriminated in terms of socio-economic living conditions, and be
able to continue their ancestral identity within their local realm without facing an assimilationist policy, their
ethnic identities are likely to continue within cultural confines, and not likely to be political and assertive.
RUSSIAN MINORITY
Russian Diaspora, inhabitants of the post-soviet countries including Kyrgyzstan, are one of the
legacies of the Soviet period. Indeed, their immigration and settlement in the region started in the Tsarist
period. The term ‘Diaspora’ refers to a migrant community, living out of their ancestral homeland, who have
ethnic group consciousness and retain loyalty toward their homeland(Saunders, 2006). Although some of
the Russians, who were residents of Kyrgyzstan, migrated to Russia after the independence, and the
remainders keep a feeling of loyalty toward Russia, a significant part of them see their future in Kyrgyzstan
and regard this country as their home. They feel belonging to both their ancestral homeland and Russian
nation on one side and Kyrgyzstan on the other side. It is likely that, their belonging to Kyrgyzstan in the
future will be to the degree they enjoy a living atmosphere of tolerance and security.
First waves of Russian immigration into Central Asia began in the Tsarist period. Russians,
belonging to the core, enjoyed a first class status and privileges in the periphery (Peyrouse, 2004). Later,
Bolsheviks promised that there would be equality for all in the Soviet period. In theory, Communism would
eliminate all national differences in the USSR in order to create a homogenized single “Soviet nation”. But
the theory contradicted the practices and “Homo-Sovieticus” meant assimilation of the other nations into the
Russian dominant culture. Being Russian or similar to the Russians provided the individuals with political
and professional career opportunities. The Russian language was used as a powerful instrument of
22
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 assimilation. It was one and only language spoken in the Soviet armed forces and the administrative
apparatus. It was taught as a compulsory second language in all ethnic schools. Demographic upheavals in
the Soviet Union, urbanization and the continuing influx of the Russians into ethnic territories also intensified
the process of assimilation. The members of the growing Soviet elite regarded Russian language and
culture as symbols of the privileged status. Many privileged Central Asians could no longer even speak their
native languages during the Soviet period (Knox,2005). After the collapse of the Soviet Union, which was
established by the Russians, and after the independence which witnessed a revival in the authentic Kyrgyz
culture and a rise in the status of the Kyrgyz in political, social, and economic realms, Russians began to
feel that they would lose their privileged status and that the likelihood of the emergence of extremist Kyrgyz
nationalism would put their future under threat. The shock of the collapse of the USSR and the painful
demands of the living as an ‘immigrant’ in one’s birth country created a trauma for the ethnic Russians
(Knox,2005). During this period, Russian Orthodox Church was revived and intended to be the vector of
Russian culture. The Orthodox Church took part in the commemorative days of the Russian identity and
contributed to the idea of Russian supremacy and superiority of Russian culture. Russian Orthodox Church
in Russia and its national counterparts in the republics such as the Orthodox Church in Kyrgyzstan became
the most important base for the revival of Russian national identity. Russians, for the most part, continued
their belief that it was Russians that have brought everything to Central Asia (Peyrouse, 2004). Those of
Russians who do not see a safe future in this country returned to Russia. However, the remainder Russians
with their culture and language continued to enjoy a great tolerance under the Kyrgyz rule during the period
after the independence. Russian language keeps its privileged status in the daily life, publication, and
television broadcasting, etc. Thus, although Russian minority in Kyrgyzstan today have kinship relations and
feel emotional links with Russia, a significant part of them consider this country as their permanent home.
There are also interethnic marriages in addition to a shared common culture, created by a long history of
coexistence, which play a cementing force between the Kyrgyz and the Russians who, together with the
other ethnic groups, form the domestic society of the Kyrgyz Republic on shared (mostly Sovietized) norms.
REFERENCES
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6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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13.
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John Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith (eds.), Ethnicity, Oxford University Press, 1996
Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations, Basil Blackwell, 1986
Richard Schermerhorn, “Ethnicity and Minority Groups”, in Hutchinson and Smith (eds.), op.cit.
Manning Nash, “The Core Elements of Ethnicity”, in Hutchinson and Smith (eds.), op.cit.
Jean S. Phinney, “When We Talk About American Ethnic Groups, What Do We Mean?”, American
Psychologist, vol.51, no.9, September-1996
http://www.uky.edu/Classes/FAM/357/fam544/ethnic_identity.htm
Regina Faranda and David B. Nolle, “Ethnic Social Distance in Kyrgyzstan: Evidence from a
Nationwide Opinion Survey”, Nationalities Papers, Vol.31, No.2, June 2003
Ainura Elebayeva, Nurbek Omuraliev, Rafis Abazov, “The shifting Identities and Loyalties in
Kyrgyzstan: the Evidence from the Field”, Nationalities Paper, Vol.28, No:2, 2000
Pinar Akcali, “Nation-State Building in Central Asia: A Lost Case?”, Perspectives on Global
Development & Technology, vol.2, Issue 3/4, 2003,
M. Esman, “Diasporas and International Relations”, in J. Hutchinson and A.D. Smith (eds.),
Ethnicity, Oxford UniversityPress, 1996
Anita Sengupta, “Minorities and Nationalizing States in Central Asia”, International Studies, 34, 3
(1997)
Vadim Medish, The Soviet Union (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1987)
Robert A. Saunders, “Denationalized Digerati in the Virtual Near Abroad: The Internet’s Paradoxical
Impact on National Identity Among Minority Russians”, Global Media and Communication, vol. 2 (1),
2006
Sebastien Peyrouse, “Christianity and Nationality in Soviet and Post-Soviet Central Asia: Mutual
Intrusions and Instrumentalizations”, Nationalities Papers, Vol.32, No.3, September-2004
Zoe Knox, “Russian Orthodoxy, Russian Nationalism, and Patriarch Aleksii II”, Nationalities Papers,
vol.33, no.4, December 2005.
23
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 THE MARKET ECONOMY AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN KYRGYZSTAN AFTER THE DISSOLUTION OF THE SOVIET UNION Yasar Sari
Department of Politics
Center of Russian and East European Studies
University of Virginia
INTRODUCTION
The breakup of the USSR was accompanied by skyrocketing inflation rates, drastically increased
unemployment and dropped national/industrial/economical output.When the initial shocks were tamed
down, leaders started thinking about prospective. The midterm plans included: the build up of independent
fiscal and monetary policies, finding new trade partners, markets, suppliers and commodities.
Kyrgyzstan since the collapse of Soviet Union went to the transition path and while it is argued that
it succeeded at some points, levels or degree. It is certainly that major obstacle to the successful transition
is not overcome. This obstacle is in the economic nature and represented by lack of entrepreneurship.
First of all it was necessary to get out of Russian dominated economy since it was itself declining.
Leaving a ruble zone was a crucial step in that respect which disattached Kyrgyzstan from Russian
economic influence a certain point. Kyrgyzstan was the first former Soviet republics left Russian ruble zone
and accepted its own currency, som in 1993. Moreover, it is also the first former Soviet republics entered to
World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1998.
Second, finding new trade partners and external markets was a challenge. Kyrgyz governments
wanted to go outside for two reasons: trading with outsiders at time of economic downturn in CIS was rise
profitable and trading with outsiders would be a manifestation of their independence and sovereignty.
The Kyrgyz government has embarked on an ambitious reform program aimed at improving its
competitivity and increasing the standards of living of its citizens. The last decade of economic policy of
Kyrgyzstan has placed strong emphasis on liberalization, private sector development and transformation of
the country’s planned economy to a market-oriented economy. Since the break-up of the Soviet Union, the
economic decline has been stopped and an upward trend of the GDP growth is currently under way. During
the last years the government was successful in retaining a relatively low rate of inflation, which permitted a
beneficial investment climate. The reduction of given indicators was followed by the appropriate reduction of
the portion of budget in GDP that confirms the necessity of follow up reduction of the state interference in
the economy.
It is obvious that since the independence Kyrgyzstan still serves as supply of raw material such as
Kyrgyzstan’s primary budget income is still composed from natural resources (gold export). The Kyrgyz
Republic is also classified as a low-income country with high debt vulnerability, due to these characteristics
it is eligible to receive a significant level of grant from international financial organization, like World Bank.
Economy and Finance Minister Akylbek Japarov said the foreign debt of the country was 2, 038.911 million
US dollars by October 2005; however, it would be reduced to 80 percent to GDP this year while it was 112
percent in 2001(The Bishkek Observer, 2005).
Managed economy is dominated by a handful of powerful enterprises. On the other hand,
entrepreneurial economy is based on deregulation, privatization and labor market flexibility (Audretsch and
Thurik).
Unless this picture is changed and Kyrgyzstan develops strong entrepreneurship approach
Kyrgyzstan will remain weak and vulnerable to the market powers of outside and unemployment among
young and well-educated population make the country politically and economically unstable and vulnerable.
24
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Economic transition and employment creation are twin horns of not just Kyrgyz economic dilemma
but of what looms as the major challenge confronting the transit economies in the post-Soviet Central Asia.
Different Kyrgyz governments have responded to the twin horns of the transition-employment dilemma with
a broad spectrum of policy approaches. Human capital is vital for such a progress in the transition to a
market economy and it is in this respect that entrepeneurship becomes so important.
LEGAL AND STRUCTURAL CONDITION
United Nations Development Program (UNDP) released on 7 December the report “Bringing Down
Barriers: Regional Cooperation for Human Development and Human Security,” which says Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, with a population of nearly 60 million people, could
produce substantial political and economic gains, including income increases of 50 per cent to 100 per cent
over the next 10 years by strengthening regional economic cooperation. It recommends the courtiers
upgrading transport links, harmonizing transit, customs and border management, joining the World Trade
Organization (WTO), as well as establishing more efficient pricing and effective management of
infrastructure at the national level. The report also says corruption, bad management and lack of
accountability hamper the reforms and calls for creation of the post of UN Secretary-General’s Special
Envoy for Central Asia (UNDP, 2005).
A legal framework provides good incentives for foreign investors. Direct foreign investment
according to economy theory places a huge premium on stability in the economic area. The completion,
however, of building a legal and institutional market infrastructure is being gradually but consistently
pursued. From 1992 up to the present the Jonorku Kenesh (Parliament) has adopted a multitude of laws,
which regulate the reforms in economy. Moreover, policies and laws aimed at regulating effectively the
economic processes in the country have been adopted a great number of decrees and resolutions of the
President and decisions of the Cabinet of Ministers.
A high-level economic council is planned to be created in Kyrgyzstan, which will consist of
businessmen, economic experts, consultants and members of governments, to solve issues of economic
development of the country. Prime Minister Feliks Kulov informed it at a meeting of the International
Business Council, held on December 7. “In particular, the council will consider legislations and laws of the
government connected to development of economy and free business in the country, to find out their
relevance and propose recommendations to make them more feasible,” the Prime Minister added (The
Bishkek Observer, 2005).
PRIVATIZATION
According to the recent World Bank Report, Kyrgyzstan has failed to attract enough foreign
investment in sectors other than mining which is a major setback for the economy as a whole. In the gold
sector the construction of the Kumtor gold mine has not triggered any further major investments in the
mining sector in the country. Although growth in the agricultural sector has been sustained, this sector has
not seen much investment and development. There has been very little expansion of the agro-processing
industry, which would be vital to increasing the export potential of the country to the rest of the world and
which has been doing well in the rest of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (The Bishkek
Observer, 2005).
Furthermore, it is the unattractive investment climate that has limited Foreign Direct
Investments(FDIs) and capital inflows. In 2002, FDI in Kyrgyzstan accounted for a mere 0.2% of all FDI in
Central Asia, with the majority of FDI going to Kazakhstan; FDI per capita in Kyrgyzstan is less than 1 US
dollar. Over the last few years, Kyrgyz capital stocks has also declined steadily, and gross fixed investment
(under 20 % of GDP), is insufficient to boost the competitiveness of the non-gold sectors of the economy
(The Bishkek Observer, 2005).
Delays in implementing the development reform agenda have also contributed to the low levels of
private and foreign investments. Despite the Kyrgyz government’s successes in addressing macroeconomic
25
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 stability, the Kyrgyz economy and investment climate have been hampered by critical weaknesses in the
legal and regulatory framework supporting creditors and property rights, financial intermediation,
transparency and governance, labor flexibility, education and infrastructure. Furthermore, considerable
informality suggests that the business environment suffers from excessive administrative barriers, coupled
with a corrupted and weak judiciary and enforcement system (The Bishkek Observer, 2005).
The potential of privatization has also unfortunately not been realized. Though the Kyrgyzstan has
achieved significant progress in both small-scale privatization and the mass privatization of medium and
large-scale companies, in which it sold off (entirely or substantially) approximately 1,200 companies for cash
and privatization vouchers during the 1990’s. It still also holds minority positions in many of the least
attractive of these companies, for which potential purchasers have been difficult to identify, and many have
subsequently been liquidated. Many of these enterprises are non-competitive dues to imbedded non-market
pricing, obsolete equipment, heavy indebtedness and asset stripping. It has made less progress in the
privatization of its largest infrastructure companies, including monopolies in the energy, gas, communication
and aviation sectors. The poor environment for private sector development, absence of strategic investors
and low commitment of the government to displace various political and social elites are the major reasons
for this limited progress. Other problems relate to the country’s weak property rights, contract enforcement,
corporate governance, financial information and information disclosure in general (The Bishkek Observer,
2005).
FOREIGN CAPITAL AND INVESTMENT
Despite having an openly liberal economy, Kyrgyzstan continues to be one of the poorer countries
in the region. Recovering from a recent political revolution, it suffers from a national debt exceeding its gross
domestic product (GDP) by 2.7 percent, uncooperative neighbors and a poor infrastructure, the study said.
The report says that 70 percent of the Kyrgyz population lived below the poverty level of 2.15 US dollars per
day in 2003. Kyrgyzstan also has experienced a drop in the percentage of public funds committed to
education, from 8.3 percent in 1990 to 3.1 in 2001. Former President Askar Akayev, following independence
in 1991, initially led what the report calls a pro-Western, pro-market democracy. However, as the country
privatized, much of it was transferred to the regime leading to opposition from those excluded, largely in the
southern part of the country. “Major state assets and most significant joint ventures were widely thought by
the Kyrgyz people to be in the hands of the Akayev family and clan connections,” the UN report said. The
country is far from isolated economically as it is the only WTO member among the five Central Asian
nations. It is also one of the Central Asian nations most willing to work with donors on policy and institutional
reforms while receiving the most foreign developmental aid and assistance per capita in the region. In 2003,
Kyrgyzstan received 39.12 US dollars per person, compared to just 22.85 and 5.59 US dollars per person in
Tajikistan and Turkmenistan respectively. UNDP estimates that by slashing trade costs by 50 percent,
including tariffs and especially transportation costs, Kyrgyzstan’s GDP would increase by 55 percent over
10 years. It predicts Kyrgyzstan’s status as a WTO member state has made it an important gateway for
Chinese exporters and buyers in other Central Asian countries as the country tries to become the de facto
trading center in the region. For the moment, China has planned several investments in the country,
including the development of oil fields and the hydroelectric sector. China also intends to finance a 1.5
billion US dollars highway connecting from its Xinjiang to Central Asia that will go through Kyrgyzstan (The
Bishkek Observer, 2005).
CONCLUSION
Asian Development Bank (ADB) is earmarking about 30 million US dollars per year in assistance to
Kyrgyzstan in 2006-2008 to reduce poverty and promote private sector led growth and human development,
according to a Country Strategy and Program (CSP) Update. The CSP stresses investing in agriculture;
reforming the financial sector to stimulate domestic savings and investment; improving trade and road
linkages with regional markets; and boosting social services, particularly basic education and early
childhood development(The Bishkek Observer, 2005).
The international financial organizations are always in favor of privatization of state owned
monopolies in order to let flourish a free market economy. Their argument lies in the fact privatized object is
26
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 controlled by a skilled management as the perspective investor is more concerned about the protection of
his money than the developing world because of their dedication to their nations, the privatization has its
significant meaning in that part of the world; but poverty co-existing with rampant corruption at very lower
level along with the lazy attitude of the government employees in the developing world hinders all benefits of
privatization.
Djoomart Otorbayev, executive director of the Investment Roundtable, said “the private sector in
Kyrgyzstan is uncoordinated, and it needs to be consolidated. It is uncoordinated for bjective reasons, for
our economy is based on small- and medium-size businesses and the service sphere, and they are very
difficult to consolidate (Levchenko, 2005).
The Minister of Industry, Trade and Tourism, Almaz Atambayev, said “tourism has been given the
status of an export and budget-supporting industry.” In 2005 around 650,000 tourists visited Kyrgyzstan.
Tourism accounts for only 3.1 percent of the country’s GDP. The export of tourist services this year was low
as $55 million. By comparison, in the first 10 months of this year Turkey received 18 millions tourists, and
the figure is expected to reach 20 million by the year’s end (Savina, 2005).
Only 294,000 foreign tourists visited Lake Issyk-Kul this summer, while neighboring Kasghar
(China) received 2.5 million foreign visitors from January-October this year (Savina, 2005). Most tourists
come to Lake Issyk-Kul from neighboring Kazakhstan, which has a big potential market: Almaty alone has
1.5 million residents plus half a million in Shymkent and other industrial cities in southern Kazakhstan
(Savina, 2005). “It is often cheaper for Kazakhs to go to Antalya than to Issyk-Kul,” said Kazakh
Ambassador to Kyrgyzstan Omurzak Uzbekov (Savina, 2005).
According to Women’s Congress of Kyrgyzstan data, 87% of small and medium businesses in
Germany use e-trade to sell their products. This method almost doubled gross profit of such businesses. In
Cambodia, 70% of national artifacts are sold via the Internet (Meshkova, 2005).
Macro Economic Indicators (IBRD, 2005)
Foreign Direct Investments (net) (IBRD, 2005) (in millions of US dollars)
27
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 GROWTH RATES OF GDP AND VALUE ADDED OF SECTORS
2001 2002 2003 2004
2004 2005 9 m. 9 m.
GDP
5.3
0.0
7.0
7.1
7.3
-0.4
GDP excl. Kumtor-gold
4.1
3.1
5.4
7.8
6.9
1.2
-4.1
Agriculture
7.3
3.0
3.2
4.1
1.0
Construction
4.0
1.4
-2.2
3.5
-1.8
1.6
Industry (incl. Kumtor)
4.8
-13.4
15.6
3.5
5.6
-9.3
Services
3.9
4.4
7.3
11.7
15.7
6.8
Source: NSC
28
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Kyrgyz Republic: Key macroeconomic indicators
2005
II
2005
III
5.3
0
7.0
7.1
7.8 14.3
3.3
6.5
2.0
2.6
73,883 75,367 83,872 94,078 15,742 19,432 32,446 26,458 17,105 20,856
1,525 1,606 1,919 2,205
365
447
764
635
417
507
308
322
381
431
…
…
…
…
…
…
-3.4
35,511
867
…
2001
GDP and prices
GDP real growth (%)
GDP, som million
GDP, USD million
GDP per capita dollar (at avg x-rates)
Poverty headcount (% of population)
4
Extreme Poverty headcount (% of population)4
Inflation ( % beginning-to-end of period, CPI)
Inflation ( % average, CPI)
Deflator GDP (%)
Wage, average for KR (US$ per month)
Pension, average for KR (US$ per month)
Exchange rate (som/$, end of period)
Exchange rate (som/$, avg of period)
REER (end of period, 1997=100, up=depreciation)
M2 (e.o.p as percent of GDP)
2002
2003
2004
2004
I
2004
II
2004
III
2004
IV
2005
I
56
55
50
46
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
25
3.7
6.9
7.3
30
12
48
48
107
11.1
23
2.3
2.1
2.3
36
12
46
47
109
14.6
17
5.6
3.1
3.8
13
2.8
4.1
8.9
44
52
15
44
44
115
17.5
17
42
43
119
20.6
…
1.3
5.3
6.5
45
16
43
43
117
16.0
…
-0.4
…
5.8
47
16
43
43
119
16.9
…
-0.7
…
7.4
49
17
42
42
119
17.7
…
2.6
…
0.0
60
17
42
42
119
20.6
…
1.7
3.0
6.5
55
19
41
41
120
19.8
…
2.6
…
4.6
60
18
41
41
116
21.1
…
-1.4
…
13.3
59
19
41
41
118
22.7
-1.2
480
47
227
207
-3.1
498
22
163
313
-4.2
588
19
260
312
-3.4
733
22
287
417
-1.0
159
1
67
90
-1.3
184
5
83
96
-0.7
187
10
75
103
-0.4
203
6
63
127
-1.0
167
1
68
99
-2.1
161
3
58
100
-1.8
168
11
60
97
472
640
716
941
197
226
245
274
240
248
30
31
30
31
44 64.0
78
110
20
29
128
130
178
194
48
46
47
54
45
51
121
152
180
256
60
54
56
86
69
66
121
125
152
217
42
58
62
56
44
61
58
116
128
163
26
40
50
47
53
38
1678 1785 1,943 2,106 1,982 1,999 2,034 2,106 2,086 2,016
1436 1576 1,652 1,957 1,798 1,814 1,851 1,957 1,932 1,871
110.0 111.1 101.2
95 89.9 90.7 92.2 95.5 87.9 84.9
30.8 20.7 22.1 13.7 17.6 16.3
6.1 15.3
10
23
27.7 23.3 14.6 12.9
9.0 19.0 10.2 13.0
9.9 14.0
110
88
75
95
8
17
47
23
19
7
283
36
52
81
67
47
2,018
1,880
85.0
8
8
26
External Sector
Current account balance (% GDP)
3
Exports (mln US$, f.o.b.)
- Power
- Gold
- Other
Imports (mln US$, c.i.f.)
- Food
- Other consumer goods
- Energy
- Other intermediate goods
- Capital goods
External Debt (mln US$)
Public External Debt (mln US$)
External Debt (% GDP)
Total debt service to exports of GS (%)
Public debt service to state revenues&grants (%)
Public external borrowing (excl. IMF, mln $)
FDI (mln $)
1
General Government Budget (percent of GDP)
5
5
46
175
16
146
16
-3
10.7
8.4
12.7
6.1
0.3
3.9
0.9
1.0
7.0
5.3
2.2
1.6
0.7
1.1
1.0
-0.1
-0.9
6.2
0.2
4.1
0.9
0.9
6.7
5.2
2.0
1.7
0.1
1.5
1.2
-0.1
-0.6
0.8
-0.2
0.7
-0.4
2
Revenues and grants
20.4 22.7 22.9 23.5
4.9
5.5
5.8
7.2
5.3
Grants
0.8
1.1
0.6
1.1
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.9
0.0
Tax
12.4 13.9 14.2 14.9
3.1
3.7
3.9
4.3
3.5
Social fund contributions
4.0
4.2
3.5
3.5
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.9
1.0
Nontax and capital
3.2
3.5
4.6
4.0
0.7
1.0
1.0
1.2
0.7
26.2 27.9 27.6 27.3
5.8
7.0
6.3
8.2
6.1
Expenditures
Current (other than interest)
20.5 20.7 21.7 21.0
4.9
5.0
4.9
6.1
5.2
o.w. transfers & subsidies
8.2
9.4
8.7
8.4
1.7
2.0
2.1
2.6
2.0
wages & salaries
4.9
5.4
5.7
5.8
0.9
1.4
1.4
2.1
1.0
Interest payments
1.7
1.9
1.6
1.9
0.2
0.9
0.2
0.7
0.2
Capital
5.3
6.0
4.9
4.9
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
0.9
of/which foreign financed PIP
4.4
4.7
3.7
3.8
0.6
0.9
1.1
1.1
0.7
Net lending
-1.1
-0.6
-0.5
-0.5
-0.1
-0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.1
-5.8
-5.2
-4.7
-3.9
-0.9
-1.4
-0.6
-1.0
-0.9
Fiscal Balance (accrual)
Memo:
Primary Deficit (w/o interest and PIP)
0.2
1.4
0.5
1.8
-0.1
0.3
0.7
0.8
0.0
Primary Deficit (w/o interest)
-4.2
-3.3
-3.2
-2.0
-0.7
-0.6
-0.4
-0.3
-0.7
Source: Ministry of Finance, National Statistical Committee, Social Fund, National Bank and World Bank staff calculations.
1
Includes repayment of FDI related debt
2
The state budget consolidates central and local budgets and includes the foreign-financed public investment program and the deficit
29
of the social fund, which became an extrabudgetary Fund in 1991. The quarterly data are on cash basis and based on the Treasury reports
3
The NBKR has revised current account in order to include estimates of under recorded imports from China
4
Poverty data is consumption based. The NSC revised poverty sample since 2003; therefore poverty data for 2003 is not comparable
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 REFERENCES
1. “High Level Economic Council to be Created in Kyrgyzstan,” The Bishkek Observer,
December 15, 2005, vol. 6, no, 45.
2. David B. Audretsch and A. Roy Thurik, “What’s New about the New Economy? Sources of
Growth in the Managed and Entrepreneurial Economies,” Industrial and Corporate Change,
vol. 10, no. 1
3. United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Bringing Down Barriers: Regional
Cooperation for Human Development and Human Security, December 2005.
4. “High Level Economic Council to be Created in Kyrgyzstan,” The Bishkek Observer,
December 15, 2005, vol. 6, no, 45.
5. World Bank CAS, 2005.
6. Anna Levchenko, “Private Sector at the Heart of any Economic Program in Kyrgyzstan,”
The Times of Central Asia, December 9, 2005.
7. Lidya Savina, “New Tourist Club established in Kyrgyzstan,” The Times of Central Asia,
December 9, 2005.
8. Elena Meshkova, “Business Incubators dot-com,” The Times of Central Asia, December 9,
2005.
9. “Kyrgyz Republic: Investment Climate Assessment,” IBRD Europe and Central Asian
Region Finance and Private Sector Department, April 2005, draft version
30
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 ORTADOĞU’DA TÜRKÇE ÖĞRETİM KİTAPLARININ TARİHSEL GELİŞİMİ VE GÜNÜMÜZDEKİ
DURUMU
Yard. Doç. Dr. Candemir Doğan
Dicle Üniversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi Doğu Dilleri ve Edebiyatları Bölümü
Diyarbakır, TÜRKİYE
mail: [email protected]
GİRİŞ
Türkçe ile Arapça, Türklerin İslâmiyet’i kabul etmeye başladıkları tarihten günümüze kadar yön ve
etkisi zamanla değişen bir güçte, birbiriyle etkileşmelerini sürdürdüler. İlk dönemlerde kişisel istek şeklinde
başlayan Arapça öğrenimi, Abbasîler devrinde Türkler arasında yaygınlaşarak kitleler hâlinde öğrenmeye
dönüştü. Halkların kaynaşması ve demografik yapının iç içe girmesiyle, Araplarda da Türkçe öğrenme
ihtiyacı belirdi. Bu ihtiyacı karşılamak için yazılmış olan ve bugün elimizde bulunan “Türkçenin de Arapçanın
özelliklerini taşıdığı bilinsin diye Halil’in Kitabu’l-‘Ayn’ı yazdığı gibi yazdım” (Kaşgarlı, 1942:4-5) sözleriyle
yazılış sebebini açıkladığı Divânü Lugâti’t-Türk, 1072–1074 yıllarında tamamlanarak Bağdat’ta Abbasî
Halifesi el-Muktedi’ye sunuldu. (Atalay, 1992:c.1, s. 4.)
Alanında ilk olarak yazıldığı bilinen Divânü Lugâti’t-Türk, dikkatle incelenirse hem ondaki
mükemmellik hem de Halifeye sunulması ondan önce yazılmış başka küçük risalelerin olabileceğini ve
onların tecrübelerinden faydalanıp faydalanmadığı araştırılması gereken bir konudur. Karahanlılar’ın
İslâmiyet’i kabulüyle Arapça ile Türkçe arasındaki ilişkiler daha da arttı. Daha sonra Tolunoğulları Devletinin
868'de Mısır'da kurulmasıyla, (Suleymân, 1982:128) Araplar arasında “Türkçe öğrenmek âdeta moda
olmuş” (Köprülüzâde, 1928:7) ve Türkçe öğretim kitabı yazanların sayısında önemli bir artış olmuştur.
(Atalay, 1992:1/3) Bugün sadece ismini bildiğimiz kitapların çoğunun kendilerinin kayıp olması, isminden
dahi haberdar olmadığımız daha pek çok eserin varlığını da akla getirmektedir.
Mısır’da 1250–1517 yılları arasında hüküm süren Memlûk Devletinde Türk sultanları devleti
yönettiği için Türk diline karşı ilgi artmıştır. Bu ilgi Araplara Türkçeyi öğretmeyi amaçlayan kitapların
yazılmasına neden olmuştur. “Derdini anlatabilmek ve Türklerin gönlünü almak için onların dilleriyle
konuşmaktan başka yol” (Atalay, 1992:1/4) kalmadı diyen ünlü Arap bilgini (1312) Esirü’d-din Ebû Hayyân
el-Endelüsî, “Kitabü’I-İdrak li Lisâni’l-Etrak, ed-Durretu’l-Mudîa fi’l-Lügati’t- Türkiyye” (Furat, 1996:I/332;
Kafes, 1994:10/152) kitaplarını yazdı. Türkçeyi çok iyi bilen ancak Türk sanılmayan biri tarafından yazılan,
el-Kavaninü’l-Külliyye li Zabti’l-Lügati’t- Türkiyye bunlardan biridir. (Toparlı, Çögenli, Yanık, 1999) Cemalü’dDin Ebi Muhammed Abdullahi’t-Türkî tarafından yazılan Kitabü Bulgati’l-Müştak fi Lugâti’t-Türk ve’l-Kıfçak
önemli karşılaştırmalı yabancı dil öğretim kitabıdır. Mısır’da 15.yy ilk yarısında yazılan ve yazarı belli
olmayan, Anonim bir kitap sanılan, et-Tuhfetü’z-Zekiyye fi’l-lugâti’t-Türkiyye gibi eser günümüze
ulaşanlardan birkaçıdır. Memlûklular dönemi Türk filoloji tarihinde bir merhale (Köprülüzâde, 1928: 314)
olarak kabul edilir. Türkçenin dil varlığının derlenmesi açısından bu eserlerin özel önemi olduğu açıktır.
Selçukluların önce Suriye ve Irak'ta devlet kurmaları, oradan Anadolu'ya geçmeleri ve 1517’de
Mısır'ın Osmanlı Devletiyle bütünleşmesiyle Türkçe ile Arapça arsındaki kaynaşma, tarihte bir eşinin
görülmesi imkânsız seviyeye çıktı. Etkileşme, son yüzyıla gelinceye kadar yazılan tüm Türkçe gramer
kitaplarının Arapça usule uygun tertip ve tasnifine dahi sebep oldu. (Hengirmen, 1998:111) Arap edebiyat
tarihinde çok özel yeri olan binlerce eserin Türkler tarafından yazılması ve Arapların da Türkçe için kitaplar
yazmaları iki dil arasındaki kaynaşmanın vardığı noktayı gösterecek güçtedir. (Duman, 1997) Öyle ki belki
bu kaynaşmanın etkisi, bazı kimselerin Arapçanın Türkçeden doğduğu gibi bir yanılgıya düşmelerine sebep
olduğu dahi söylenebilir. (Onat, 1951:2/112) Aslında kaynaşma sadece dil ile de sınırlı kalmadı, tarihte
başka iki millette nasip olmayan ve bin yılı aşan uzun bir süre içinde din, tarih, coğrafya, ekonomi ve
demografi gibi sosyal hayatı oluşturan tüm alanlarda iki millet, tek millet şeklini almış gibi bir ortak hayat
yaşamıştır. (Küçükkalay, 1969:84)
Türklerin İslâmiyet'i kabul etmeleriyle oluşan ortak dil elsine-i selâse olarak adlandırıldı. Bu üç dil;
Arapça, Türkçe ve Farsça, İslâm Medeniyeti’nin evrensel dili olarak birlikte gelişmeye başladılar.
31
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 (Karaçavuş, 2006:229) Doğal olarak Türkçe ile Farsçanın önünde Arapça vardı ve bu iki dil daha çok
Arapçanın etkisi altında gelişmekteydi. Üç dil arasında pek çok kelime, deyim ve atasözleri alışverişi
gerçekleşmiştir. (Muhammed, 2002:117–173) Öyle ki Arapçaya verilen önemden dolayı “Lale Devri’yle
birlikte kurumsal bir yaklaşım sergilenmeye başlayan felsefî tercümelerin büyük çoğunluğu Türkçeye değil
Arapçaya yapılmıştır. Osmanlı aydın ve yöneticilerinin zihinsel biçimleniminde Arapçanın bilgi, bilim ve
düşünce dili olduğunda” (Karaçavuş, 2006:18) kuşku yoktu. Arapçanın bu durumu “Avrupalılaşma
çabalarının 19.yy ikinci yarısına girilirken, devlet katında ve önemli ölçüde bürokrat-aydın arasında
geleneğin tercih edildiği görülmektedir.” (Karaçavuş, 2006:364) Arapçanın artan oranda itibar kaybı,
uygarlık dairesinde oluşan kırılmanın göstergesidir. (Karaçavuş, 2006:229)
Ancak yaklaşık olarak 19.yy ortalarından başlayan ve 20.yy ortalarına gelinceye kadar bir
duraklama devri yaşandı. Bazen Tarihî süreç içinde duraksamalar olmuşsa da Türkçe öğretimine verilen
önem bir şekilde günümüze kadar devam edip gelmiştir. Günümüzde Arap dünyasında Türkçeye olan ilgi
günden güne artmaktadır. Günümüzde Türkçe öğretimi alanında yazılan ve ulaşabildiğimiz kitaplar
şunlardır.
1. Alıştırmalar ve Metinlerle Türk Dilbilgisi ( ‫ اﻟﻨﺼﻮص‬- ‫ اﻟﻘﺆاﻋﺪ‬- ‫ اﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎت‬- ‫ اﻟﻤﺒﺎدئ‬،‫)اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺔ‬
Ezher Üniversitesi Dil ve Tercüme Fakültesi Türkçe Bölümü Başkanı olan Prof. Dr. Fethi Abdül Mo’ti
en-Neklavî tarafından hazırlanan Alıştırmalar ve Metinlerle Türk Dilbilgisi, birinci baskı, 1414/1993 Kahire,
299 sayfadır.
Kitap, yabancı dil olarak Türkçeyi öğrenen üniversite öğrencileri için ders kitabı olarak
hazırlanmıştır. Türkçe dilbilgisi konuları kendisine özgü bir tertip içinde ayrıntılı bir şekilde incelemiştir.
Konuların sırlanması ve içerik düzenlenmesinde çok iyi bir düzen içinde olduğu söylenemez. Kitapta
kullanılan harf puntoları arasında bir birlik olmadığı gibi rahatsız edecek kadar farklı ve bölümler sanki ayrı
kitaplarmış hissini uyandıracak derecede değişiktir. Kitaptaki bu iç tasarımındaki tutarsızlık 115–120, 206–
239, 260–294 sayfaları arasında daha çok belirginleşir. Âdeta bu bölümlerin bir başka Türkçe kitabından
alınarak eklendiği hissini uyandırıyor. Kitapta az da olsa resimlerin bulunması teknik tasarıma harcanan
emeği gösterir, ancak bunlar az, yetersiz ve de görüntüler çok iyi değildir. Kitabın kapak tasarımı estetik
olarak orta düzeyde bir ders kitabı karakteri gösterir. Genel olarak değerlendirildiğinde ne çok kötü ve nede
çok ilgi çekici olamayan bir ders kitabı niteliğinde olduğu söylenebilir.
Konular alıştırmalarla desteklenmiş, cümle ve okuma parçalarını özenle seçildiği hemen dikkati
çekmektedir. Öğretimde tercüme hedef dilden anadile her zaman başvurulan bir teknik değildir. Ancak
yerine göre gerek görüldüğünde tercümeleri verilen cümlelerin iki dil arasındaki aktarımında oldukça başarılı
olduğu görülür. Kitap, doğal olarak gramer öğretimi hedefli olduğu için dilbilgisi-tercüme yöntemiyle konuları
işlemektedir. Türkçe gramer konularının açıklamaları bazen Arapça açıklamalarla verilirken bazen de diğer
Türkçe öğretim kitaplarından farklı olarak açıklamalarını da Türkçe olarak yapmaktadır.
Kitaptaki konuların kolaydan zora, basitten karmaşığa doğru belirli bir sisteme uygun olarak sıra
takip ettiği söylenebilir. Birinci bölümde; dil nedir, diller arası ilişkiler, dillerin kök ve yapı bakımından türleri,
dil aileleri başlıkları altında genel bilgiler verilerek, Türkçenin dil aileleri arsındaki yeri belirlenerek
tanıtılmıştır. İkinci bölüm; Türkçede hece, ses uyumu ve diğer sesbilim konuları ile ilgili olan konular ele
alınmıştır. Üçüncü bölüm; Türkçe temel kurallar başlığı altında ekler, zamirler, isim tamlaması konuları
işlenmiştir. Konu sonlarına konulan diyalog parçaları, örnek kısa ilgi çekici metinlerle işlenen gramer
konularının pekiştirilmesi hedeflenmiştir. Türkçenin sesleri, ses değişmeleri, ünlüler ve ünsüzler gibi konular
zengin örneklerle anlatılmıştır.
Türkçe kuralları uygulama bölümünde işlenen konular derslere ayrılmış ve her ders yeniden diyalog,
metin ve örnek cümle örnekleri ve uygulamalı alıştırmalarla tekrarlanmıştır.
Kitabın tamamen Türkçenin kullanıldığı bu bölümde yine Türkçe kurallar anlatılmıştır. Birinci
kısımda isimler, isim ve fiil cümlelerinin kurulması işlenmiştir. Konuların isimlendirilmesi ve işleniş tarzı
geleneksel Türkçe öğretim için hazırlanan Arapça kitaplarında olduğu gibidir. Adlarda belirleme başlıklı
konunun Arapça adı (‫ )اﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ واﻟﻨﻜﺮة‬şeklinde Arapça olarak konulmuştur ve konunun işlenmesinde izlenen yol
da Arapçadaki gibidir. Hâlbuki Türkçede bu konunun Arapçada olduğu gibi pek önemi yoktur. Yine partisip
32
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 ekleri (‫ )إﺳﻢ اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞ‬olarak isimlendirilen konuda da –an, –en ekleri alan ortaçlar işlenmiştir. Müenneslik ve
müzekkerlik (‫ )اﻟﺘﺬآﻴﺮ واﻟﺘﺄﻥﻴﺚ‬başlığıyla açılan konu başlığının ilk cümlesi ise “Türkçede müenneslik ve
müzekkerlik yoktur” (Neklavî,1993:198) şeklinde başlamaktadır. Kaynak yönüyle çok zengin olmayan kitabın
daha çok Ahmet Beserek’in Türkçe Cümle Yapısı kitabının etkisinde geliştirildiği söylenebilir. Türkçe
karakterli harflerin yazım hatalarına çok rastlanan kitapta, çok düzeltmenin olmasına rağmen yine de yazım
hataları çoktur.
Kitapta uygulanan öğretim yöntemi geleneksel yöntem olan tümevarımdır. Yabancı dil öğretim
yöntemlerinden dilbilgisi tercüme yöntemi, yapısalcı yaklaşımla kullanılmıştır.
Kitabı klâsik öğretim aracı görüntüsünden uzaklaştırmak için pratik Türkçe öğretimini amaçlayan
diyalog, kısa hikâye, konuşma paragrafları ve basit günlük kullanıma uygun cümle örnekleri verilen
bölümlere az da olsa rastlanmaktadır.
2. Dil Bilgisi, Osmanlıca ve Yeni Türkçe Gramer (Araplar İçin) ( ‫ ـ اﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺔ اﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻥﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺔ‬،‫ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺔ‬
‫ ـ ﻡﻊ اﻟﺸﺮح ﺏﺎﻟﻌﺮﺏﻴﺔ‬،‫)اﻟﺤﺪیﺜﺔ‬
Kral Abdülaziz Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi öğretim üyesi Dr. Abdullah Mubeşşir Alterazi
tarafından hazırlanan Osmanlıca ve Yeni Türkçe Gramer (Araplar İçin), Cidde, Suudi Arabistan, birinci
baskı, 1406/1985, 287 sayfadır.
Kitap, yabancı dil olarak Türkçeyi öğrenen Araplar için temel bir başvuru eseri niteliğinde olup
Türkçe dilbilgisini nispeten ayrıntılı ve düzenli bir şekilde vermiştir. Konular, geleneksel Arap gramer öğretim
sistemi içinde sunulmuştur. Örnekler güzel seçilmiş ancak işlenen gramer konularını pekiştirecek yeterlilikte
değildir. Örnek cümlelerin özenle seçilmiş günlük pratik uygulamalara elverişli ve gramer öğretimi
çerçevesinde Türkçe gramer konularının sunulduğu dikkati çekmektedir. Gramer konuları Arapça açıklamış
olmasına rağmen gerektiği yerlerde Türkçe karakterlerde kullanılarak anlatıma orijinallik sağlanmıştır.
Türkçe dilbilgisi terminolojisinin Arapça eşdeğerlikleri geleneksel yöntem takip edilmiş bazen de orijinal
isimler bulunmuştur. Kitabın kapak tasarımı ve konuların görsel tasarımı bakımından oldukça ilgi çekici bir
estetik görünümü vardır.
Kitaptaki konular kolaydan zora, basitten karmaşığa doğru bir sistem takip etmektedir. İlk konu olan
Türk alfabesi konusunda önce Osmanlıca harfler işlendikten sonra ikinci bölümde yeni Türk alfabesi
başlığıyla, Arapça karşılıklarıyla verilmiştir. Ses uygumu konularıyla devam eden açıklamaların genellikle
Arapçaya uyarlanarak yapıldığı görülür. Örneğin ad durum ekleri harfi cerler olarak isimlendirilen başlık
altında işlenmiştir. (Alterazi, 1985:23)
Kitapta konular bölümlere ayrılmamış genel bir sılama içinde şu konuları görmek mümkündür.
Kelime, isim, sıfat, zamirler, mastar, ismin halleri, izafet, ismi işaretler, malûm ve meçhul, olumlu-olumsuz,
ismi meful, tüm eylemlerin yapısı, eylem kipleri, eylem çekimleri ile zamanlar ele alınmış ayrıntılı olarak
olumlu-olumsuz, olumlu soru, olumsuz soru şeklinde çekimleri, anlamları ve örneklerle açıklanmıştır. Fiil
konularının oldukça kapsamlı ve ayrıntılı işlendiği görülür. Cümleyi tamamlayan yapılar konusu işlendikten
sonara Türkçe sayıların öğretimiyle konular bitirilmiştir.
Kitabın konuları arsında biçimbilim, sözdizimi şeklinde bir ayırım açık olarak yoktur. Kitabın
hazırlanmasında temel kaynaklara ulaşılmış ve bu yönüyle zengin sayılabilir. Türkçe yazım yanlışları
neredeyse yok denecek düzeye indirmede oldukça başarılı olmuştur.
3. Osmanlıca - Türkçe Dilbilgisi ( ‫)ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻥﻴﺔ واﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺔ‬
Ain Şems Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi öğretim üyesi Prof. Dr. es-Safsafy Ahmed el-Katory
tarafından hazırlanan Osmanlıca - Türkçe Dilbilgisi, Dâru’l-Mısrî li’t-Tibâ’, tarafından Kahire’de 1419/1999.
yılında birinci cildi basılan kitap, 524 sayfadır.
Kitap, yabancı dil olarak Türkçe öğrenen üniversite öğrencileri için hazırlanmış bir ders kitabı
niteliğindedir. Türkçe dilbilgisi konularını diğer incelediğimiz kitaplardan daha ayrıntılı bir şekilde incelemiştir.
33
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Kitabın başında Türkçenin tarihi geçmişinden bir nebze bahsedilmiş ve sonra harfler ve seslerle konulara
başlanmıştır. Kitabın metodu hakkında bilgi veren yazar, uyguladığı yöntemi şu şekilde açıklar. Konuların
başında işlenecek gramer konusuyla ilgili özellikleri gösteren kısa bir metin, Arapça kuralların açıklaması,
Osmanlıca ve yeni Türkçe örnekler, kuralı daha da açıklayacak olan uygulamalar, konuyu pekiştiren ve
gelecek konuya hazırlayan alıştırmalar (el-Katory, 1999:1/5) verildiği şeklinde açıklanmıştır.
Konuların tertip tarzı, klâsik Arapça dilbilgisi kitapları esasına göre yapılmıştır. Kelime ve
kısımlarıyla konuların işlenmesine başlanmış müenneslik müzekkerlik, marifelik ve nekrelik gibi klâsik
sıralamaya uygun olarak devam edilmiştir. Konular bol örnek ve alıştırmalarla anlaşılması daha kolay hale
getirilmiştir. Ancak örneklerin tercümesinde hedef dil anadil arasındaki aktarım dengesinin çok iyi sağlandığı
söylenemeyeceği gibi Türkçe karakterlerin çoğu yerde kalemle düzeltilmiş olması ve bazen de unutulması
okuyucuyu rahatsız edecek düzeye ulaşmaktadır. Diğerlerinde olduğu gibi Türkçe dilbilgisi terminolojisinin
Arapça eşdeğerliklerinin bulunması ve aktarılmasında sıkıntılar bunda da görülmektedir. Kitabın kapak
tasarımı ve konuların görsel tasarımı ders kitabı düzeyindedir. Kitapta kullanılan harf puntoları arasında
birliğin çok iyi sağlanamadığı da görülmektedir.
Kitabın sonuna eklenen geçen metinler, alıştırmalar, diyaloglar ve konular fihristi istenilen konunun
bulunmasını kolaylaştırmaktadır. Kelime ve kısımları, isim, ismin halleri, zamirler, sıfat, sayılar, zarflar, soru
edatları, mastar, eylemlerin yapısı, eylem kipleri, eylem çekimleri ile zamanlar daha sonra da cümle ve
türleri ele alınmış ve anlatımı kolaylaştıran tablolarla desteklenmiştir. Ayrıca aynı bölümde Türkçenin ekleri
çok yönlü fonksiyonlarıyla ele alınmıştır. İşlenen konuların sonlarına konulan alıştırmalar, kitaba
benzerlerinden farklı bir diğer kazandırmaktadır.
Kitabın genelde konuları biçimbilim sözdizimi şekilde bölümlere ayırmadığı ve klâsik tarzda konuları
takip ettiği görülmektedir.
4. Kavâ’idu’l-Lugati’t-Türkiye (‫)ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺔ‬
Ezher Üniversitesi Dil ve Tercüme Fakültesi Türkçe Bölümü öğretim üyesi Prof. Dr. Fûad Ahmed
Kâmil, tarafından hazırlanan Kava’idu’l-Lugati’t-Türkiye, Dar’ul’n-Nahdat’u-‘Arabiyye tarafından 1425/2004
yılında Kahire’de basılmış, 319 sayfadır.
Kitap, yabancı dil olarak Türkçeyi öğrenen Arap üniversite öğrencileri için temel bir başvuru eseri
olarak hazırlanmıştır. Osmanlıca ve yeni Türkçe harflerin öğretimiyle başlayan kitap hece, ses uygumu ve
eklerle devam etmektedir. Konuların sınıflandırılması ve sıralandırılması bakımından daha önce
incelediğimiz kitaplardan pek farklı bir yanı yoktur. İsimlerle ilgili konular işlendikten sonra sıfatlar konusuna
geçmekte ve zamirler konusu oldukça ayrıntılı olarak işlenmiştir. Kitap eylemlerin yapısı, eylem kipleri,
eylem çekimleri ile zamanlar konusunda oldukça yoğunlaşmıştır. Tüm eylem çekimleri ayrıntılı olarak ele
alınmış ve ses uyumundan dolayı ekleri farklılık gösteren her eylem türüne örnekler verilmiştir. Çekimler
olumlu olumsuz, olumlu soru, olumsuz soru sisteminde bir düzen içinde sunulmuş, çekimler çok sayıda
örnekle desteklenmiştir. Çekimlenen eylemlerin anlamları verilmiş ve her konunu sonuna çekim alıştırmaları
eklenmiştir.
Türkçe gramer konularının isimlendirilmesinde diğer kitaplarda görülen sakıntıların benzerini bunda
da görmek mümkündür. Türkçe örneklerin Arapça açıklamaları verilmiş örnek cümlelerin genelde kısa
olmasına dikkat edilmiştir. Kitabın sonuna azımsanmayacak miktarda Osmanlıca ve Türkçe uygulama
metinleri eklenmiştir.
5. Kavâ’idu’l-Lügati’t-Türkiyyeti’l-‘Usmaniyye ve’n-Nusûs, (‫)ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺔ اﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻥﻴﺔ واﻟﻨﺼﻮص‬
Dr. Muhammed Hamid Salim, tarafından hazırlanan Kavâ’du’l-Lügati’t-Türkiyyeti’l-Usmaniyye ve’nNusûs, tarafından Kahire’de Dâru’s-Şems li’t-Tibâ’, 2002. yılında basılan kitap 465 sayfadır.
Kitap, yabancı dil olarak Osmanlıcayı öğrenen Araplar için temel bir başvuru eseri niteliğinde olup
Türkçenin dilbilgisini ayrıntılı bir şekilde incelemiştir. Konular, sistematik bir düzen içinde sunulmuş, çok
sayıda örnekle desteklenmiştir. Kitapta birinci fasıl olarak adlandırılan giriş bölümünde alfabe ve isimler ana
34
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 başlık olarak almış ve bunlar; 1. harfler, harekeler, hece, ses uyumu, 2. isim ve özellikleri alt başlıklarına
ayrılmış ve ismin çeşitleri, marife ve nekre, müfret, cemi ve müennes müzekker başlıkları altında işlemiştir.
İkinci fasıl zamirler ve ismi işaretler alt başlıklarıyla ayrılmış ve ayrıntılı olarak işlenmiştir. Üçüncü fasıl
sıfatlar hakkında, dördüncü fasıl sayılar, beşinci fasıl, mastar, altıncı fasıl fiil, yedinci fasıl fiilden türeyenler,
sekizinci fasıl ulaçlar, dokuzuncu fasıl zaman zarfları, onuncu fasıl soru edatlarını, on birinci fasıl edatları, on
ikinci fasıl Türkçe cümlenin yapısını, on üçüncü fasıl bazı Türkçe tabirler ve ıstılahları tüm ayrıntılarıyla
işlemektedir.
Kitapta örnek cümleler dikkatle seçilmiş konuyla bağlantısı güçlü, anlamlı ve öğrencinin ilgisini
çekecek niteliktedir. Kitabın uyguladığı öğretim yöntemi dilbilgisi tercüme yöntemidir. Konuların kendi içinde
sınıflandırılması dikkatle yapılmış, öğrenciye gerekli olacak bilgilerin tam verilemesine ve gereksiz olanların
ayıklanmasına özen gösterilmiştir.
Gramer konuları Arapça açıklanmış ve Türkçe örneklerin Arapça anlamları hedef dil okuyucusunun
dil zevklerine uygun bir şekilde Arapçaya ustalıkla aktarılmıştır. Konu başlıkları sınıflandırması Türkçe
dilbilgisi terminolojisinin Arapçalarını bulmada diğer kitaplardan farklıklar gösterir. Her konunun
işlenmesinde çok miktarda bilgi tablolarının kullanıldığını görmek mümkündür. Bunlar kitabın görünümünü
daha cazip hale getiren çok önemli görsel unsurlardır. Kitabın kapak tasarımı ve konuların görsel tasarımı
normal bir görünümdedir.
Kitaptaki konuların belirli bir sistemle kolaydan zora, basitten karmaşığa doğru bir çizgi takip ettiği
söylenebilir.
Sadece bu kitapta bulunan Türkçe ıstılahlar ve kullanılan tabirler bölümünün olması önemli bir
farkıdır. Oldukça kapsamlı olan bu bölüm insan bedeni, duygular, renkler, meyve ve sebze isimleri gibi
konulardan oluşan kelime grupları yirmi beş ayrı başlık altında verilmiştir. Bu bölümde (onu gözlerimden bile
kıskanırım= ‫)أﻏﺎر ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻡﻦ ﻋﻴﻮﻥﻰ‬, (uykuya daldı = ‫( )اﺳﺘﻐﺮق ﻓﻰ اﻟﻨﻮم‬Salim, 2002:374) gibi pek çok dilin günlük
iletişimde ihtiyaç duyulacak deyimsel anlatım ve terimlerini bulmak mümkündür.
6. Kava’idu’l-Lugati’t-Türkiyye, ( ‫)ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺔ‬
Kral Suud Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi öğretim üyesi Dr. Sa’d b. Suveylim el-Şâmân, tarafından
hazırlanan Kava’idu’l-Lugati’t-Türkiyye, Câmi’atu’l-Melik Su’ud, ‘İmadetu’ş-Şuûni’l-Mektebât tarafından
Riyad’ta 1996 yılında basılan kitabı 147 sayfadır.
Kitap, yabancı dil olarak Türkçeyi Arap öğrenciler öğretmek için hazırlanmış temel bir ders kitabı
niteliğindedir. Türkçenin biçimbilim konularını işlemektedir. Konular, sistematik bir düzen içinde sunulmuş ve
örnekle desteklenmiştir. Türkçe gramer konularının tümdengelimli ve dilbilgisi tercüme yöntemiyle
sunulmuştur. Türkçe örneklerin Arapça tercümeleri, Arapça anlatıma uygun olarak aktarılmasında dil
zevkinin korunmasına özen gösterilmiştir. Türkçe dilbilgisi terminolojisi Arapça eşdeğerleriyle ifade edilmiş
aynı özen konu başlıklarının seçiminde de gösterilmiştir. Konuların tasnifinde oldukça titiz ve kolay öğrenime
uygun bir yolun takip edildiği görülür. Her gramer konusunun işlenmesi bittikten sonra, o konu ile ilgili bol
alıştırmalara yer verilmiştir.
Kitaptaki konuların belirli bir sistem içinde kolaydan zora, basitten karmaşığa doğru bir çizgi takip
ettiği söylenebilir. Giriş bölümünde harfler, Türkçe sesbilim ile ilgili dilbilgisi konuları ayrıntılı olarak ele
alınmıştır. Her harf teker teker ele alınarak mahreç, sıfat ve onun Arapçadaki karşılığı olan harf
belirlenmiştir. Harfin tanımından sonra harfin doğru telâffuzunu kavratmak için örnek uygulama kelimeleri
verilmiştir. Bu bölüm Türkçede ünlüler, hece, ses uyumu, ünsüzlerin benzeşmesi ve istisna durumları, hece
düşmesi, eklerin kısımları, isimler ve isimlerde cinsiyet, marife ve nekre konularıyla devam eder. Sesleri
kapsamlı işlemesi dikkate alındığında kitap Türkçe öğretiminin temeli sayılabilecek ses konusunda çok
yoğunlaşmıştır denilebilir.
İsimler konusunu ismin halleri takip etmektedir. Bu konu diğer kitaplara olduğu gibi meful
durumlarıyla ilişkilendirilerek çok geniş anlatım ve örneklendirme yoluyla işlenmiştir. İsim tamlamalarının
ikinci türü belirtisiz isim tamlaması konusu ise yine çok örnek ve ayrıntılarla ilenmiştir. Bu konuyu isim
tamlamalarına eklenen tümleç ekleri konusu takip eder ve konunun sonuna ismin hallerini açıklayan çekim
35
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 tabloları eklenmiştir. Zamirler konusunu ve onun arkasından da mülkiyet zamirlerini uygulamalı olarak çekim
tablolarıyla birlikte açıklamaktadır.
Son bölüm ve kitabın hacmi içinde çok az yer kapsayan sözdizimi, isim cümlesi konusuyla
başlamakta ve oldukça zengin örnek ve alıştırmalarla işlemektedir. Yine bu kısımda isim cümlesinin soru
şekli, var ve yok kelimeleriyle isim cümlelerinin kurulması ve bunların soru şekilleri işlenmiştir. Bu konuyu
mastar ve zamirler konusu takip etmektedir. Yine bu konulardan sonra fiil cümlesi konusuna geçmekte ve
belirsiz geçmiş zamanın olumsuz ve soru biçimlerini işleyerek konularını bitirmektedir. Konular arasında
yapıbilim ile sözdizimi ayrımı gözetilmediğinden sürekli birinden diğerine geçmektedir. Dolaysıyla kitabın
konularının nasıl bir esasa göre düzenlendiğini anlamak oldukça güçtür.
Kitaba, sonuna işlenen konularla ilgili uygulamalı oldukça zengin alıştırmalar bölümü eklenmiştir.
Kitap alıştırma ve uygulamaya verdiği önem bakımından farklı bir özellik göstermektedir.
7. Türk Dil Bilgisi ( ‫)ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺔ‬
Kahire Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi öğretim üyesi Dr. Şevkî Hasen Ahmed Şa’bân, tarafından
hazırlanan Türk Dil Bilgisi, Kahire’de 1424/2003 yılında basılan kitap, 450 sayfadır.
Kitap, yabancı dil olarak yeni Türkçe ile Osmanlıcayı öğrenen Araplar için ders kitabı olarak
hazırlanmıştır. Türkçe alfabe öğretimiyle konuları işlemeye başlıyor ve harfleri, sesleri teker teker
örnekleriyle ayrıntılı olarak işliyor. Konular, sistematik bir düzen içinde sunulmuş, azımsanmayacak sayıda
örnekle desteklenmiştir. Öğretim yöntemi olarak dilbilgisi ve tercüme yoluyla öğretimi benimseyen bir
yöntem izlemiştir. Gramer konuları ile Türkçe örneklerin Arapça açıklamaları, hedef dil öğrencisinin
anlayacağı bir biçimde Arapçaya aktarılmış, gerek konu başlıkları gerekse Türkçe dilbilgisi terminolojisi
Arapça eşdeğer bulmaktan daha çok Arapça isimleriyle verilmiştir. Kitapta konu anlatımı sırasında verilen
örneklerin dışında alıştırma maksatlı örneğe rastlanmaz.
İsim ve isimlerle ilgili konuların işlenmesinden sonra izafet konusu, zamirler, mastar ve fiil konularını
kapsamlı bir biçimde çekimleriyle birlikte ele almıştır. Bu kitabın özelliğini de filleri çok ayrıntılı olarak
işlemesi olarak göstermek mümkündür. Filer konusunu sıfat, sayılar, edatlar ve Türkçe cümle yapısı
konularının işlenmesiyle kitap bitmektedir. Kitabın sonuna uygulama için edebî, tarihî ve belgeler
eklenmiştir.
Kitap, dilbilgisi konularını bölümlere ayırmamıştır. Eylem çekimleri gibi bir konuya çok fazla yer
ayırırken bazı konulara yer vermememsi kullanım hedefini ve faydalanma oranının zayıflatmaktadır.
8. el-Kava’idu’l-Esâsiye li-Lugati’t-Türkiyyeti’l-‘Usmâniyye, ( ‫)ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺔ اﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻥﻴﺔ‬
Ezher Üniversitesi Dil ve Tercüme Fakültesi Türkçe Bölüm başkanı Prof. Dr. Mekrem Abdulfettah
Nevfel, tarafından hazırlanan el-Kava’idu’l-Esâsiye li-Lugati’t-Türkiyyeti’l-‘Usmâniyye, el-Kitabu’l-Evvel,
Kulliyetu’l-Lugat ve’t-Teceme, Camiatu’l-Ezher, Kahire 2002. basılan kitap 190 sayfadır.
Bu kitap, incelenen diğer kitaplardan farklı bir yöntemle yabancı dil olarak Osmanlıca konuşmayı
öğretmek maksadıyla Araplar öğrenciler için hazırlanmıştır. Harflerin öğretimiyle başlayan kitap, harflerin her
biri için bir resim ve harfin geçtiği birkaç örnek kelimeyle öğretme yolunu benimsemiştir. Harflerin
öğretiminden sonra Osmanlıcada kullanılan sülüs, nesih, rikka, divanî, talik, kûfî, icâzet ve siyâkât yazı
çeşitlerinin isimlerini verdikten sonra her sayfada bir yazı türünü işleyerek konulara başlıyor.
Türkçenin dilbilgisi konularına girmeden “tanışma” başlıklı bir diyalog parçası işleyerek “konuşma”
1.2.3 başlıklarını taşıyan üç konu ve sonra “Türkçe okuyorum” konusunu işliyor ve geçen konularla ilgili bir
sayfalık bir alıştırma veriyor. Bunu tekrar “sınıfta, fakültede, Kahire şehri, alıştırma, şehrimiz, alıştırma,
ailem, haftanın günleri, günün gündemi, insan vücudu” başlıklarını taşıyan diyalog konuları takip ediyor.
Tekrar şu dilbilgisi konularını “ses uyumu, ekler, isim, zamir, mastar, fiil, olumsuz soru, sıfat, sayılar ve
cümle” işleyerek kitabı bitirmektedir.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Kitapta konuların sunum sistematiğinden daha çok kitaba başlama sistematiği modern dil öğretim
stratejilerine daha yakın bir yöntemdir. Ancak kitap bir bütün olarak organize edilmediğinden harflerin
sunumuyla sınırlı kalmıştır. Uygulamalı dilbilim farklı köklerden gelen dillerin öğretiminde ortaya çıkan
çatışmaları önlemek için diyaloglarla öğretime başlanmasını ve öğrencinin bazı basit anlatımları
kavramasından sonra gramer konularının öğretimine geçilmesini önermesi, dikkate alındığında uygulanan
yöntem anadilden farklı olan Türkçe öğretiminde uygulanması yerindedir.
Kitabın örnek ve uygulama bakımından zayıf olmasına rağmen, diyalog cümlelerinin seçiminde
başarılı olduğu söylenebilir. Gramer öğretiminde uygulamalı öğretim yöntemini seçen kitap, kuralları Arapça
açıklarken, Türkçe diyalog cümlelerinin Arapça açıklamalarını vermemiştir. Anlamların kontekstten
çıkartılması ise öğrenci seviyesi ve öğretimde kullanılan teknik donanımla ilgili olduğundan, bunlarda
görülecek bir eksiklik yanlış anlama ve öğrenmeye sebep olabileceğinden iyi organize edilmesini gerektirir.
Kitabın kapak tasarımı orta düzeyde bir ders kitabı görünümündedir. İç tasarımı, harf ve konuların
görsel biçimleri çok iyi değildir. Bazı sayfalar okunamayacak kadar siliktir, harf puntları gereğinden fazla
küçüktür. Kitabın sonuna eklenen metinler tıpkıçekim yoluyla aktarıldığı için siyah bir görüntü içinde
boğulmuştur.
Kitapta biçimbilim, sözdizimi konuları arasında bir ayırım veya bölümleme yapılmamıştır. Birinci
kitap olarak basılan mevcut kitabı takip edecek diğer kitaplar henüz basılamamıştır. Doğal olarak bu da
işlenen konuların eksik kalmasına sebep olabilir.
9. Mebadiu’l-Lugati’t-Türkiyye ( ‫) ﻡﺒﺎدئ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﺮآﻴﺔ‬
Dr. ‘İzzet Hasen, tarafından hazırlanan Mebadiu’l-Lugati’t-Türkiyye 1389/1969 yılında Dimeşk’te
basılmış olan kitap, küçük boyda ve 128 sayfadır.
Bu kitap hem ders kitabı hem de kendi kendine Türkçe öğrenmek isteyenler için hazırlamıştır.
Kitapların çoğunda görülen geleneksel harflerin öğretimiyle başlanmıştır. Harfler sert/yumuşa ünsüz ve
ünlüler olarak sınıflandırılmış ve isimleri de yazılmıştır. Harf seslerinin öğretim uygulamaları için çokça örnek
kelimeler verilmiştir. İnce okunan harfler olarak g, k, l, kalın okunan harfler olarak ta ç, k, p, t harflerini
vermiştir. Ünlüler ve hece konusunu işledikten sonra Türkçe cümle kuruluşuna geçmiştir.
Türkçe cümle kuruluşuna, sadece özne yüklem öğelerini kullanarak başlıyor. Daha sonra cümlenin
diğer öğelerini ekleyerek genişletiyor. Konuyla ilgili alıştırmalar için önce kelimeler veriyor ve sonra onlardan
cümle oluşturulmasını istiyor. Geleneksel sınıflandırmaya tarzında isimler konusuna geçiyor. Ancak bu
bölümde de fail, meful başlıkları altında cümlenin öğelerini işlemeye davam ediyor. Tüm meful çeşitlerinden
sonra izafet, zamirlerden sonra fiiller konusuna geçiyor.
Mastar, fiil ve zamanlara göre çekimleri, soru, olumsuz soru, değil olumsuzluk kelimesi, olmak fiiliyle
geçmiş ve şimdiki zaman çekimleri, sıfat, sıfat cümlesi, ismi tafdil, ismi mensup ismi işaretler, soru edatları,
sayılar ayrıntılarıyla işlenerek dilbilgisi konularını bitiriyor. Kitabın sonuna okuma ve tercüme parçaları
eklenmiştir.
Kitabın içerdiği konular hacim olarak Türkçe öğretmekten daha çok Türkçe hakkında bilgi vermek
için yeterli olabileceği söylenebilir. Bazı konuların işlenmesinde geleneksel Türkçe öğretim kitaplarının
yöntemini uygulamakla beraber kendisine mahsus geliştirdiği yöntemin Türkçe öğretimine uygun olabilir.
Konuların sunum sistematiğinden daha çok cümle ve öğelerini sunma sistemi modern dil öğretim
stratejilerine daha yakın bir yöntemdir. Uygulamalı dilbilimin farklı köklerden gelen dillerin öğretiminde
önerdiği cümle yapılarıyla başlama yolunu seçmesi doğru bir yöntem olarak değerlendirilebilir. Öğrencinin
bazı basit anlatımları kavramasından sonra gramer konularının öğretimine geçilmesi diller arasındaki
çatışmayı önleme bakımından önemli bir uygulamadır.
Kitap, örnek ve uygulama bakımından yetersiz olmasına rağmen, örnek cümlelerinin seçiminde
başarılıdır. Aslında dilbilgisi çeviri yöntemiyle yazılan kitap, katı bir dilbilgisi öğretim yolu izlememiştir.
Dilbilgisi kurallarını Arapça açıklamış ve Türkçe cümlelerinin Arapça açıklamalarını vermemiştir. Kitapta
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 biçimbilim, sözdizimi konuları arasında bir ayırım veya bölümleme yapılmamış ve konular karışık olarak
işlenmiştir.
İncelenen kitap sonradan ciltlendiği için orijinal kapak tasarımının nasıl olduğu bilinmiyor. İç
tasarımı, harf ve konuların görsel düzeni orta düzeydedir. Sayfalarında estetik ve okuyucuyu yormayacak
rahat bir görünüm vardır. Bazı önemli görülen noktalara, dikkatin yoğunlaşmasını sağlayacak bir görünümün
kazandırılmıştır.
SONUÇ
1. Yabancı dil olarak ilk Türkçe öğrenme girişiminde bulunduğu bilinen toplum Araplar olduğu için,
ilk Türkçe öğretim kitapları da onlar için hazırlanmıştır. Türkçenin dil varlığının derlenmesinde ve tarihî
gelişim sürecinin takibinde bu kitapların özel önemi ve yeri olduğu için bunlar üzerinde incelemeler yapılmalı
kayıp olduğu sanılanlar araştırılmalıdır.
2. Bu çalışmada incelenen dokuz kitapta genellikle tümevarım ve yabancı dil öğretim yöntemi olarak
da dilbilgisi çeviri yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Kitapların neredeyse hepsi yazarların kendi imkânlarıyla
bastırıldığından başka ülke, hatta bazen aynı şehirdeki başka bir üniversite öğrencisinin dahi haberi
olmamakta, temin edememektedir.
3. Türkçe dilbilgisi terimlerinde birlik sağlanmalıdır. Herkesin bildiği ve üzerinde uzlaşma sağlanarak
yerleşmiş “istek kipleri” yerine “tasarım kipleri” isminin kullanılması Türkçenin yabancı dil olarak öğretimini
tasavvur edilemeyecek kadar olumsuz etkilemektedir. İncelenen kitaplarda dilbilgisi terimlerinde birliğin
olmamasından doğan terim sıkıntısı ve bunun yabancı öğrenciye yansıması öğretimi olumsuz
etkilemektedir. Burada söz konusu yapılan şu veya bu ismin tercihi konusu değil, isim ne olursa olsun, yeter
ki tüm kaynaklarda aynı terim, aynı isimle isimlendirsin. Terimlerde isim birliğinin olmaması ve yabancı dil
olarak Türkçe öğrenenlerin Türkiye’deki terim kargaşasının içine çekilmesi, Türkçenin zor bir dil olduğu
kanaatini doğurmaktadır.
4. Arap ve Türk toplumları arsındaki uzun tarihî birlikteliğin gelecekte de devam etmesini
sağlayacak olan, dilsel iletişimin geliştirilmesine her türlü destek ve katkı sağlanmalıdır. Bu kapsamda Arap
ülkelerinde Türkoloji bölümleri acilen çağdaş yöntem ve tekniklere uygun hazırlanmış ders kitap ve
dokümanlarla desteklenmelidir. Bu tür çabalarla Türkçe öğrenmenin zor olduğu gibi yanlış düşünceler
önlenebilirse, Türkçe öğretimi daha verimli ve başarılı hale gelir.
KAYNAKÇA 1. Mahmut Kaşgarlı, Divânü Lugâti’t-Türk Tıpkıbasımı, Alâeddin Kıral Basımevi, Ankara 1941.
2. Mahmut Kaşgarlı, Divânü Lugâti’t-Türk Tercümesi, (Çev. Besim Atalay), T.T.K.B., Ankara, 1992.
3. Ahmed es-Seyyid Suleymân, Târih ed-Duveli’l-İslâmiyye ve Mu’cemu’l-Useri’l-Hâkime, Dâru’lMa'arif, Kahire 1982.
4. Muhammed Fuad Köprülüzade, el-Kavaninü’l-Külliyye li Zabti’l-Lügati’t- Türkiyye, Evkaf Matbaası,
İstanbul,1928.
A. Subhi Furat, Arap Edebiyatı Tarihi, İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayını, İstanbul 1996.
5. Recep Toparlı, Sadi Çögenli, Nevzat Yanık, el Kavaninü’l Külliye li- Zabti’I-Lugati’t- Türkiyye, TDK
Yayını, Ankara 1999.
6. Mehmet Hengirmen, Türkçe Temel Dilbilgisi, Engin Yayınevi, Ankara, 1998.
7. Hasan Duman, El Yazmaları Dünyasında Türkiye’nin Yeri, Kültür Bakanlığı Yay. Ankara. 1997.
8. N. Hazım Onat, Arapçanın Türk Diliyle Kuruluşu, Milli Eğitim Basımevi, İstanbul, 1951.
9. Hüseyin Küçükkalay, Kur’an Dili Arapça, Denizkuşları Matbaası, Konya, 1969.
10. Ahmet Karaçavuş, Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Bilim Cemiyetleri, A. Ü. Sosyal Bil. Ens. Tarih A.D.
(yayınlanmamış doktora tezi) Ankara, 2006.
11. Abdu’l-Munsif Mecdî Bekr Muhammed, “Hüviyetu Mısr es-Sekafîyye ve Sılâtuhâ bi’l-Lugati’tTürkiyye”, Phılology, Literature and Lingıistics, A Refereed Research Journal, Ain Shams
University, Faculty of Al-Alsun, Volume:37,Jan.2002.
38
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 12. Fethi Abdül Mo’ti en-Neklavî, Alıştırmalar ve Metinlerle Türk Dilbilgisi, Ezher Üniversitesi Dil ve
Tercüme Fakültesi, Birinci baskı, Kahire, 1414/1993.
13. Abdullah Mubeşşir Alterazi, Dil Bilgisi Osmanlıca ve Yeni Türkçe Gramer (Araplar İçin), Cidde,
Suudi Arabistan Birinci baskı, 1406/1985.
14. es-Safsafy Ahmed el-Katory, Osmanlıca-Türkçe Dilbilgisi, Dâru’l-Mısrî li’t-Tibâ’, Kahire 1419/1999.
15. Muhammed Hamid Salim, Kavâ’du’l-Lügati’t-Türkiyeti’l-Usmaniyye ve’n-Nusûs, Dâru’s-Şems li’tTibâ’, Kahire 2002.
39
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 НЕВЕРБАЛЬНАЯ КОММУНИКАЦИЯ В ТЕАТРЕ И ЖИВОПИСИ
Г. Е. Крейдлин (РГГУ, Москва)
ПРЕДВАРИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ЗАМЕЧАНИЯ
В устном общении, когда человек говорит, это должно быть не только слышно, но и видно. В
разговор включены жесты и выражения лица, движения тела, глаз и т.д., причем они функционируют
и как единицы отдельных каналов коммуникации, и как часть интегрированного целого. Дж. Бавелас
(Бавелас 1990) говорила, что дискурс можно только тогда считать состоявшимся (real), когда у него
есть невербальный аспект".
Всякая символическая деятельность – и речевая, и невербальная семиотическая
деятельность – превращает людей в актеров, играющих в диалоге различные социальные роли,
отвечающие или не отвечающие сценарию, но так или иначе подлежащие разгадке контрагентом.
Речь может противоречить жестовым, то есть знаковым, или чисто физиологическим движениям
актера, а тогда адресату приходится выбирать – чему верить. И тут, по-видимому, универсальным
является приоритет кинетического поведения над речевым поведением.
Было неоднократно показано, что за конкретными телесными, или иначе, соматическими
знаками всегда стоят определенные тип мышления и культура, которые обеспечивают
существование и реализацию конкретных способов невербального выражения нужных человеку
смыслов. Культура – это определенная система представлений; в ней люди живут, воспроизводя ее
не только в речи и языке, но и в различных семиотических действиях, производимых в быту, обряде,
литературе, в ритмической магии танца и пения, в живописи, кино, театре, да и вообще во всяком
общезначимом человеческом акте.
Каждое общество и каждая культура тщательно фиксирует телесное поведение ее
представителя, интерпретирует это поведение и оценивает его, часто синкретично с описанием
человека.
Вот
что
пишет,
например,
об
одном
из
своих
любимых
педагогов
О. М. Фрейденберг:
(1) "С веселым, шумным нетерпением все ждали Толстого [Ивана Ивановича – Г.К.] <…>.
Наконец, он пришел с тросточкой в руках. Вид и манеры Толстого вызвали у меня гомерический
смех. Не в силах побороть неудержимого хохота, я, чувствуя, что все равно уже погибла,
положила голову на руки и умирала от смеха. И.И. Толстой был смуглый и черный, как цыган. <…>
Он жестикулировал, как итальянец, явно утрируя. Утрировка была его главной и "особой"
приметой. Этот граф не чувствовал никакой меры. Он походил на клоуна. Множество лет
спустя, когда Толстой стал академиком, он вкладывал в свою утрированную жестикуляцию и
фразеологию характер демократичности, стучал по столу, делал "непосредственные жесты",
кричал "здо-ро-во!". В соединении с риторическими приемами, искусственной модуляцией голоса
эта условная демократичность, развязность жестикуляционных рук делала из Толстого
"любимца публики" (О. М. Фрейденберг. Университетские годы).
Или вот еще один, на это раз стихотворный, пример.
(2) Походка – полет человека. //По этому признаку мы // Узнаем танцора, калеку // И
выпущенного из тюрьмы. // Походка – само красноречье // Восторгов надежд и обид. // Вот – к
счастью стремится навстречу, Вот – движется, хоть и убит… // Походка – ритмический почерк.
// По-разному ходит добряк, // И злюка, спортсмен и рабочий, // Два брата – мудрец и дурак. // С
солдатами возятся много, // Чтоб всех обезличить гуртом, // Но только влюбленные в ногу //
Идут, не заботясь о том. (Николай Шатров (1929 – 1977), НЛО, №2, 1993, 304 –305).
40
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 1. ТЕАТР
Театральная инсценировка всегда осуществляется в рамках некоторой театральной и, шире,
культурной традиции и предполагает, в частности:
(а) аутентичное воссоздание вещных элементов культурных традиций – предметов быта,
культа, технических устройств. Это одежда, мебель, ордена, старинные экипажи, современные
автомобили
и
др.
–
так
сказать,
реквизит
театральной
культуры
и
(б) внимание к пространственному и телесному аспектам, то есть к тем сторонам театра,
которые здесь меня преимущественно будут интересовать.
Я начну с пространственного компонента и пространственного поведения актеров в
театральной инсценировке.
В своем руководстве по проксемному поведению Э. Холл (Холл 1974, с. 2) пишет: "Изучение
культуры в ее пространственном аспекте – это изучение того, как люди, находящиеся в разных
эмоциональных состояниях, окружениях и контекстах, люди, совершающие различные действия и
вступающие в различные отношения, пользуются своим способностями к восприятию пространства".
В инсценировке театральному режиссеру (и то же самое можно сказать про продюсера
фильма – боюсь, далее у меня не будет просто времени говорить о кино) важно осознать, что
каждый народ видит пространственное устройство бытия в особой проекции, которую можно назвать
национальная концептуализация пространства (Крейдлин 2002). Одним из любимых предметов
проксемики – науки о коммуникативном пространстве человека и знаках пространственного
поведения – является семиология дома, то есть наполнение культурными смыслами разных частей
дома, прежде всего основных личных территорий человека. Почему бельэтаж традиционно
считается хорошим этажом, а для простолюдинов обычно отводят первые этажи, или почему вообще
верхняя часть дома во многих культурах издревле считалась чистой, а нижняя – нечистой? Какова
пространственная организация дома, например символика углов дома и его частей и как она
выражается в языке? Какое пространство мыслится людьми как свое, а какое – как чужое? Эти и
многие другие подобные вопросы сегодня интересуют как специалистов в области невербальной
семиотики и ее раздела – проксемики, так и лингвистов.
Очевидно, что представления о пространстве и о специфике коммуникации находящихся в
этом пространстве людей находят отражение в сценических постановках и в кино. Например,
корейские верования и необычные для нас представления корейцев о пространственном устройстве
отражаются в корейском театре.
Зритель корейского театра должен знать, что если на сцене появляется дом и комнаты, то
(а) в каждой точке пространства дома живут духи, помогающие в повседневных делах,
заботящиеся о жителях дома, защищающие их от бед, несчастий и пр. Так, в зале с деревянным
полом maru живет дух - хранитель дома Сонгджу, а в женской половине дома – дух Самсин. В кухне
живет Джованг, во дворе – Тоджу, а в туалете – Тыксин. И каждый из них исполняет свою роль, не
вмешиваясь в деятельность других. Самсин управляет деторождением, Тоджу охраняет двор от
злых духов и пр.;
Зритель должен также знать, (б) что maru – самое важное место в доме (есть гипотеза, что
слово произошло из эвенкийского malu 'святое место'). Это место в центре жилища, и многие
обряды проводятся там. Именно поэтому на сцене maru всегда в центре. Дух Сонгджу, который там
обитает, часто отождествляется со старшим, главным мужчиной в доме, принимая вид хозяина
дома;
41
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Наконец, зритель должен знать, (в) что "тело" Согджэу символизирует бумажный конверт,
обвязанный ниткой, или глиняный горшок с рисом. Они ставятся в комнате, то есть на
соответствующем месте сцены, там, где maru, то есть где чистое и святое пространство, или
обвязывают бумагу вокруг главного столба, держащего крышу.
***
2. ТЕПЕРЬ НЕСКОЛЬКО СЛОВ О ТЕЛЕСНОМ АСПЕКТЕ ДЕЙСТВИЯ И ТЕАТРАЛЬНЫХ
ЖЕСТАХ.
В теории и истории культуры, а вслед за ними и в невербальной семиотике, выделяются и
изучаются два отчетливо противопоставленных отношения людей к человеческому телу. Это (а)
апофатическое отношение, или умолчание о теле, под которым понимается стремление сделать
тело незаметным, непримечательным и вместе с тем, так сказать, идеальным, в частности, желание
сделать мужское тело неотличимым от женского, и б) отношение, которое можно назвать
привлечением внимания к телу. Стереотипными средствами для привлечения внимания к телу,
помимо словесных проявлений, служат невербальные знаки телесного поведения, а также запахи,
одежда, аксессуары, украшения.
Понять, как невербально развивался театр, помогает следующее замечание
Н.Я. Берковского, сделанное им в статье "Литература и театр": "Классическая драматургия страдала
переоценкой слова. В прошлом веке великие драматурги Клейст, Ибсен поколебали театр, в
котором по примеру Расина и Шиллера слово господствовало нераздельно. У Клейста, у Ибсена со
словом спорит мимика; немое движение, немой жест у них зачастую достовернее, чем слова,
произносимые со сцены". Европейский театр XVI – конца XVIII веков был фактически бестелесным; в
распоряжении постановщиков, режиссеров и актеров были только слова и некоторые скупые
элементы реквизита. Культура Запада и следовавшая за ней театральная традиция России не
допускали телесных масок и иных способов уподобления кому-то или чему-то, которые бы нарушали
уникальность и целостность человека. Лишь в конце второй трети XVIII века апофатическое
отношение меняется на внимательное отношение к телу. Зритель мог уже видеть на сцене не
только человека, актера, исполнявшего роль, но и действия персонажа, которого играл актер.
Теперь зритель видел тело актера и действия с телом и над телом, а не только слышал голос
актера.
Вот что писал о двойственной природе актерской игры Петр Григорьевич Богатырев. "Это
двойное восприятие актера зрителям очень важно. Во-первых, благодаря именно такому восприятию
все знаки, выраженные актером, становятся жизненными. Во-вторых, двойное восприятие
подчеркивает, что исполняющего роль актера нельзя отождествлять с персонажем пьесы, что нельзя
ставить знак равенства между актером и лицом, которое он представляет, что костюм и маска так
же, как и жесты актера, – лишь знаки изображаемого действия (Богатырев, 1975 с. 20).
Партнеры теперь вступают в разнообразные по своим формальным и смысловым свойствам
телесные контакты, овладевают новыми жестами и вместе выполняют различные действия с
предметами и над предметами, с людьми и над людьми. Персонажи указывают рукой и глазами друг
на друга, дотрагиваются друг до друга (с этих жестов и рождалось, по-видимому, новое отношение к
телу и телесности в западноевропейском и русском театре). Актеры берутся за руки, обнимаются,
целуются, кладут голову на колени партнеру или партнерше; они бьют пощечины, дерутся и т. д. Они
принимают новые позы, по-иному перемещаются в ограниченном пространстве сцены, а позднее
начинают выходить из пространства сцены, спускаясь в зрительный зал.
Между тем, как это ни покажется странным, театральные жесты и театральное пространство
вплоть до настоящего времени изучаются, как правило, обособленно друг от друга. Пространство
отделяется и от жестов, и положений тела, и от мимики, и от зрительной композиции. А ведь
рассказывая в театре некую историю, важно активно привлекать и язык проксемики, и язык касаний,
и язык жестов в широком смысле этого слова. Нередко динамический жест, исполненный в
определенной части пространства, производит большее впечатление, чем сказанные слова или
статичная поза, принимаемая актером в другой части пространства.
42
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Константин Сергеевич Станиславский, едва ли не главный теоретик театрального искусства
XX века, делил актерскую игру на три компонента: внешнее, или телесное, действие, словесное
действие и внутреннее действие. Питер Брук, один из великих театроведов и исследователей
театрального языка, в своей работе "The Empty Space" ('Пустое пространство') тоже утверждает, что
"слова в пьесе – это лишь конечный элемент процесса, зародившегося как импульс. Это процесс
начинается в драматурге и повторяется в театре" (с. 12). Современный театр часто обращается к
невербальной форме, обыгрывая ее. Питер Брук рассматривал паралингвистику и кинесику как
знаковые системы, которые могут следовать словесному коду и быть противопоставленными ему. В
"безжизненно однообразном", или, по Питеру Бруку, "мертвом", театре жесты актеров часто
противоречат намерениям автора, выраженным в тексте, и замыслам режиссера,
интерпретирующего событие. Между тем, как отмечает в своей работе 1999 года "Паралингвизм в
театрах и международные театральные фестивали" (рукопись) македонский исследователь театра
Саша Огненовский (Sasho Ognenovski), то, что Тартюф у Мольера обладает лицемерием, к середине
XX века стало возможным понять лишь непосредственно из неязыковых, параязыковых и жестовых,
структур, раскрывающих внутреннюю сущность Тартюфа.
***
Когда мы говорим о телесном компоненте в театре, приходит в голову еще одна цитата, на
сей раз из О. Уайльда: “It is only the shallow people who do not judge by appearances” (в своей книжечке
«Парадоксы Уайльда» Т. Боборыкина перевела это как «Только поверхностные люди не судят по
внешности»). Вот характерный пример важнейшего, если не решающего, использования в
внешности в театральной постановке. Речь пойдет о лице и выражениях лица.
Китайцы делили лицо на 3 зоны. Верхняя зона (лоб) показывает жизненный путь человека
от 15 до 30 лет и в глубокой старости, средняя зона (от бровей до кончика носа) – от 35 до 50 лет,
нижняя зона (от верхней губы до подбородка) – от 51 до 77 лет. Идеальный лоб (учитывались его
форма и цвет кожи) свидетельствует о прекрасном состоянии тела и духа. Гармоничная средняя
зона – о сбалансированности психики, правильная нижняя часть – об уравновешенности характера.
В китайской культуре референту "лицо" соответствуют два слова-квазисинонима лянь и
мянь. Лянь обозначает лицо как часть человеческого тела, а мянь имеет более широкие
значения, метафорические и обращенные к человеку, рассматриваемому как синтезу mind и body,
а не исключительно к телу человека. И эти значения принадлежат к высокому стилю. Го Синь-и
(Го Снь-и 2005) отмечает, что слово мянь часто встречается в идиомах и других устойчивых
сочетаниях типа чунь фэнь мань мянь 'человек счастлив (букв. лицо сияет счастьем)', гай тоу
хуань мянь букв. 'изменить лицо, то есть образ мысли или репутацию' или в сочетаниях с
редупликацией типа мяньмянь цзюй дао 'продумать со всех сторон' (здесь мянь означает
'сторона, внешний вид, поверхность'),
Замечание. Как известно, в реалистических направлениях западной и русской живописи
портретное сходство считается обязательным элементом, а в традиционной живописи Китая
важнее внутренний мир человека. Разделение человека и его образа в западной культуре
существовало всегда. В Библии говорится о двух формах бытия – святое ("кадош"), то есть,
буквально, "отделенное" от человека и всё остальное – "холь", тоже рассматриваемое как некая
целостность, но уже не святая. С библейской точки зрения не нужно пытаться сводить святое,
или внутреннее, к чему-то внешнему, то есть обыденному, и наоборот, возводить обыденное до
святого: нормальное бытование мира всегда будет связано с этим различием. Святость – это
духовный вектор, который позволяет человеку быть до конца религиозным.
Лицо лянь отступает, так сказать, на задний план, и изображение внешне редко бывает
похожим на свой оригинал. Как пишет В. В. Малявин, "Портрет, по китайским представлениям, был
маской души, преломлением сокровенных состояний духа в материальности тела" (Малявин 2000, с
361). Действительно, физические черты лица изображаются в китайском театре по определенному
канону, существующему с древних времен. Согласно ему у человека существует двадцать четыре
вида бровей, тридцать девять видов глаз, двадцать четыре вида носа, шестнадцать видов рта и
шестнадцать видов уха.
43
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Каждая форма сопровождается подробным описанием соответствующих им черт характера
(см. Го Синь-и 2005, а также Крейдлин 2002, 2005). Особую роль в этой связи приобретают китайские
слова мяньцзюй букв. 'лицевой прибор' и гуйлянь 'лицо приведения', то есть слова, обозначающие
маску.
Маска как элемент имиджа непосредственно связана с театром. В своей статье
"Политические имиджы и смеховая культура" Т. Чередниченко пишет, что "Имидж – это
стилистическое препарирование реальной человеческой фактуры". Маска, грим, а также (в более
развитых формах театрального искусства) костюм и театральные аксессуары
как раз и
способствуют такому препарированию.
В китайском народном театре изображение лица и наложение грима играют особую роль.
Красное лицо (или красная краска грима) означает верного, преданного человека, розовый цвет лица
обозначает старого человека, черный – справедливого и честного. Зеленый и синий грим
характеризует злобного и бессовестного человека или существа: например, лицо злого духа – всегда
синее, а измученная домашними обязанностями замужняя женщина имела пожелтевшее или просто
желтое лицо, которое считается некрасивым, а больной человек – серое лицо. Кроме того, цвет лица
и грим обозначал определенные эмоции, например, мянь ю цайсэ означает буквально 'лицо зеленое,
как овощи' – 'иметь голодный вид, а мянь хуан цзи шоу – буквально 'желтое и худое лицо', то есть
'быть истощенным от голода, иметь голодный и болезненный вид' и т.д. (Го Синь-и 2005).
Есть и изображения, лишенные цвета, и их языковые обозначения. Го Синь-и
(там же, с. 39) специально отмечает, что лицо, лишенное цвета, не означает бесцветное.
Бесцветное лицо говорит об эмоциях; так, смысл 'он бледен как смерть от страха, горя,
переутомления' на китайском языке передается словами мянь у жэнь сэ, которое буквально
обозначает 'лицо без человеческого цвета'.
***
И в других культурах лицо, его раскраска и стоящая за ними мимика тоже высоко значимы.
Иезуитский миссионер Санчес Лабрадор описывал, с каким самозабвением древние кадувео (Южная
Америка) посвящали целые дни раскрашиванию лица и тела. К. Леви-Стросс (Леви-Стросс 1983, с.
229) специально отмечает, что люди племени кадувео считали, что тот, кто не раскрашен, попросту
глуп. Т. Чередниченко в упомянутой выше статье пишет, что такие племенные знаки, наносимые на
тело, как узоры и татуировки, превращали "натуральный человеческий облик в изобразительный
символ племенной мудрости. Они заостряли естественную симметрию черт в условно
геометрическую форму, которая означала социальную иерархию или космическую гармонию".
Можно вспомнить и о символике сочетаний типа, формы и цвета костюма в классическом
восточном, например китайском, театре. Возраст, физическое или психическое состояние
социальное положение, вид деятельности или действия, совершаемые персонажем, – все эти
признаки передавались на китайской сцене сложной комбинацией типа, покроя и цвета одежды.
Молодые ходят в светлой одежде, чаще всего белой, а старые люди носят темную, обычно темнокоричневую или черную одежду. У бедняка вся одежда, включая головной убор, должна быть ветхой,
покрытой заплатами, а мандарин на сцене ходил в длинном, до пола, верхнем платье. Обувь у него
должна быть исключительно на высоких деревянных подошвах. По костюму особого покроя
узнавался человек, собирающийся в путешествие, больной или военный человек, человек, только
что поднявшийся после сна с кровати. Различные движения рукавом одежды считаются знаками
привлечения внимания, или выражения симпатии одного человека к другому; они передают смыслы
стыдливости, смущения. См. об этом подробно в работе Сорокин, Марковина 1988, с. 64 – 71.
Режиссер и актер должны владеть невербальными инструментами, используемыми в
быту и, прежде всего, теми, что кодифицированы в бытовом языке. Они должны знать, что
почесывание или потирание уха в языке русских жестов и русской культуре означают, среди
прочего, бессознательное желание "отгородиться" от слов, как бы "заткнуть уши", что
44
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 расслабленное положение тела говорит о доверии к партнеру. Есть прием подчеркивания
общения с партнером, когда актер не обращает внимания на зрителей, осознанно или нет.
Американцы, кстати, предпочитают даже в бытовой беседе стоять чуть боком при
разговоре друг с другом, а у русских это, так сказать, неуважительная поза. Втереться в
доверие можно, подсаживаясь к человеку все ближе и ближе. Почесывание шеи или места под
мочкой уха в процессе разговора означает 'я размышляю, потому не уверен, что с вами готов
тут же согласиться'. Если собеседник оттягивает воротничок рубашки, он, возможно,
подозревает, что его лукавство раскрыто, и начинает испытывать волнение по этому поводу.
Позевывание может означать, что вашему собеседнику скучно, что вы ему говорите, а
скрещенные руки на груди во время беседы могут означать не только защиту, скрытие тела, но
и пассивное сопротивление тому, что вы говорите. И при этом собеседник на словах может
заверять вас в согласии с вашими словами или рекомендациями.
Язык жестов и голоса, преломляясь в искусстве, как порой и в самой жизни, становится
одновременно и текстом, и подтекстом, иносказанием, намеком, метафорой или реализованной
метафорой, одновременно загадкой и разгадкой. Вот мимика, например улыбка. Улыбка в жизни, в
литературе, улыбка на сцене и экране, в живописи – это все код, тайнопись, которую надо разгадать.
Сопоставление бытовых и сценических улыбок, анализ авторских ремарок относительно
невербального поведения героя – провести необходимую реконструкцию вполне можно. Когда автор
в ремарке пишет нечто вроде "улыбаясь", то тип улыбки обычно скрыт в тексте, и его надо научиться
прочитывать. В театре и балете можно показать даже молчание, например застывшим светом и
остановкой музыки, как предлагали французы, или движениями, предшествующими молчанию,
Подготовка к акту, то, что лингвисты называют экскурсией", например, опускание рук, головы,
прекращение поддержки и др.– все это передает часто молчание. "Излюбленное эпохой настроение
"несказанности", как говорили символисты, привело на сцену сумерки, музыку и трепет догорающей
папиросы в нервной руке" (Федор Степун. Кино и театр).
3. ЖИВОПИСЬ
Теперь о жестах (в широком смысле слова) в живописи.
Разные школы и направления изобразительного искусства отличают не только разное
отношение к пространству и разная эстетика его восприятия, но и особые невербальные языки его
представления. Особое место в исследованиях отводится структурной и содержательной
организации пространства, семантике и прагматике пространственных форм, выявлению
универсальных и специфичных пространственных компонентов, причем специфичных как для
данного автора, так и для той или иной художественной школы, направления и культуры.
Параллельно с пространством в невербальной семиотике активно изучается использование
художниками и скульптурами возможностей риторического отображения времени, его соположения и
совмещения с пространством, то есть явления, известного в искусствоведении под именем
паратаксис. Рассматривается проблема, как в той или иной художественной форме изображается
нечто материальное или абстрактное, но, главное, движущееся сквозь время, "пронзенное стрелой
времени" (Василий Кандинский). В картины и скульптуры, фрески и барельефы вводятся
протекающие во времени движения, процессы и действия, а также их статические
противоположности – состояния, позы и положения, которые принимают объекты перед глазами
художника.
Соотношение между временем и пространством, передаваемое на полотнах или
скульптурах, совсем не тривиально. Мастера-реалисты, прежде всего русской школы, передавали
время и его движение сменой красок и оттенков, изменением естественных статичных
пространственных положений предметов и тел, наклонами и поворотами, в то время как
импрессионисты, по их же собственным словам, были вообще готовы пожертвовать пространством
ради торжества длительности, ради "трепета секунды" и "часа жизни". Не нужно быть
искусствоведом-профессионалом, чтобы ощутить воздух, пространство и движение на полотнах
45
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 лучших импрессионистов французской школы, таких как Писарро, Моне, Дега или Сислей. Язык
живописи импрессионистов, несомненно, отражает временные отношения. На наших глазах уходят в
сине-серую даль лодки и пароходы, возникает полное ощущение плывущего в полях тумана,
кружатся в танце голубые танцовщицы, движутся люди на бульваре Монмартр. Мы видим отражение
постепенно исчезающего света на стенах соборов и сливающиеся солнечные блики на скалах.
Побывав в галерее Дега, французский писатель Эдмон де Гонкур, один из братьев Гонкуров, совсем
не искушенный знаток, а простой любитель живописи, записывает в своем дневнике: "На фоне
освещенного окна фантастическими силуэтами вырисовываются ноги танцовщиц, сходящих на
ваших глазах по маленькой лестнице, и ярко-красные пятна ткани среди всех этих раздувающихся и
плывущих облаков". Единицы времени для импрессионистов являлись символами природы и жизни,
о чем художники сами заявляли в своих манифестах и декларациях. Замечательный теоретикискусствовед, культуролог и психолог Р. Арнхейм (см. его книгу Арнхейм 1994, перевод книги на
русский язык был выполнен мной – Г.К.) писал, что организующие функции пространства и времени
выполняли, в сущности, движение и свет. И действительно, свет совмещает в себе многие
важнейшие признаки времени и пространства.
Футуристы пытались в своих произведениях передавать время по-другому, а именно
непосредственно через пространственные отношения форм. Они часто изображали время
вложением одних объектов и их частей в другие или наложением на другие, о чем сами не раз
писали и говорили. Для передачи временных смыслов на полотнах футуристы использовали
всевозможные пересечения, наплывы и сдвиги форм. В этой связи вспомним, например, библейские
и фольклорные сюжеты на картинах Марка Шагала с наклонными, наслаивающимися и как бы
вкладывающимися одно в другое изображениями людей, домов и т.п. Кстати, по поводу этих
изображений сам Марк Шагал говорил, что это все "сны и воспоминания об ушедшем времени".
Таким художественным языком он описывал свой родной Витебск, события и образы детства,
свободно летающие и в полете вползающие друг в друга дома, людей, животных, рыб. В одном из
интервью художник подчеркнул: "Я всегда хотел угадать тайну времени, уловить его магию, еще
довольно давно, когда я начал изображать человека и его воспоминания, его размышления как чтото одновременно существующее и видимое, мои картины иногда считались чудачеством. Но ведь
это время человека, каков он есть на самом деле. Разве память – это не форма времени? А память
всегда с человеком, его прошлое всегда с ним. И его мысли. Это как бы одно существо. И я его
изображаю. Это помогает мне понять человека...".
Совсем иначе, чем у представителей других направлений живописи, запечатлено время у
художников-абстракционистов, в частности у супрематистов. Наиболее известный из них К. Малевич
уже в самом начале своей творческой деятельности писал, что времени как такового не существует,
его нет вообще, оно сжато в точку. Структура картин супрематистов, столь несхожих между собой и
личностно и творчески, – взять хотя бы знаменитый "Черный квадрат" или "Жизнь в большой
гостинице" К. Малевича, "Город" Эль Лисицкого – была сугубо пространственно-геометрической
(Крейдлин 2005).
В последнее время
изучение пространственных (проксемных) и временных (хронемных)
особенностей изобразительного произведения происходит параллельно с семантическим и
синтаксическим анализом представленных в нем жестов. Несколько лет тому назад итальянские
специалисты Marco Costa, Marzia Menzani и Pio Enrico Ricci Bitti (Коста, Мензани, Риччи Битти 2001)
провели детальное описание жеста наклон головы, представленного на картинах-портретах
одиннадцати художников с XIV по XX век. Всего было рассмотрено 1498 фигур.
Художники отбирались по их мировой известности и славе, а также по тому влиянию, которое
их творчество оказало вообще на развитие живописи как вида искусства. Поэтому ими оказались
выдающиеся мастера прошлого, принадлежащие разным странам и разным художественным
направлениям. Это три брата – Мартин (Масейк), Хуберт и Ян – Ван Эйки, а также Гольбейн,
Карраччи, Веласкес, Рембрандт, Дега, Сезанн, Климт и Модильяни.
Итальянские исследователи перед собой задачу всесторонне описать жест наклон головы,
выявить мотивы его появления на данной картине и раскрыть роль жеста для эмоциональной и
46
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 эстетической характеристики изображаемых персонажей. Наклон головы – это невербальный знак,
который я описываю таким образом. Форма знака: голова наклоняется вбок, и человек принимает
позу, в которой вертикальная линия, идущая от центра лба до носа и центра подбородка, не
перпендикулярна плечам. Жест наклон головы издавна относили к единицам, выражающим
значения уступчивости адресату и покорности перед ним, любви и нежности, к единицам,
свидетельствующим о "различии или перепаде силы" коммуникантов ("power differential" – Хенли
1973, 1977). О нём писали как о знаке, выражающем 'просьбу о защите' (Morris 1977), о
выражающем интерес к собеседнику, ср.: "откинутое назад и <... наклоненное – Г.К.> немного вбок
положение головы означает заинтересованность" (Игумен Евмений 2000, с. 79). Кроме того, форма
наклоненной головы указывает на то, что жестикулирующий хочет снискать расположение адресата
или успокоить его, при этом символически уменьшая свой собственный рост и статус (Гоффман
1979).
Как мы видим, характер значений, которые приписываются наклону головы, во многом
определяет ту особую роль, которую исследователи этого жеста, его смысла и функций отводили в
живописных полотнах гендерному фактору. Между тем именно в отношении гендера – категории,
понимаемой как социально и культурно нагруженный пол, – результаты анализов употребления
этого жеста в разных контекстах часто оказывались весьма противоречивыми.
Например, в хорошо известной и многократно цитируемой по разным поводам работе
Kендон, Фербер 1973, в которой изучалось поведение молодых пар на вечеринке, отмечается
сравнительно невысокая частота наклона головы у женщин. Между тем в статье Риган 1982, где
представлены результаты анализа 1296 фотопортретов учеников старших классов школ и студентов
колледжей, приводятся убедительные данные, говорящие о статистически несравненно большем
числе, чем у А. Кендона и А. Фербера, и мужчин и женщин, исполнявших этот жест. А спустя еще
несколько лет выходят две важные работы – статья Милз 1984, в которой изучалось, как садятся
перед фотокамерой люди, желавшие сфотографироваться на официальные документы и не
получившие никаких указаний от фотографа, как им следует сесть, и статья Вилсон, Ллойд 1990, в
которой анализируются позы, добровольно принимаемые перед объективом фотокамеры
выпускники американских Art and Science Schools (то есть выпускники художественных школ и школ с
различной научной специализацией). Их авторы вообще не обнаруживают каких-либо статистически
значимых расхождений в числе наклонов головы у женщин и мужчин.
В упомянутой статье Коста, Мензани, Риччи Битти 2001 была выдвинута гипотеза, что
частота и интенсивность наклона головы на живописных портретах выше, чем в реальной жизни,
поскольку художники вынуждены передавать свои чувства исключительно через визуальный канал.
Авторы статьи полагали, что художник, пребывавший в момент написания картины в состоянии
любви, обожания или страсти по отношению к изображаемому лицу, покорности или преклонения
перед ним, стремится не только выразить испытываемые им чувства. Он хочет раскрыть некоторые
качества своего персонажа, такие как женственность, страсть, сдержанность, способность к
самопожертвованию и др. Это, по мнению исследователей, и приводит к росту числа наклонов
головы на картинах, то есть как раз тех невербальных знаков, которые в норме передают такие
смыслы.
Исследователи поставили перед собой задачу соотнести наклон головы с другими
характеристиками невербального поведения, такими как пол, количество людей на картине,
положение глаз и направление взгляда главного персонажа картины (направлен взгляд персонажа в
сторону зрителя или нет), контекст (естественный он или искусственный, то есть человек специально
позировал художнику), возраст персонажа, его статус (мифологический, религиозный,
профессиональный), степень знатности. Кроме того, учитывались и более формальные признаки – "в
какую сторону повернута голова персонажа – направо или налево от зрителя", "положение головы",
"план фигуры на картине – передний или задний", "поворот лица – вперед, направо, налево" и др.
Относительно пола было выдвинуто и проверено предположение, что наклон головы – жест
скорее женский, чем мужской (впрочем, следует подчеркнуть, что все художники сами были
мужчины). Мужские и женские фигуры составили, соответственно 55 % и 45 % от общего числа.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Результаты анализа гендерного параметра жеста таковы: у женщин относительная частота наклона
головы выше, чем у мужчин: 12,8 против 7,2. Особенно заметной была разница в частоте
употребления жеста на картинах художников, питающих пристрастие к мифологическим сюжетам и
таинствам (Караччи, Ван Эйк, Мартини). Напротив, у художников, облеченных специальными
полномочиями рисовать парадные и иные портреты (это Гольбейн, Модильяни, Веласкес,
Рембрандт), выраженного гендерного эффекта отмечено не было.
Ранние художники, кто работал преимущественно в церквях и рисовал святых, деву Марию,
Христа, ангелов, библейские или мифологические сцены, передавали на своих полотнах большее
число наклонов головы, чем это делали художники, рисовавшие светские портреты. В первом случае
картины обычно выражали жалость, покорность или же обожание, поклонение Христу, Богу, тогда как
для светских портретов важна была, прежде всего, демонстрация знатного лица – его красоты,
величия и мощи. Позже, в XIX веке, когда у художника был уже выбор, что рисовать (это речь идет о
Сезанне, Климте, Дега, Модильяни), картины представлены как совершенно независимые от формы
патронажа. В самом деле, короли и знать уже не входили больше в число лиц, которым оказывалось
предпочтение. Появились новые изображаемые фигуры: ими становятся крестьяне, ремесленники,
"простые люди" – друзья и знакомые художника. На полотнах, может быть, уже и нет того выражения
мощи и власти, зато есть явно более спонтанное и откровенное выражение эмоций. И частота
использования жеста наклона головы в это время заметно увеличивается, – хотя для старых
персонажей в меньшей степени, чем для молодых, что, впрочем, вполне объяснимо: в прошлом
жизненный век был короче, а власть была у стариков.
К сожалению, жест наклон головы изучался в отрыве от положений тел, мимики,
пространственной и временной композиции и т.п. А ведь если бы, например, в число исследуемых
художников попал М. Шагал с его наклонными фигурами на картинах, то едва ли этот жест был бы
столь значимым, и имело бы смысл говорить о решающем действии гендерного фактора.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. Арнхейм 1994 – Р. Арнхейм. Новые очерки по психологии искусства. М.: "Прометей",
1994.
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interaction // Text. Berlin (West), 1990, vol. 10, № 1/2, с. 4 -- 9.
3. Богатырев 1975 – П. Г. Богатырев. Знаки в театральном искусстве // Труды по
знаковым системам. Вып. 7, Тарту, 1975.
4. Вилсон, Ллойд 1990 – Wilson, A., Lloyd, B. Gender vs. power: Self-posed behavior
revisited. Sex Roles, 1990, 23, 91 – 98.
5. Го Синь-и 2005 – Го Синь–и. Соматический код в русской и китайской фразеологии //
Телесный код в славянских культурах. М.: Институт славяноведения РАН, 2005, с. 30
– 40.
6. Гоффман 1979 – Goffman, E. Gender advertisements. New York: Harper & Row, 1979.
7. Кендон, Фербер 1973 – Kendon, A., Ferber, A. A description of some human greetings //
Michael, P.М., Crook J.H. (eds.) Comparative Ecology and Behavior of Primates. London:
Academic, 1973, 591 – 688.
8. Коста, Мензани, Риччи Битти 2001 – Costa, M., Menzani, M., Ricci Bitti, P.E. Head
canting in paintings: A historical study. Journal of nonverbal behavior, 2001, v. 25, №1, 63 –
72.
9. Крейдлин 2002 – Г. Е. Крейдлин. Невербальная семиотика. М., 2002.
10. Крейдлин 2005 – Г. Е. Крейдлин. Мужчины и женщины в невербальной коммуникации.
М., 2005.
11. Леви-Стросс 1983 – К. Леви-Стросс. Структурная антропология. М., 1983.
12. Малявин 2000 – В. В. Малявин. Сумерки Дао. Культура Китая на пороге Нового
времени. М., 2000.
13. Mилз 1984 – Mills, J. Self-posed behaviors of females and males in photographs. Sex
Roles, 1984, 10, 633 – 637.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 14. Моррис 1977 – Morris, D. Manwatching: A field guide to human behavior. London:
Jonathan Cape, 1977.
15. Риган 1982 – Regan, J.M. Gender displays in portrait photographs. Sex Roles, 1982, 8, 33
– 43.
16. Сорокин, Марковина 1988 – Сорокин Ю. А., Марковина И. Ю. Типы китайской
символики в языке и культуре // Этнопсихолингвистика (ред. Ю. А. Сорокин). М.:
"Наука", 1988, 64 – 71.
17. Хенли 1973 – Henley, N. M. Status and sex: Some touching observations. Bulletin of the
Psychonomic Society, 1973, 2, 91 – 93.
18. Хенли 1977 – Henley, N. M. Body politics: Power, sex, and non-verbal communication.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1977.
19. Холл 1974 – Hall, E. T. Handbook of proxemic research. Washington, DC: Society for the
Anthropology of Visual Communication, 1974.
49
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 IMPLICATIONS OF INTERENT AND E-COMMERCE ON LABOUR MARKET
Sumanjeet Singh, Lecturer, Omkaranada Institute of Management and Technology (OIMT), Swami
Omkarananda Marg, P.O. Sivananda Nagar, Muni Ki Reti, Rishikesh, Uttrakhand-249192, India.
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
As the impact of e-commerce becomes more widely felt through the community, its implications are
becoming apparent to all sectors of society – even those which have hitherto tended to see the New
Economy as irrelevant to their activities. Impact of computers and ICTs on business and economic growth
and productivity in industrialized, and to a limited extent, in less industrialized countries, has been
extensively discussed and documented. While some of these studies have shown that internet and
especially e-commerce technology has positive impact on the business sector, doubts have been raised
about its impact on macroeconomic growth, and labour market in particular. There are very few studies
which have focused on the impact of internet and e-commerce on the labour market. In fact, this domain of
Internet activity has received relatively little attention. Therefore, it has become pertinent to analyze the
implications of e-commerce and internet on the labour market. The present paper seeks to analyse the
impact of internet and e-commerce on the labour market and also points out some estimation problems that
the economists are facing in the intent and e-commerce environment. The paper analyze the impact of ecommerce on employment, labour productivity, delivering job services skills requirement and content of
trade unions.
Key Words: E-Commerce, Labour, Impact, Market
Acknowledgment: While bearing full responsibility for any remaining mistakes, I wish to thank to my
supervisor Prof. L. N. Dahiya for reading the earlier versions of this paper and making a number of helpful
comments and constructive criticisms. In fact, his academic spirit is an inspiration to me.
INTRODUCTION
The emergence and growth of information and communication technologies (ICTs), in their diverse
form (especially internet and e-commerce5), are revolutionsing the world of work, how organizations
function, change and evolve and the nature of leadership, managerial roles and professional careers. They
have become integral elements of business, industry and commerce, and thus driving the growth of modern
economy. In fact, business and economy are inextricably linked with the development and implementation
of new technology. Impact of computers and ICTs on business and economic growth and productivity in
industrialized, and to a limited extent, in less industrialized countries, has been extensively discussed
(Brynjolfsson and Hitt, 1998; Castells, 1996; ILO, 2001; Knights and Willmort 1988; Forster, 2006; Mitter
and Rowborham, 1995; Sumanjeet, 2007; Pailwar, 2001; UNCTAD, 2005). While some of these studies
have shown that internet and especially e-commerce technology6 has positive impact on the business
sector (see Table 1), doubts have been raised about its impact on macroeconomic growth, and labour
Electronic Commerce popularly called ‘E-Commerce’ is often used interchangeably with the IBM’s coined term
‘E-Business’. In reality, scope of e-business is much more than e-commerce. E-Business include not only ecommerce, but also used Internet based communications and Internet enabled business processes (for example,
Enterprise Resource Planning, and Electronic Customer Relationship Management etc.), which might not be
strictly commerce in the sense of buying and selling. In fact, e-business is a part of how you run your business
and thus, e-commerce is just a subset of e-business
6 E-Commerce is a broader concepts that covers all types of business and commercial transactions which are
affected by electronic means whatsoever which, inter alia, includes Telephone, Telex, Facsimile, EDI, EFT,
electronic mail, computers and Internet etc. But specifically it is with Internet because Internet is the most
potent way or technique to perform business or commercial activities electronically. It is therefore; ECommerce and Internet Commerce terms are used interchangeably.
5
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 market in particular. There are very few studies which have focused on the impact of internet and ecommerce on the labour market. In fact, this domain of Internet activity has received relatively little attention.
Therefore, it has become pertinent to analyze the implications of e-commerce and internet on the labour
market. Impact of internet and e-commerce on the different segments of labour market is given as under:
Table 1: Worldwide Growth of E-Commerce (in US $ Billion)
2000
2004
Countries
Level
%
CAGR (%)
%of
2000-04
sales in
Total
North
America
United States
Canada
Mexico
657.0
509.3
100
77.5
total
Level
2004
6,789.8
3,456.4
488.7
17.4
3.2
74.4
2.6
0.5
3,189.9
160.3
107.0
47.0
2.4
1.6
46.9
55.5
87.7
13.3
9.2
8.4
Asia Pacific
Japan
Australia
Korea
Taiwan
All Other
53.7
31.9
5.6
5.6
4.1
6.5
8.2
4.9
0.9
0.9
0.6
1.0
1,649.8
880.3
207.6
205.7
175.8
197.1
24.3
13.0
3.1
3.0
2.6
2.9
85.6
82.9
90.3
90.1
94.0
85.3
8.0
8.4
16.4
16.4
16.4
2.7
Western
Europe
Germany
UK
France
Italy
Netherlands
All Other
87.4
13.3
1,533.3
22.6
71.6
6.0
20.6
17.2
9.9
7.2
6.5
25.9
3.1
2.6
1.5
1.1
1.0
3.9
386.5
288.8
206.4
142.4
98.3
410.8
5.7
4.3
3.0
2.1
1.4
6.1
73.3
70.5
75.9
74.6
67.9
69.1
6.5
7.1
5.0
4.3
9.2
6.0
Latin America
3.6
0.5
81.8
1.2
78.1
2.4
Rest World
3.2
0.5
68.6
1.0
76.6
2.4
%
100.0
50.9
58.4
47.9
8.6
12.8
Source: Forrester, 2004
Note: Total may not equal sum of rows due to rounding
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 IMPACT OF E-COMMERCE ON EMPLOYMENT
Internet7 and e-commerce have long been recognized as having an important impact on work,
workers, and the workplace. It can contribute to better employment opportunities in especially for developing
countries both through improved labour facilitation and direct employment. Studies revealed that ECommerce activities, in general, will spur employment needs for workers involved in e-commerce systems
and organizations and its website design. According to Worldcom study more than two third Americans
have engaged in virtual work (Nancy, 2003). Vera, 2002 studied the impact of e-commerce on B2C ecommerce on Philippine Workers and revealed that e-commerce can generate almost 20 per cent additional
jobs. Thus, e-commerce economy has huge potential to generate employment (Table 2).
Table 2. Likely effect of e-business activities on employment requirements in selected occupations
(in Thousands)
Occupation Likely effect
Employment (1998)
Likely Affect
140,514
326
Stimulates
Management Analyst
345
Stimulates
Purchasing managers, purchasing agents, and wholesale
and retail buyers.
Professional specialty: Artists and commercial artist
547
Dampens
309
Stimulates
15,30
Stimulates*
335
341
648
15,341
24,461
479
Stimulates
Stimulates
Stimulates
Stimulates
Dampens
Stimulates**
All Occupations
Executive, administrative, and managerial:
Engineering, science, and computer and information
systems managers
Computer systems analysts, engineers, and scientists
1,530
Designers
Writers and Editors
Technicians and related support: Computer programmers
Marketing and Sales
Administrative support workers, including clerical
Customer service representatives (adjustment clerks)
Note: *Except dampens for computer for computer support specialists in post sales technical
support. **but also dampens as more traditional duties are more self services. Source: Hecker, 2001.
More computers workers are needed to set up, maintain, and oversee the additional hardware and
software systems that e-commerce require.Among the workers needed are computers and information
system managers, computer system analysts, computer engineers, computer support specialists, database
administrators, computer scientists and computer programmers (Kuhn, 2000; Hecker, 2001; Borenstein and
Saloner, 2001; Autor, 2001). E-Commerce activities also require more artist and commercial artists,
designers and writers and editors. Added to this, global information revolution, which is largely derived by
7 A common misconception is that the Internet and World Wide Web are the same thing. However, from the
technical perspective, Internet and World Wide Web are two separate activities. The Internet is a collection of
wires, protocols and hardware that allows to electronic transmission of data over TCP/IP. Any data can be
transferred over this collection of hardware and software components. Example includes e-mail, video, voice
and webpage. On the other hand, World Wide Web exists on the Internet. The web is composed of hypertext
pages views by a browser, which are served from a web server over TCP/IP, web pages always begin with
http:// or https://, signifying their contents, while internet is the infrastructure, the web can be thought of as an
application for the Internet.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 internet technologies, is making it possible for many service related jobs to be outsourced to the developing
countries and for new forms of work outside the traditional office and new opportunities for self employment
and entrepreneurs.
On the flip side, it has also been feared that the reduction in number of intermediaries8 and sales
persons due to reduction in number of supermarkets and showroom would reduce employment world over.
The worst affected are expected to be the unskilled manpower. It is true that unskilled labour is getting
displaced in a big way in the e-commerce economy. Internet and e-commerce by facilitating firms to employ
home-workers on a contractual basis are seen to promote insecure employment opportunities. In India, as
well as in the other low-income economies, the potential of e-commerce is seen to employment from the
formal sector to small firms in the unorganized sector where employment is not protected by any legislation.
Further, if this feature of e-commerce encourages the formation of small firms that are narrowly specialized,
it also implies that there is less room for employee mobility within the firms, transforming the careers paths
of employees (Francis, 1986). It is also important to note that the rise of Internet and E-Commerce has led
to increase in women’s presence in paid employment, reproduction of gender based discrimination within
these segments notwithstanding (Mitter and Rowbotham, 1995).
IMPACT ON PRODUCTIVITY
Various studies9 showed that e-commerce has a positive impact on the labour productivity. Atrostic
and Nguyen (2002) discussed the nature of pervading influence of e-commerce on productivity and
revealed that e-commerce and internet has strong implications on the labor productivity. At the theoretical
level, since e-commerce reduces coordination costs between different work processes, they facilitate firms
to fragment tasks to enable them to improve the labour productivity. At the same time, when the routine
tasks can be automated, e-commerce reduces unskilled work. Autor (2001) argued that the internet and ecommerce is likely to change how some worker deliver labor services. For example, falling
telecommunications traffic regardless of where it originates (Call Centre, 1997 and Uchitelle, 2000).
Improvements in communication and control technology likely mean that people who monitor equipment or
other workers can perform their task at the greater physical remove. Remote access to e-mail and company
documents will enable them to perform some or all of their work from home or elsewhere. One potential
source of efficiency gain is from delivering services remotely is that hours spent in unproductive commuting
may be replaced by the rapid online delivery.
Further in a recent study of Atrostic and Nguyen (2004) considered the impact of computer
networks on the labour productivity in the US manufacturing sector, using micro data predominantly for
1999. They found a positive and significant impact of computer networks on plant level labour productivity,
suggested that networks increase labour productivity by around 7.5 per cent. Motohashi (2001) provides
evidence for the positive impact of different information networks on labour productivity in Japan. In the UK
a recent study by Criscuolo and Waldron (2003), based on Annual Business Inquiry, shows that buying
online positively affects the labour and total factors of productivity, while selling online has a negative impact
on productivity.
IMPACT ON JOB SEARCH
Perhaps the larger impact of e-commerce on labour market can be seen in the form of online job
search. In terms of formal information and services, there would be advantages in the development of more
8 However, these fears may not be unfounded. In e-commerce economy, though it is possible to deliver a
number of goods and services online, it may not be possible to completely eliminate the physical delivery of
many goods because of their very nature. Goods such as vegetables and grocery, garments and shoes, toys, etc.
can not be delivered online. Though intermediaries like wholesalers and retailers can be eliminated in such
transactions. It may not be possible to eliminate distributors and transporters. The demand for distributors and
transporters is in fact expected to increase tremendously.
9 Their study is based on companies that use all computer mediated networks, including Internet and therefore,
it provides a useful reference for our analysis.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 interactive jobs search sites, allowing job seekers to store search preferences and user profiles, and to
follow through identified vacancies by making online applications. The internet has become an invaluable
tool for sourcing and recruiting qualified staff. The ease of posting employment openings, the relatively low
cost of advertising and the speed of candidates response has many hiring managers devoting more time
than ever before to recruiting online. However, very little is known about the importance of online job
applications or direct employer initiated contracts with the potential candidates. Even then, online job
posting has grown spectacularly (Autor, 2001). Estimates place the number of online job boards10 at over
3000, the number of active resumes online at over 7 million, and the number of job posting over at 29
million (Boyle et al, 1999; Computer Economics,2000). Kuhn and Skuterud (2000) reported that 7 per cent
of employed workers regularly use the web to search for a new job in 1998. The leading job boards11,
Monster.Com offered 3.9 million resumes and 4, 30,000 jobs in August 2000 (Nakamura and Pugh, 2000).
As with other tools, the internet is not without the limitations as a means of attracting qualified
candidates. For example, companies listing opportunities on major job boards may receive applications from
a much wider geographic region- and sometimes less qualified applicants-requiring additional sorting and
review. Firms are also noting that some candidates who post their resumes online may be more passive job
seekers; they want to “test the waters” and wait for the results, versus proactively applying for open
positions.
SKILLS REQUIREMENT
The last decade has witnessed a pronounced shift in labor demand towards high-skilled workers.
The changing trends in labor demand are not primarily driven by shifts in economic activity between industry
towards more skill-intensive activities, rather they have arisen within most industries, both manufacturing
and non-manufacturing industries. What is clearer is the fact that electronic commerce will cause changes in
the mix of skills required, driving demand for information technology (IT) professionals. This may exacerbate
a supply shortage, which has received great attention in the United States, although it is not peculiar to that
country. For electronic commerce, IT expertise also needs to be coupled with strong business applications
skills, and therefore requires a flexible, multiskilled work force. Apart from contingent skills needed to
support electronic commerce transactions and applications, there will be a more structural and long-term
shift in the skills required to perform economic activities on line. In general, e-commerce is likely to
accelerate existing upskilling/multi-skilling trends in the OECD work force (Taylor et al, 2004). These skill
requirements place new demands on schools and vocational training facilities. Becoming computer-literate
can be a significant additional cost, one which is likely to vary as a function of age and educational
background. A system of education that familiarizes young students with the technology of the Internet can
greatly reduce skills acquisition costs and decrease differences in participation rates in electronic commerce
in the various segments of a society’s population. These changes in the labour force caused by ecommerce underscore the need for flexible labour markets and active labour policies that help workers
adjust to changes in these markets. This will be particularly important for those service sector jobs, such as
those in retailing, that have not yet been exposed to significant technological change or international
competition.
Job boards holds several advantages over the textual counterpart, newspaper help wanted ads. They offer
more information about more jobs in more locations than is conceivable for paper equipments. They are easier
to search. They are potentially more up to date, because ads are posted more immediately and can be edited
frequently. Jobs boards can also take an active role in matching, rather than waiting on worker or firms to find
one to another, software can parse posted job listings and resumes to identify plausible matches and notify both
the parties.
11 Some job boards are provided on a non profit basis. For example, the UD Department of Labour runs
America’s Job Bank, to be found at http://www.ajb.org, which makes the job listing and search services of the
US Public Employment Service broadly accessible and Canada’s CareerOwl job search facility, developed by the
University Faculty, volunteers and found at http://www.careerowl.ca, provides search assistance for the
Canadian students.
10
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 In contrast to the comprehensive demand for skilled workers in all areas of the expanding IT and
multimedia industries, the demand for commercial employees in the remaining sectors, which has been
created by the development of internet-based distribution strategies, is limited to the areas of advertising
and marketing, although project management will also be affected in the midterm. No quantitative changes
appear to be on the horizon in the areas of sales and data processing. Across economic sectors, the
increasing expansion of e-commerce applications points to a decreasing demand for specialists in the areas
of procurement, logistics, human resources, accounting, administration, organization and management.
ORGANIZING WORKERS
Within this wider context of union organizational and strategy evolution, the emergence of the
Internet has heightened debate about the nature of the change and the possible role of new ICTs within and
across union structures. The growth of Internet and other information communication technologies (ICTs)
has led to a new spin on the continuing debates about the role and health of traditional representative
organizations such as trade unions (Darlington, 2001). From the early 1990s the growth of ICTs has led to
claims of the likely demise of representative organisations such as unions. Grossman (1995), amongst
others has argued ‘that the big losers… [in the Internet era], are the traditional institutions that have served
as the main intermediaries between government and its citizens – the political parties, labor unions, civic
associations (Grossman, 1995). They also permit traditional unions to better engage and interchange with
their local bases. There is a dynamic of relocalisation afforded by the new information communication
technologies (Shostak, 2000). The coordination capabilities of the new information technologies also permit
new forms of the organization of labour at the local level - 'bootleg' industrial action by those not in
agreement with traditional union leadership becomes more possible and the advent of 'ten minute' activist
funding technologies (click and donate) become the device by which such action can be sustained (Green
et al, 2001) . As membership of mass trade union organizations has fallen and their political influence
waned, they have often been seen as being in inexorable decline, particularly in terms of their
representative function also and as a linkage mechanism between state and citizen (Ward and Lusoli,
2002). This decline is all the more worrying in an increasingly less secure industrial society, as unions do
have a beneficial effect on wages, safety in the workplace and working conditions. The advent of the
Internet has seen a variety of contrary claims about their adoption by trade unions. Some have argued that
increasing use of ICTs will further undermine the role of traditional representative organisations, including
trade unions, in favour of more issue oriented groups, protest networks and/or individualised forms of
participation. Alternatively, there has been interest in the notion of e-unions, virtual unions or cyber unions,
where ICTs are harnessed to reinvigorate and modernize union practices.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The new technologies especially internet and e-commerce together with other important changes,
such as the continued increase in the educational attainment of the work force, shift of employment to
service sectors, and increased employment opportunities for women, formation of online trade unions are
producing a labor market that differs greatly from the industrial labor market that characterized the 20th
century. Further, increased competition, global access and organizational change are affecting labor
markets by influencing employment demand, wages and skill requirements. Thus, impact of Internet and ecommerce on the labor market is undeniable. At many front labour markets is gainer and at some it is loser
also. But, it is expected that implications of these technologies will open new opportunities for the labour
market and give a new shape to the future labour market. To make the best of these technologies, what
really needed is that how to convert threats arising due to implications of these technologies into
opportunities. In fact, it is only the labour that will decide where they want to stand. In this digital economy
only powerful can survive. Therefore, workers continuously need to develop IT skills and to be on the alert
to market them at every opportunity. Internet and e-commerce technologies are just as tool, what labour
market is going to do with these tools; it will decide the future of labour market.
55
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 REFERENCES
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9. Greene, A-M., Hogan, J. and Grieco, M. (2001), ‘E-collectivism and Distributed Discourse: New
Opportunities for Trade Union Democracy’. Paper presented to the TUC/LSE Conference on Unions
and the Internet, London 12th May.
10. Grossman, L.K. (1995), The Electronic Republic: Reshaping Democracy in America, Viking: New
York.
11. Hecker, Daniel. (2001), “Employment Impact of Electronic Business”, Monthly Labour Review, May
12. ILO (2001), World Development Report: Life at Work in the Information Economy, International
Labour Organisation: Geneva
13. Knights, D. and Willmott (1988), New technology and the Labor Process, Macmillan: London.
14. Kuhn, Peter (2000), “Policies for an Internet Labour Market”, Opinion Poltiques, October
15. Mitter, S. and Rowbotham, S. (1995), “Women Encounter Technology: Changing Patterns of
Employment in the Third World Countries, Routledge: London and New York.
16. Nancy, Mansfield (2003), “The Information Revolution and Its Impact on Employment Relationship:
An Analysis of the Cyberspace Workplace”, American Business Law Journal, accessed on
http://www.allbusiness.com/technology/internet-technology/618188-3.html
17. Pailwar, Veena (2001), “E-Commerce: Emerging Economic Implications”, Productivity, Vol. 42, No.3
18. Shostak, Aurther (2000), “CyberUniob: Empowering Labour through Computer Technology”,
accessed on http://www.geocities.com/unionsonline
19. Sumnajeet (2007), “Economic Implications of Electronic Commerce”, International Journal of
Business and Economics, forthcoming Issue.
20. Taylor, J.M.; McWilliam, J.; D. England and J. Akomode (2004), “Skills Required in Developing
Electronic Commerce for Small and Medium Enterprise: Case Based Generalization Approach”,
Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, Vol. 3, No. 3
21. Vera, R. (2002), “The Employment Impact of Business to Customer E-Commerce on Philippine
Worker”, APEC Study, accessed on http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC13810.htm
22. Warden, Stephen and Lusoli and Wainer (2002), “Dinosaur in Cyberspace? British Trade Union and
Internet”, Paper presented at Political Studies Association Annual Conference, University of
Abrdeen, 4th April.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 INTERGOVERNMENTAL FISCAL RELATIONS AND DEGREE OF THE FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION
IN THE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Seyfi YILDIZ
Manas Üniversitesi, İİBF Maliye Bölümü
Yaşar AYYILDIZ
Manas Üniversitesi, SBE Maliye ABD
[email protected]
[email protected]
Tel: 0502 92 89 26
Tel: 0502 41 69 80
ÖZET
Bağımsız Kırgızistan’ın ilk çıkarmış olduğu kanun 19 Nisan 1991 tarihli Yerel Yönetimler
Kanunu’nudur. Bu kanunla yerel görevler yerel konseylere bırakılmıştır. Buna göre mahalli idareler ve yerel
yönetimler yetki ve görev bölüşümü esasına göre faaliyetlerini yürütmektedirler. Bununla birlikte, 2002
yılında Kırgız Cumhuriyeti “Devlet Yönetiminde Yerelleşme Ve Özerk Yerel Yönetimleri Geliştirme Ulusal
Stratejisi’ni yürürlüğe sokmuştur.
Optimal bir mali yerelleşme derecesi ya da oranından söz etmek mümkün olmamakla beraber bir
ülkedeki mali yerelleşme ile ilgili yargıya varmanın iki yolu vardır denebilir. Bunlardan birincisi, ülkedeki
reform öncesi ve sonrası sayısal verileri karşılaştırmak ikincisi ise, ortak istatistiki verilerden yaralanarak
ülkeler arası karşılaştırma yapmaktır.
Bu çalışmada birinci yöntem kullanılarak Kırgızistan’daki mali yerelleşme derecesinin ne olduğu
saptanmaya çalışılmıştır. Bağımsızlık sonrası ve özellikle reformların başladığı 1991 yılından 2006 yılına
kadar geçen 15 yılda ulaşılan mali yerelleşme derecesi hakkında fikir sahibi olmak için, mahalli gelirlerin
GSMH’ya oranları incelenmiştir. Varılan sonuç gerçekleştirilen yasal yapılanma çalışmalarına rağmen devlet
gücünün paylaşımı yapılırken yetki ve görevin gerekleri ile orantılı olarak gelir bölüşümü tam olarak
gerçekleştirilememiştir. Bu nedenle de Kırgızistan’da mali yerelleşmenin tam olarak sağlanamadığı
yönündedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: İdarelerarası Mali İlişkiler, Mali Yerelleşme, Mali Yerelleşme Derecesi.
ABSTRACT
One of the first decrees of independent Kyrgyzstan was the Law on Local Self-government and
Local Public Administration, adopted 19 April 1991, which transferred local government powers to local
councils. According to this Law, local self-governments and local state administrations carry out activities
based on the division of functions and powers of representative, executive and regulatory bodies.
It is difficult to determine the optimal fiscal decentralization but there are two ways of this; First of
them is to look at and compare the Statistical data of the Country before and after the reform period about
localization. The other way is to compare the Statistical data of different Countries about the localization.
In this study the first way was chosen and so the degree of the decentralization was determined.
Last 15 years after the sovereignty, for the degree of the decentralization, the proportion of the local
revenues to GDP was stated. At the conclusion, it is reached that the degree of the decentralization is not
as optimal as wanted or not very high. Because of while distributing of the state power, the equal revenue
resources was not given to the local authorities.
Key words: Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations, Fiscal decentralization, Degree of the Fiscal
Decentralization
Jel Classification: H7, H77, H79
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DECENTRALIZATION IN THE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC
Decentralization, in its various forms, became an all-pervasive phenomenon, like a globalization as
the consequence of the failure of national government to provide an efficient way for provision of public
goods and services (Petak, 2004;1).
In this study, we have tried to show the degree of the fiscal decentralization in the Kyrgyz Republic.
During the transition period, after 1990’s especially for the last decade there were serious attempts to make
reforms, as in the other areas, for regulating intergovernmental relations. With this study, by the name of
“Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations and Degree of the Fiscal Decentralization in the Kyrgyz Republic”, it will
be tried to shown the degree of decentralization both by expenditure and revenue side of intergovernmental
fiscal relations.
Although there are several scholarly papers about the local governments in the Kyrgyz Republic,
they are very descriptive and don’t try to state the decentralization level. Some of them are Alumkulov and
Kulatov (2001), Rakhmanova (2007), Murzaev (2007), Battalova (2006) Eshmukhamedova (2007) and
Usenbekoviç (2007). The prior aim of this study is to state the degree of the decentralization level clearly
and try to discuss the reasons.
1. DECENTRALIZATION
There can be many different definitions of the term “decentralization” both in literature and
academic world. Decentralization can be defined as the transfer of authority and responsibility for public
services from the central government to subordinate or quasi-independent government organizations or the
private sector (Petak, 2004;3).
As all definitions make almost similar descriptions of it, here, it will be given the definition of the
UNDP. By the definition of the UNDP, decentralization is "Decentralizing governance is the restructuring of
authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions of governance at the Central,
Regional and Local levels, according to the principle of subsidiary, thus increasing the overall quality and
effectiveness of the system of governance, while increasing the authority and capabilities of sub-national
levels”.
At literature, it can be divided into three parts; Political decentralization, Administrative
decentralization and Fiscal decentralization (Work, 2002b; 3-4). Fiscal decentralization transfers two things
to local governments and private organizations: funds, to deliver decentralized functions and revenuegenerating power and authority, to decide on expenditures. So this study concentrates fiscal
decentralization of the Kyrgyz Republic and especially the degree of it.
2. LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN THE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC
CIS nations, including Kyrgyzstan, are currently searching for their own methods to develop state
systems. So, the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly of the CIS nations passed a Declaration on Principles of
Local Self-government in 1994, followed by the pilot Law on General Principles of Local Self-government in
1997 (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 526). Below, it will be tried to given the brief history of local
government reforms and to state functional structure of local government in the Kyrgyz Republic.
2.1. BRIEF HISTORY OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT REFORMS
Within the past seventeen years, the Kyrgyz Republic has faced radical transformation in their
system of public authority and administration. New functions and structures of public bodies have been put
in place. The decentralization of the public administration is being put into effect (Murzaev, 2007;1).
By 1990, the Kyrgyz Republic gained its sovereignty, initiating the process of independence from
the Soviet Union. At that time, typical of the Asian republics in particular, was in the condition of the high
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 concentration of power, both official and unofficial (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 526). But by that time, the
transition efforts were started as in many different areas, in the local governance.
One of the first decrees of independent Kyrgyz Republic was the Law on Local Self-government
and Local Public Administration, adopted 19 April 1991. That law was transferring various local government
powers to local councils (Battalova, 2006; 8).
This law, at first, changed the former pyramid of national representative power, which placed the
Supreme Soviet at the top, followed by local councils at various levels. As known, former local councils,
unfortunately, were incapable of maintaining the necessary balance between local and national interests
(Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 526).
The experience of many countries has demonstrated the need for intermediate forms of government
in transition periods to combine principles of local self-government and mechanisms of centralized
administrative regulation (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 527).
Consequently, the Kyrgyz government changed its strategy. On 4 March 1992, it passed an
amended Law on Local Self-government and Local Public Administration, which was based on a double
approach to local government (Battalova, 2006; 8).
The law introduced a system in which forms of self-government include the local council and bodies
of territorial self-government, as well as local citizen assemblies and other forms of direct democracy. Thus,
the new local government system was structured according to the division of functions and powers between
local representative and executive bodies and based on the principle of undivided authority which exercised
by the head of local state administration (Battalova, 2006; 8-10).
2.1.1. LEGAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS
The principle of local self-government was subsequently codified in article 7 of the Constitution
1993: “Local self-government in the Kyrgyz Republic is exercised by local communities, which govern affairs
of local importance according to the law and at their own initiative.” (Gerster, 2004; 12)
The course of practical reform was determined by a series of presidential decrees, a peculiar
feature of Kyrgyz government. According to the Constitution and national legislation, the president has the
right to issue decrees and orders within his competence, which are part of the system of legal norms and
obligatory throughout the Kyrgyz Republic (Battalova, 2006; 8)
In accordance with the principles expressed in the European Charter of Local Self-government, the
Kyrgyz Republic has followed an axiom drawn from global experience: namely, those specific local issues
are best solved directly by residents or by their elected and executive agencies, provided that they are
possessed of available resources and real government powers (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 527).
Systematic reform of local self-government was initiated in 1994 with the goal of restructuring
authorities in local settlements along municipal lines. The Presidential Decree on the Reform of Local Selfgovernment in the Kyrgyz Republic, declared reform of local self-government as a major goal of internal
policy on 18th August 1994 (Gerster, 2004;11).
The decree stipulated two stages of implementation because of the size of the task and the time
needed for its achievement. First, local self-governments would be reformed at the village, town and city
levels; second, research would be conducted on the possible introduction of self-government in “raions” and
“oblasts” (Gerster, 2004;11-12).
A presidential decree, established a special Commission on Local Self-government Reform, issued
on 22 August 1994. That commission was chaired by the prime minister. Commission developed provisions
on principles of local self-government organization and those provisions were approved by presidential
decree on 22nd September 1994. This document was the first to officially define the local community and its
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 members, as well as the organizational, legal, financial and economic foundations of local self-government
(Battalova, 2006; 8-10).
The decree also established a functional system of local councils (kenesh). Council elections in first
tier local governments, raions and oblasts, are specified in other presidential decrees. Based on these
provisions, the number of members in representative bodies in all local self-governments nationwide was
reduced by two-thirds (Rakhmanova, 2007;6). In October 1994, elections were held for local councils in
village, settlements and cities. Following this elections, in February 1995, elections to raion and oblast
councils were held too. A total of 6,971 deputies were elected to local councils of all levels.
On 10 February 1996, a national referendum was held to decide on constitutional amendments that
would provide local self-government bodies with ownership rights over local property as well as transfer
certain state powers. After the amendments, the Constitution expressed the following new principles
governing the relationship between local state administration and local self-governments (Alumkulov and
Kulatov, 2001; 527):
• Article 7 replaces the principle of separation of powers with the principle of delineating functions of
national government and local self-government;
• A provision was added to article 94, according to which “local self-governments should report to
national agencies with respect to their delegated powers.”
According to the presidential decree of 20 March 1996, which stipulated measures to increase the
role and responsibility of heads of local state administrations and local self governments, local selfgovernments for the first time were granted the right to perform the following State functions (Alumkulov and
Kulatov, 2001; 528):
• certifying land resources and objects of social infrastructure;
• mobilizing inhabitants for relief and restoration programs;
• protecting public order;
• creating extra-budgetary funds to solve essential issues of local importance.
The presidential decree of 20 April 1996 abolished village committees. Villages and settlements
began to set up local councils and their executive bodies, the “aiyl okmotu” (rural executive committee)
(Rakhmanova, 2007;7).
A state commission to support local self-government reform was established by presidential decree.
Its primary goal was to analyze the interaction between executive agencies and local self-governments and
develop suggestions to strengthen the organizational, legal, financial and economic framework for local selfgovernment. One outcome of this activity was the installment of a Minister of Local Self-government and
Regional Development by the end of 2000 (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 529).
Kyrgyz Constitution of 2003 contains basic principles on deconcentration of the state administration
and on local self-government. Meanwhile the legal framework for local self-governments includes 10 laws,
50 presidential decrees, over 30 government resolutions, and other legal documents (Gerster, 2004;11-12).
There is no relationship between the degree of decentralization and the number of regulations in a country
(Tanzi, 2000;4) but it can not be also said that it is not important as in the case of the Kyrgyz Republic.
2.2. FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
The current structure of public administration in Kyrgyzstan still retains many important features of
that of the Soviet era. There are 5 levels / layers of administration in Kyrgyzstan as shown in Figure 1. At
the first level “Central Government”, second level provincial state administrations and Oblast legislative
councils, third level district and city state administrations and district and city legislative councils, fourth level
village community administrations and village legislative councils and at the end, fifth level village/settlement
administration.
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Source: ALUMKULOV, Emil and Marat KULATOV. (2001). Developing New Rules in the Old Environment: Local Government in the Kyrgyz Republic. Chapter 10. Victor Popa and Igor Munteanu (ed.), Open Society Institute,
Budapest. http://lgi.osi.hu/publications/2001/84/ Ch10-Kyrgyzstan.pdf, (01.10.2007).
According to the Law on Local Self-government and Local Public Administration, local selfgovernments and local state administrations carry out activities based on the division of functions and
powers of representative, executive and regulatory bodies.
The Kyrgyz Republic contains the following territorial tiers of local government:
• First tier, village or rural level: local councils in villages, towns and cities of raion subordination;
• Second tier, raion level: local councils and local state administrations in raions and cities of oblast
subordination;
• Third tier, oblast level: local councils and local state administrations in oblasts and the city of
Bishkek.
2.2.1. LOCAL COUNCIL FUNCTIONS
The system of representative self-government bodies in Kyrgyz Republic is comprised of councils at
each tier of local government, in oblasts, raions, cities of district and raion subordination, towns and villages.
At the oblast and raion levels, the council chairman represents the local territory in relations with
public bodies, courts and public associations and has the right to conclude contracts or agreements. As
declared by law, raion and oblast councils independently regulate local issues as stipulated by law, based
on the principle of autonomy in financial and legal decision making. The following tasks fall within the
competence of raion and oblast councils (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 539);
• Approving programs for social and economic development and social protection and exercising
Control over their implementation;
• Approving the local budget and budget execution reports, as well reviewing information on the use
of extra-budgetary funds;
• Developing proposals on the separation of public and municipal property;
• Vetoing decisions of heads of state administration if they exceed their authority;
• Appealing decisions of local self-government bodies to superior government bodies and in Court;
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 • Passing a vote of no confidence in the head of local state administration by a vote of two-thirds of
total council members;
• Revoking ungrounded or unlawful decisions taken by the head of territorial self-government.
2.2.2. LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN CITIES
Of the twenty-one cities in Kyrgyzstan, only twelve cities apply principles of self-government. One of
these is Bishkek, and the remaining eleven are cities of raion subordination. This peculiarity results from the
division of cities into cities of raion subordination and cities of oblast subordination (with the exception of
Bishkek). In cities of oblast subordination, the local administration is equivalent to the raion-level state
administration. The varying degree of self-government implemented in cities impedes the establishment of a
uniform system of city administration (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 541-543).
2.2.3. STATUS OF THE CAPITAL CITY
Local government in Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyz Republic, is outlined by the Law on the Status of
the Capital City, adopted 16 April 1994. Direct elections of heads of local self-government took place for the
first time in February 1995 in the cities of Bishkek and Osh. However, no mayor was elected in Osh due to
the failure of any of the candidates to get the minimum amount of required votes. On 1 April 1996, the
executive branch of local self-government in Osh was abolished and the previous system of the city state
administration was reinstated (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 544).
2.2.4. LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN RURAL AREAS
The head of the “aiyl okmotu”, or rural executive committee, is the highest official in the territorial
jurisdiction of the village or town council. The rural executive committee is accountable to the raion council
chairman on issues of local self-government and to the head of raion administration for the exercise of
delegated state powers (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 545-546).
Key functions of the rural executive committee include drafting the local budget; formulating draft
programs for the social and economic development of the territory; managing municipal property and
financial resources, maintaining and repairing all facilities of vital importance; and exercising control over the
use of agricultural land. In addition, the committee is obliged to ensure access to education and health care,
maintain law and public order and perform notary acts and civil registration.
Local councils at all levels may pass a vote of no confidence in the heads of the executive branch.
To date, rural councils have impeached ten executive committee heads and removed them from office. No
such cases are reported at the raion, city or oblast levels, however.
Village Headman; In order to manage local affairs in separate villages within the jurisdiction of a
rural Council, the council may decide to add the position of village headman (aiyl bashchysy) to the payroll
of the executive committee. The village headman is nominated by the executive committee head and
elected for a four-year term by open vote at a general assembly of village residents. The village headman
responds for this general village assembly, which is convened as necessary or once per quarter (Alumkulov
and Kulatov, 2001; 547).
In addition, the headman may form a voluntary, unpaid executive commission of five to seven
members, as defined by simple majority vote at the general assembly. The headman’s functions are
organizational and interpretive.
3. DECENTRALIZATION OF PUBLIC SERVICES AND REVENUES IN THE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC
Within the framework of decentralization, many ministry functions were transferred to state
administrations at the oblast and district levels and the corresponding structures in ministries and agencies
were abolished. However, central executive bodies continue to exercise control over these functions under
the system of dual subordination (Rakhmanova, 2007;8).
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Frequently, the delegation of state powers is not reflected by a similar decentralization in funding.
Accordingly, public service delivery is primarily financed by the state budget and administered by territorial
structures of state administration (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 547).
3.1. SYSTEM OF LOCAL FINANCE
Local government finance is regulated by the Constitution, the Law on the Budget System, the Tax
Code and orders and regulations issued by the Ministry of Finance.
The Law on the Budget System, adopted 11 June 1998, specifies the principles for local budget
Formation, the procedures for drafting and executing local budgets, the budget structure and the
composition of revenues and expenditures.
Local budgets are independent components of the budgetary system and possess own revenues,
as Assigned by legislation. In 1997, a presidential decree stipulated that budgets at the first tier of local
government are entered as a separate line in the central budget.
3.1.1. REVENUES AND LOCAL TAXES
The first tier of local government is financed through the central and local budgets, as well as other
sources assigned by law. Town and village budgets are drafted by the “aiyl okmotu” and submitted to the
local representative authorities for approval. First-tier local self-governments have the right to determine the
list of fixed revenues and levy local taxes and duties on its territory, in compliance with tax legislation. Local
budget revenues at all levels of local government consist of (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 551-552:
Gerster, 2004;13-14);
• Deductions from national taxes and other revenues;
• Land tax;
• Tax on the lease of land;
• State duty, in amounts established by law (excluding fees set up by economic courts or the
Ministry of Internal Affairs for issuing passports);
• Local taxes and fees stipulated by the Tax Code;
• Non-tax payments such as local duties;
• Revenues from local budgetary organizations and special resources.
In developed countries, personal income and property tax are the main sources of financing for
local community activity. In Kyrgyzstan, these suffice to cover only a small part of the local government’s
financial needs, while local budgets are responsible for the greater part of expenditures on housing and
utilities.
However, this type of funding is supervised not at the municipal level but at the oblast state
administration level. Deductions from national taxes and other revenues, such as fines, surcharges and
other sanctions imposed by tax authorities, are transferred to local budgets of all levels in accordance with
uniform rates (Gerster, 2004;14).
The Law on the Budget System grants local self-governments the right to independently determine
the list of regulated funds and levy taxes and duties in accordance with the Tax Code. The Tax Code
defines, eight, the following types of taxes and duties for local self-government bodies (Alumkulov and
Kulatov, 2001; 555-556):
• Resort Tax;
• Advertising Tax;
• Parking Fee;
• Fee for Waste Disposal;
• Hotel Duty;
• Tax on Services and Tax on Retail Sales;
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• Tax on Motor Vehicles.
There were eight more taxes which are abolished by the regulation of the code at 01 January 2006.
These were “Tax on Pets; Fee for Holding Auctions, Lotteries, Contests or Exhibitions; Fee for The Use of
Local Symbols; Tax on Transactions (Commercial or Commodity Exchange); Tax on Commercial
Greenhouses; Fee for Hunting And Fishing; Tourist Tax on Local Citizens Travel Abroad; Amusement Tax
on Video Arcades, Concerts and Shows”.
3.1.2. FINANCING OF PUBLIC SERVICES, EXPENDITURES
At the local level, basic education and health care services are financed through categorized grants.
These grants are calculated according to population size, taking into account the presence of
disadvantaged groups and the varying costs of service provision in different environments. Grants to oblasts
are assigned purely based on population size (Gerster, 2004;14).
The fund for categorized grants for education and health care is established according to local
budget needs, calculated by local financial bodies. Accordingly, the sum of categorized grants from the state
budget made up 45.3 percent of total local budget expenditures in 2000 (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001;
553).
In addition to assignments from national taxes and other revenues, the system of equalization
transfers is designed to reduce differences between the tax and budget capabilities of various regions.
Equalization transfers in 2000 account for 9.4 percent of total local budget expenditures (Alumkulov and
Kulatov, 2001; 554).
Similarly, certain shared grants have been established to encourage local governments to attract
new sources of revenue in order to replenish local budgets. These grants are allocated in the form of shared
financing, and fund a percentage of local budget expenditures on certain priority goals. The list and size of
these grants is reviewed annually by the Law on the State Budget (Gerster, 2004;14).
Some activities for which the Kyrgyz government is also responsible are jointly funded by local
budgets and grants from the state budget. Local budgets financial activities are ensuring the general level of
education, health care and welfare of the population. Local state administrations and local self-government
bodies bear absolute responsibility for their implementation. This category includes expenditures for
(Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 553).:
• General public services;
• Maintenance of local institutions and organizations in the fields of education, health care, social
insurance, sports, television, broadcasting, publishing, housing and utilities, agriculture, water resources,
forestry, fishing and hunting;
• Transport;
• Other activities.
Higher-level councils distribute expenditure obligations between local budgets of different levels,
based on the subordination and social importance of institutions and organizations.
“Aiyl okmotu” are responsible for maintaining comprehensive schools, local hospitals, rural medical
dispensaries, obstetric clinics, recreational centers, libraries, municipal facilities and paying salaries to
council personnel in its territory. Teachers’ wages, however, are paid from categorized grants through
education departments at the raion level (Alumkulov and Kulatov, 2001; 553).
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4.1. FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION WORLDWIDE
Figure 2 shows the decentralization trends worldwide. The average share of sub-national
expenditures and revenues for 28 countries reported by Robert Ebel Between 1980 and 1998, are shown at
that figure. So the average share of sub-national expenditures and revenues for 28 countries reported by
Robert Ebel steadily increased (Ebel and Yılmaz, 2001; ).
Figure 2: The Average Share of Sub-National Expenditures and Revenues for 28 Countries.
0 .4 0
D e c e n t r a liz a t io n T r e n d s
0 .3 5
0 .3 0
0 .2 5
E x p e n d it u r e
0 .2 0
R ev enue
0 .1 5
0 .1 0
0 .0 5
0 .0 0
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Source: WORK, Robertson. (2002a). Overview of Decentralization Worldwide: A Stepping Stone to Improved Governance and Human Development, 2nd International Conference on Decentralization,
Federalism: The Future of Decentralizing States? 25–27 July 2002, Manila, Philippines. United Nations
Development Programme. www.undp.org (24.11.2007). p 11.
Ebel and Yılmaz (2002;19) concluded at their study that in analyzing the impact of fiscal
decentralization across countries “ While it can be demonstrated that there was a great deal of political
decentralization in the 1990s, taking the next step to fiscal decentralization has been a bit sketchy. This can
be explained in large part by the fact that it takes time for systems to change from a long history of
centralization to decentralization.
4.1.1. FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION BY INCOME GROUPS
Graphic 1 shows the decentralization matrix of nations by income groups. As shown from the
graphic, degrees of decentralization vary by income group of the countries. Countries with high incomes are
likelier to adopt both fiscal and political decentralization. On the other hand, countries with low GNP are
least likely to devolve fiscal responsibilities to the sub-national level.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Graphic 1: Decentralization by Income Groups Worldwide.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
87%
48%
12%
Low
Middle
High
Source : WORK, Robertson. (2002a). Overview of Decentralization Worldwide: A Stepping Stone to Improved Governance and Human Development, 2nd International Conference on Decentralization,
Development Programme. pp12.
4.1.2. FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION BY REGION
Graphic 2 shows the decentralization by Region Worldwide. As shown from the graphic, degrees of
decentralization vary by Region. Industrialized countries are likelier to adopt decentralization. On the other
hand, African and Asian countries are least likely to devolve fiscal responsibilities to the sub-national level.
Graphic 2: Decentralization by Region Worldwide.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Americas
Western
Middle East
Sub-Saharan East Asia and South Asia
Eastern
Europe
and Northern
Africa
Pacific
Europe and
Africa
Central Asia
Source : WORK, Robertson. (2002a). Overview of Decentralization Worldwide: A Stepping Stone to Improved Governance and Human Development, 2nd International Conference on Decentralization,
Development Programme. p12.
4.2. DEGREE OF THE FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION IN THE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC
One way from the various, for determining the Degree of decentralization is to show fiscal shares of
subnational governments in total public consumption or in GDP (Petak, 2004;6: Güner, 2005;3)
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 In this study this way was chosen and so the degree of the decentralization was tried to determine.
Last 10 years between 1996 and 2006, for the degree of the decentralization, the proportion of the local
revenues to GDP was stated.
From graphic 3, it can be seen the share of the local budget to the Central Budget Expenditures in
the Kyrgyz Republic. Share of the local budgets in Central Budget Expenditures are decreasing from 40,2
percent to 21,3, by the year 1996 to 2006, within last decade.
Graphic 3: Share of Local Budgets in Central Budget Expenditures in the Kyrgyz Republic.
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
40,2 42,1
32,7
31,2
30,2
32,5 33,2
32,8
28,6
27,9
21,3
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
Source : USENBEKOVİÇ, Sadırbek Alakov. (2007). Kırgızistan'da Bütçeler Arası İlişkilerin Gelişimi, KTMÜ,
Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Maliye Ana Bilim Dalı. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi (Sayfa 71); KARIMŞAKOV,
Kamalbek. (2005). Geçiş Ekonomilerinde Mali Desentralizasyon: Kırgızistan Örneği. KTMÜ, Sosyal Bilimler
Enstitüsü, Maliye Ana Bilim Dalı. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi (Sayfa 88)
From graphic 4, it can be seen the share of the local budget to the Central Budget Revenues in the
Kyrgyz Republic. Share of the local budgets in Central Budget Revenues are decreasing from 39 percent to
14, by the year 1996 to 2006, within last decade.
Graphic 4: Share of Local Budgets in Central Budget Revenues in the Kyrgyz Republic
45%
39%
40%
34%
35%
32%
30%
29%
30%
17%
25%
20%
17%
16%
17%
14%
15%
10%
5%
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
0%
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Graphic 5 illustrates both share of revenues and expenditures together for better understanding the
trend of decentralization or to see clearly the degree of decentralization in the Kyrgyz Republic. As can be
predicted from above graphics, both expenditure and revenue share of local budgets are decreasing
steadily within last decade between 1996 and 2006.
Graphic 5: Share of Local Budgets in Central Budget Revenues in the Kyrgyz Republic
45
40
35
30
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
25
Expenditures
20
Revenues
15
10
5
0
4.2.1. PROBLEMS WITH THE DECENTRALIZATION IN THE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC
Based on the analyses done, it can be identified a few problems related with decentralization
process in the Kyrgyz Republic (Rakhmanova, 2007; 7-8). So that it can be clear why the degree of
decentralization is decreasing steadily;
Legal Framework Is Too Week; It means that the existing legal documents do not fully provide the
conditions for optimal decentralization. Effective management on the level of local authorities is yet to be
developed. There are gaps in legislation in regard to municipal services especially. The functions,
authorities, and responsibilities between the bodies are not clearly defined.
Decentralization Of Power Is Limited Or Insufficient; The functions and authorities between local
state administrations and local self governments are not clearly defined. There is no clear separation of the
functions and responsibilities between central state organs and local organs. For that it is necessary to find
mechanisms defining what power and responsibility should be transferred to local self governments.
Financial Budget Regulations Are Ineffective; Finances and local budget are still centralized and
significantly constrained. The finance is dependent on national government. The local budget should be
drawn from the bottom. Legal framework and other mechanisms of economic and financial decentralization
are still limited. Transfer of appropriate financial resources does not accompany transfer of authority and
functions.
Local self Governments are not Independent; Local self-governments are partly financed from the
public budget. Local self-governments should be independent financially and cover their expenses from
their own resources and funds. Local administration of high top level takes a big share of incomes.
System of Grants Brings Instability; Local administration of initial level, when financing its
expenditures depends on equalization grants paid out from high top level of budget. It brings to instability of
own incomes of local administration and local governance (Ayil okmotu) as well as make obstacles to
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 develop a middle-long budget strategy. Such a situation brings serious damages in the process of formation
of budget at the initial level.
Local Taxes are Insignificant; The main source of revenues for local budgets is the taxation,
including local taxes and some share of the state taxes, non tax based revenues as well as financial
assistance from higher budgets. In the Kyrgyz Republic a feature for the structures of revenues is the
insignificant share of proceeds from local taxes.
Municipal Employees’ Professional Level Are Inadequate; In addition to the lack of appropriate
legislative and institutional arrangements, public officials lack the skills and experience needed for sound
local budget management. Further, many managers at the local level held executive positions during the
Soviet era, and their work style is still marked by a predisposition for centralism. There are no legal bases
for training and retraining civil servants. There is a lack of informational, technical, and methodological
support to local self-government staff.
Limited Participation of Decision Making Process; Multiple resources need to be used to further
various forms of social mobilization. People must actively participate in decision-making in local
communities. They are passive in the process of making decisions aimed at improving their lives. This
tradition, of course, comes from the Soviet era and must be changed by the related authorities and state
bodies. This takes long times.
The world practice about the decentralization shows that there are different types and forms of local
self-governments. They depend on national traditions, culture, economic situation and many other facts.
Each country selects its own unique opportunities for their solution issues connected with the development
in local self-governments. So that, the Kyrgyz republic, also, must find the way to strengthen the degree of
the decentralization (Eshmukhamedova; 2007; 5). For that, it has a framework that is being tried to establish
during last 15 years, after gaining sovereignty.
CONCLUSION
The reform at the local self administration is not just a basic target. Implementation of the real
working system of decentralization is a very complex and difficult process. It is impossible to complete it
within a short and limited period of time. The final goal of the reforms of decentralization is to create such
institutions of the local power, the general economic impact of which could promote growth of the entire
economy of the Kyrgyz Republic, oblast, raions, cities, towns and villages, which will finally lead to increase
of the living standards of all the Kyrgyz people in the country.
In order to achieve it, it is necessary to extend the social basis of the reforms considerably, to
publicize their goals and ways of their implementation to the people. Unfortunately, the traditions of
paternalism provided by the state are still very strong in the Kyrgyz Republic, and the civil society is still
being formed.
Also, the very important side of condition for the successes in the reforms is their widely and firmly
support by ordinary people, by local communities. In other words, acceptance of the society is very
important too.
Based on the above analyses, it can be indicated the following prior objectives for increasing
degree of decentralization and so on the development of local self government (Rakhmanova, 2007; 9-10);
• Reforming of the system of local self-government within the framework of the general strategy of
the development of the Republic;
• Clarifying the division of powers between the state government and the local self-government at all
levels;
• Strengthening financial management by developing local budget independently from higher-level
budget;
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 • Additionally, it is very important that local communities will be able to direct considerable financial
resources to priority areas of their own territories;
• Increasing local sources of revenue, stabilizing spending responsibilities, and giving the authorities
greater financial autonomy including less restrictive central control;
• Compilation and adoption of the budget shall be made from the bottom to up. That means plans
for social and economic development shall be made from the bottom to up;
• It is necessary to provide financial assistance to local self governments;
• Involving citizens in decision making and policy planning;
• Developing sustainable capacities to promote professionalism among local government officials; It
is necessary to arrange on-going training courses of skill enhancement for the employees of local self
governments within the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic in order to increase their skills and to train
them.
In the last decade, the average share of local expenditures and revenues in the Kyrgyz Republic
are steadily decreased as shown together. Although there is not any optimal decentralization level, we can
say clearly that degree of the decentralization in the Kyrgyz Republic is decreasing. In the conclusion, it can
be said that the new financial policies are necessary for future successes of decentralization programmes in
the Kyrgyz Republic.
REFERENCES
1. ALUMKULOV, Emil and Marat KULATOV. (2001). Developing New Rules in the Old Environment: Local Government in the Kyrgyz Republic. Chapter 10. Victor Popa and Igor
Munteanu (ed.), Open Society Institute, Budapest. http://lgi.osi.hu/publications/2001/84/
Ch10-Kyrgyzstan.pdf, (01.10.2007).
2. BATTALOVA, Saniya. (2006). A Guide to the Legal System and Legal Research in the Kyrgyz Republic. Published March 2006. <http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/ Kyrgyz1. htm>,
(01.09.2007).
3. EBEL, Robert D. and Serdar YILMAZ. (2002). “On the Measurement and Impact of Fiscal
Decentralization”. Policy Research Working Paper 2809. The World Bank, World Bank
Institute, Economic Policy and Poverty Reduction Division, March 2002. <http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2002/04/12/000094946_020403
04241194/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf>
4. ESHMUKHAMEDOVA, Galima. (2007). “Decentralization And Regional Development In The
Kyrgyz Republic”. Central Academic Research Initiatives Program. <http://unpan1.un.
org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/NISPAcee/UNPAN009245.pdf> (01.10.2007).
5. GERSTER, Richard. (2004). “Budget Support for Decentralization in the Kyrgyz Republic”, A
Roadmap for the Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (seco), Gerster Consulting,
Richterswil (Switzerland), June 2004. <http://www.gersterconsulting.ch/docs/Report_Dec_
Budget_ Support_KR_final.pdf> (01.09.2007).
6. GÜNER, Ayşe. (2005). “Mali Özerklik Çerçevesinde Yerel Yönetimlerin Gelirleri Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”, 20. Türkiye Maliye Sempozyumu; “Türkiye’de Yeniden Mali Yapılanma”
Pamukkale, 23-27 Mayıs 2005. <http://www.cumhuriyet.edu. tr/edergi /makale/195.pdf>
(01.10.2007).
7. KARIMŞAKOV, Kamalbek. (2005). Geçiş Ekonomilerinde Mali Desentralizasyon: Kırgızistan
Örneği. KTMÜ, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Maliye Ana Bilim Dalı. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans
Tezi.
8. MURZAEV, Salih. (2007). Administrative Informatization And Administration Reforms In The Kyrgyzstan.
<http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/NISPAcee/UNPAN0046 37.pdf>
(01.09.2007).
70
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 9. PETAK, Zdravko. (2004). How To Measure Decentralization: The CaseStudy From Central European Countries. Faculty of Political Science, University of Zagreb, Croatia. WOW3: The
Third Pentannual Workshop On The Workshop «Building Social Capital and Self-Governing
Capabilities in Diverse Societes» Bloomington, June 2-6, 2004. <http://www.indiana.edu/~
wow3/ papers/wow3_petak.pdf> (01.09.2007).
10. RAKHMANOVA, Dinara. (2007). Local Governance in the Kyrgyz Republic; “Political and Administrative Central Governance Programme” Kyrgyzstan. <http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/
groups/public/documents/UNTC/UNPAN017648.pdf> (01.09.2007).
11. TANZI, Vito. (2000). On Fiscal Federalism: Issues To Worry About, <www.imf.org/external/ pubs/ft/seminar/2000/fiscal/tanzi.pdf> (24.11.2007).
12. USENBEKOVİÇ, Sadırbek Alakov. (2007). Kırgızistan'da Bütçeler Arası İlişkilerin Gelişimi,
KTMÜ, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Maliye Ana Bilim Dalı. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
13. WORK, Robertson. (2002a). Overview of Decentralization Worldwide: A Stepping Stone to Improved Governance and Human Development, 2nd International Conference on
Decentralization, Federalism: The Future of Decentralizing States? 25–27 July 2002, Manila,
Philippines. United Nations Development Programme. <www.undp.org> (24.11.2007)
14. WORK, Robertson. (2002b). “The Role of Participation and Partnerships in Decentralized
Governance: A Brief Synthesis of Policy Lessons and Recommendations of Nine Case Studies
on Service Delivery for the Poor”, <http://www.undp.org/governance/marrakechcdrom/
concepts/ Work%20Role%20of%20Participation.pdf> (24.11.2007)
15. __________The law of the Kyrgyz Republic "On Financial And Economic Basis Of Local Self Governance". <http://lsg.host.net.kg/law.htm> (01.09.2007).
16. __________The law of the Kyrgyz Republic “On Communal Property Ownership”.
<http://lsg.host.net.kg/ law.htm> (01.09.2007).
17. __________The law of the Kyrgyz Republic “On Local Self Governance and Local State administrations”. <http://lsg.host.net.kg/law.htm> (01.09.2007).
18. __________The law of the Kyrgyz Republic “On State Service”. <http://lsg.host.net.kg/ law.htm>
(01.09.2007).
19. __________UNDP, (2004). The Main Event: Ten’s Anniversary Of Local SelfGovernance Reforms In Kyrgyzstan, October 27. <http://www.un.org.kg/english/unlink.phtml?238> (01.09.2007).
20. __________UNDP, Official Site of UNDP, <http://www.undp.org/governance/sl-dlgud.htm>
(01.11.2007).
21. __________USAID, (2007). Kyrgyzstan GreenLights USAID Decentralization Reform Effort. <http://www.usaid.gov/locations/europe_eurasia/press/success/2007-07-29.html>
(01.09.2007).
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 ORIGINS OF JADIDISM – FROM BUKHARA TO THE MIDDLE VOLGA AND BACK……
THE IMPORTANCE OF TATAR EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS
J. Scott Willis, Graduate Student, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Educational Studies &
Sociology and English Langauge Instructor, International Ataturk Alatoo University
Message to Russia
Light, give us light, elder brother.
Otherwise we shall suffocate, rot,
And contaminate the country.
We Muslims are still children.
INTRODUCTION
The Tatars were the first Turkic speaking Muslims conquered by the Russian empire in the midsixteenth century. Over the course of their colonial history, the Tsarist regimes found immediate and longterm use for the Tatars in extending their contacts with other Turkic peoples along the shifting southern and
eastern frontier of their realm (Lazzerini, 1994:83).
Russia’s tsarist regimes were both high-minded and vicious at the same time. Combining more
“beneficent” policies with violence and terror, they attacked traditional Muslim culture and religion, destroyed
local communities, and persecuted individuals and groups that exhibited “spontaneous nationalism.”
(Hirsch, 2005:9). The Russian Orthodox clergy condemned Islam as oppressive and Russian anti-religious
propaganda targeted Islam, denouncing practices such as veiling, polygamy, and the marriage of young
girls. In 1919, Aleksandra Kollontai founded the Zhenotdel, an organization dedicated to improving the lives
of women in the Soviet Union. Zhenotdel organized committees in Central Asia; their objectives included
increasing women’s literacy, and educating women about new marriage practices and worker’s rights put in
place by the Revolution.
The struggles between Tsarist educational policies and qadimists directly contributed to the usul-i
jadid educational reform movement. Inspired by similar currents taking place in Ottoman Turkey, Egypt,
India, Afghanistan, and especially among the Volga Tatars, Jadids sought to reform Islamic education in
fundamental ways in order to come to grips with both Russian colonialism and Western modernity (Johnson,
2004:27). Jadidism involved reforming both curricula and instructional practices of elementary and
secondary educational systems. Specifically, Jadidism referred to new methods of language instruction –
phonetic transcription, simplified grammar, and simplified vocabulary. Moreover, the Jadids introduced
innovative student-centered pedagogical approaches and published textbooks and classroom management
manuals while retaining the core of Islamic values and practices in their overall classroom environments.
Crimean Tatar Ismail Bey Gaspirali (1851-1914), often referred to as the Father of Jadidism,
established his own new method school in his hometown in 1884. Gaspirali was convinced that his
educational reform policies would create a common literary language, thus facilitating a collective identity for
all Muslims from Kazan to Kashgar. In addition to new method schools, he began printing the Tercüman
newspaper in 1883. Gaspirali’s editorials and articles, published in the Russian language and a simplified
form of Ottoman Turkish, advocated his ideas about the reform of religious education. Although the
newspaper’s language and content derived from both Islamic and Russian, Gaspirali claimed that Russia’s
Turkic populace shared a common literary language and culture. Gaspirali identified the roots of a crisis in
Islam both as external oppression and internal ossification, denouncing two adversaries: the authoritarian
tsarist regime and the traditional fanatical Muslim clergy.(Carrere D’Encausse, 1966:59). From its inception,
Tercüman served to enhance comprehension between Russians and Muslims and stressed the importance
of Russia’s noble and practical civilizing mission that Gaspirali often ascribed to them (Ibid, 62).
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Nevertheless, even though Gaspirali stressed the importance of Russia’s role in developing its Muslim
subjects, his new method educational reform policies attracted considerable suspicions from the Russian
authorities and the qadimists. Indeed, Jadidism arose at the intersection of cultural policies set in motion by
the Russian conquest and older patterns of Islamic cultural production put under strain by Russian
imperialism. Ultimately, the clash between Russian policy and Muslim response allowed new voices to
emerge (Khalid, 1998: 82).
My historical narrative identifies specific events and figures that contributed to the development of
Jadidism in the Volga regions and Turkistan. In addition to Gaspirali, it is necessary to discuss two of the
most prominent Tatar figures leading the reformation of Islamic theology during the nineteenth century, AbuNasr al-Kursavi (1776-1812) and Shihabiddin Merjani (1818-1889). Their Russian antagonist is portrayed
by Nikolai Ivanovich Il’minskii (1822-1891). Il’minskii’s inclusion in the narrative is imperative for he was
responsible for the establishment of the first Russo-native schools in the Volga regions and Turkestan.
Russo-native schools were less effective in attracting Tatar youth in the Middle Volga; however, they played
a significant role in educating Turkistani youth (mostly notably the Kazakhs). Il’minskii concentrated on
teaching Tatar and Turkistani children in their native languages; a practice that both aided and hindered
Gaspirali’s pan-Turkic convictions. Interestingly, as we shall see, Il’minskii’s educational reform policies
implemented also drew suspicions from Russian nationalists.
Tatars introduced Jadidism to the Middle Volga and Crimean populations, but the origins of Middle
Volga Jadidism developed thousands of kilometers to the east in the madrasas of Bukhara. A number of
Tatar students that experienced the conservative community of religious scholars in Buhkara reacted
negatively (Schamiloglu, 2001:347). Two of the most prominent Tatar figures leading the reformation of
Islamic theology, Abu-Nasr al-Kursavi (1776-1812) and Shihabiddin Merjani (1818-1889), advocated that
the search for truth would only be revealed by returning to the original interpretation of Koranic scriptures.
Emphasizing the unchanging nature of the divine, Merjani stated, “God, with all His qualities, had not been
created but was eternal and infinite; He thus belonged to the category of necessity, and His qualities were
inseparable from His nature (Rorlich, 1986:53).
Amid the conservative religious leaders of Bukhara, Tatar reformers began to reassess their
religious and historical thinking, their cultural and educational institutions, and finally, their participatory role
in the political formation of the state. During the course of this development, dynamic tensions stemmed
from Tatar connections with two other groups: the religiously similar but historically dissimilar traditional
Muslims of the Islamic umma and the religiously dissimilar but historically adjacent Russians (Ibid, 48).
BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE ORIGINS OF THE TATARS
The ethnic origins of the Volga Tatars are complex but historians agree that their genealogy is
grounded in Mongol and Turkic roots. Proponents of the Mongol variant accept the etymology of Tatar as
deriving from the Chinese Ta-Tan or Da-Dan (a term of contempt applied to the Mongols by the Chinese)
and believe that it refers to one group of Mongol tribes subdued by Genghis Khan (Matthew, 1969:853).
Mahmud al-Kashgari offers the less accepted Turkic hypothesis. In his Turkic Languages Dictionary, which
depicts the period from 1072-1074, al-Kashgari identifies a location west of the Altai Mountains where
inhabitants spoke a Tatar branch of the Turkic languages. Broadening al-Kashgari’s citation, Ahmet Temir
suggests that the name Tatar could apply independently to two different peoples: the Mongol tribes of
Tatars and a Turkic tribe that inhabited a territory west of the Ural Mountains (Rorlich, 1986:5).
In the early thirteenth century, Genghis Khan’s conquered Mongol and Turkic tribes across the
entire regions of Siberia and Turkistan. During his campaigns, Genghis Khan ordered all conquered people
to be called Tatars (Ibid, 5). In 1235, Genghis Khan’s grandson Batu marched west of the Urals,
conquering the Bulgar state which was then occupied by the Turkic tribe Kypchak (the territory today known
as the Middle Volga region). The Mongols and the Mongol Tatars were minorities in Batu Khan’s army and
subsequently, the Mongol tribes underwent a process of assimilation by the Turkic peoples among whom
they settled. In the fourteenth century, Al-Omari wrote, “Later they (the Tatars) mixed with them
(Kypchaks), and the land had priority over their racial and natural qualities, and they (the Tatars) became
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 like Kypchaks, as they were of the same origin with them, because the Tatars settled on their lands, married
them, and remained to live on their lands” (Ibid, 4).
After conquering the Bulgar lands, Batu's armies marched northwest through Russia in the winter of
1240, capturing Kiev, the seat of the grand prince and the Metropolitan See of Rus' (Ibid, 18). Following the
annexation of this Russian territory, Batu began organizing the geographical, political, and administrative
structures of the conquered territories. In this way, he shaped the territorial boundaries of what would
become the Golden Horde, which consisted of twenty-five major cities and included the Khanate of Kazan.
In addition, Batu ordered the city of Saray (palace) to be built on the lower Volga, thus establishing the
capital of the Golden Horde.
Inhabitants of the Golden Horde experienced unprecedented degrees of autonomy. For example,
Russians were allowed to retain their land, their language, and even certain aspects of their judiciary
systems. Although revolts were suppressed, the khans of the Golden Horde never forcibly assimilated their
conquered peoples. Nonetheless, in the fourteenth century, Khan Ozbek (1313 – 1341) established Islam
as the official religion of the Golden Horde and during Khan Ozbek's rule, Saray and the provincial khanates
developed into sophisticated urban entities with mosques, madrasas, caravanserais, and baths (Ibid, 19).
The Golden Horde’s cities were famous for their complex water supply systems and a physical appearance
that was distinctly Eastern.
RUSSIAN CONQUEST
In the sixteenth century, the Khanate of Kazan represented a multi-ethnic state including Tatars,
Bashkirs, Cheremises, Chuvashes, and Votiaks. Kazan’s talented artisans traded with merchants from
Persia, Turkey, Turkistan and Russia. Their participation enabled Kazan to emerge as a center vital to the
Muscovite fur trade in Asia and with the Ottoman empire in particular (Ibid, 30). Merchants and artisans
comprised the bulk of free urban population of the khanate, and the Tatar, Bashkir, and various Fino-Ugric
peasants were their free counterpart in villages. At the very bottom of Kazani society stood the serfs and
slaves (Ibid, 29). At the top of the social hierarchy was the seyit which constituted the leading religious
authority throughout the Khanate. The Kazan Khanate’s Islamic religious bureaucratic structure consisted
of sheikhs, imams, and mullahs.
The Russian conquest of Kazan in the mid-sixteenth century transformed Muslim society across two
continents. Upon conquering Kazan, Tsar Ivan IV proclaimed on behalf of the Orthodox Church, “Let the
unbelievers receive the True God, the new subjects of Russia, and let them with us praise the Holy Trinity
for ages unto ages” (Ibid, 37). Ivan IV’s declaration implied that the conquest of Kazan was not only an act
of revenge for the Mongols’ two centuries of dominion over Russia but also a religious crusade in the name
of Christianity and the Russian Orthodox Church (Geraci, 2001:15). Russian authorities condemned Islam
by labeling the belief as reactionary and relegated its defenders to the category of cultural traitors and
exploiters; human obstacles blocking the path toward socio-economic advancement (Lazzerini, 1986:368).
Russians characterized inhabitants of the khanate as nonbelievers, godless, pagans, impious, unclean, and
warlike and defined their new subjects as inorodtsy. In general, this term applied to all nomadic peoples
and to Jews, but popular usage extended the term to all eastern peoples regardless of religious affiliation,
and eventually to all non-Russians (Kreindler, 1969:23).
The Russian Orthodox clergy and Muscovite ruling elite enacted religious policies that sought to
eradicate animist and Islamic belief systems. The traditional Tatar elite, comprising murzas as well men
from other social strata, had mixed experiences with Russian domination in the century and a half following
the Khanates’ defeat Lazzerini, 1994:83) If converted to Christianity, it was possible for the elites to move
into the service of Russia. A number of “Baptized Tatars” adopted Russian surnames, attesting to the large
numbers that converted to Christianity.
For political and economic reasons, Russia quickly extended its frontiers to the peoples of the
steppe (present-day Kazakhstan) and Turkistan and Tartars played a critical role in this development. As
the Russian moved south and east, Baptized Tatars were drawn into the Russian diplomatic service as
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 interpreters, guides, and clerks in Russia’s dealings with Central Asian peoples (Ibid, 86). At the same time,
Russian authorities banished Tatars who refused to convert to Christianity. The Russians confiscated their
land and redistributed it to Baptized Tatars or to the imperial domain. Muslim Tatars were forced into exile,
and, upon the death of a Muslim Tatar, his or her wealth was to be transferred to any Christian relative
(Rorlich, 1986:42). In 1740, the widow of Tsar Peter the Great issued an order to destroy that all newly built
mosques; construction of any new mosques was forbidden. This order led to the destruction of 418 of the
536 mosques in the Volga area between 1740 and 1743 (Ibid, 42).
The reign of Catherine the Great (1762-1796) ended more than two hundred years of Tatar
persecution by the Russian empire and is often referred to as the golden age of the Muslim Tatars. Unlike
her predecessors, Catherine the Great believed the Volga Tatars could play a civilizing role among the
animist and Islamic peoples of the Russian empire. Her admiration for Islam was apparently influenced by
Voltaire, who considered Islam an enlightened religion (Ibid, 42). In addition, to her philosophical ideas,
Catherine the Great understood that Russia’s commercial interests in Turkestan would only be successful if
Muslim persecution ceased. She issued several decrees granting Tatars the authority to organize
commercial enterprises with Turkestan khanates. As a result, many Tatars moved to the Kazakh steppe,
where they founded commercial outposts for fur trade with Turkistan and established new Muslim
settlements. This Tatar diaspora in Turkestan and the closer proximity of Tatars to the Khanate of Bukhara
set the stage for the history of Jadidism (Middle Volga and Turkestan) in the nineteenth century. The Tatar
ruling class began to consider Turkistan as its private commercial domain, and many Tatar attended
madrasas of Bukhara. A century later, many Tatar talibs from the Volga region would leave Bukhara and
return to homeland inculcated with Jadidist thought.
ORIGINS OF JADDISM
Tatar reformism began in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. As students in the
madrasa of Bukhara, both al-Kursavi and Merjani struggled to break the bonds of taqlid. They advocated
for a return to the scriptural sources of Islam (Ibid, 100). Jadidism encouraged reform in religious thought;
however, the movement gradually came to encompass the cultural, educational, and political spheres of
everyday life.
According to historian Alexandre Bennigsen,
“The Tatar religious reformers were one of the first Muslim thinkers, much earlier than
Arabs, Turks, Persians, and Indians who declared the right of any believer to look for
answers to all political, social, and religious questions in the Quran and Hadith. Their
influence on the development of reformative movements not only in Russia, but also in the
whole Muslim world, was exceptionally important. Due to the contributions which are not
known in the West and are being ignored by Muslim scholars, the road to reforms in other
fields was paved: language, educational and political organization” (Khasanov, 2000:211).
Abu-Nasr al-Kursavi (1723-1813) was the first scholar to break the pattern of subservience that
Volga Tatars had shown toward the Islamic scholastic centers of Turkestan. Al-Kursavi studied scholastic
theology in Buhkara and Samarqand and the combination of Kursavi’s direct contact with the conservative
ulama and his study of historical and religious texts launched his rebellion against the established Islamic
dogma. He was committed to a religious reform that would revitalize Islam through a return to its “pure”
historical origins. A serious scholar of the Quran and the Hadith, Kursavi revealed himself as a strong
adversary of the Bukhara qadimists (Ibid, 49). Above all, he stressed the importance of reopening the door
of “ijtihad (Schamiloglu, 2001:347).
Kursavi emphasized the need for each Islamic scholar to provide his own interpretation of the
Quran and Hadith in probing for answers to any particular question. In advocating his position, he
disregarded the sanctity of the Islamic hierarchical religious authorities and urged Muslims to establish a
more creative, yet critical approach in understanding Islam. He advised Muslims to accept Islam not only as
their religious faith, but as their way of life. His unpublished work, Al-Irshad-al-Ibad (Guidance for God’s
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 servant), warned of the danger of remaining isolated from a changing world and stressed the importance of
developing capabilities to adapt to new conditions of life (Rorlich, 1986:49).
Kursavi’s ideas infuriated the conservative Islamic community of Buhkara. The Emir of Buhkara
issued an order sentencing him to death. Kursavi, however, escaped Buhkara and returned to his
birthplace in the upper Volga. There, he taught in the local madrasa. Although his innovative religious
ideas made him very popular among students, his lessons again aroused the suspicions of local Muslim
clerics. Because Kursavi was a single voice, he was unable to gain a wide following; however, the
controversies he created were the first signal of the restlessness that characterized the years to come (Ibid,
50).
Born five years after Kursavi’s death, Shihabeddin Merjani (1818-1889), studied eleven years
(1838-49) at the madrasas of Bukhara and Samarqand. In Samarqand, Merjani meticulously examined and
studied the famous Qufi Quran. Like Kursavi, Merjani embraced the concept of ijtihad. He rejected dated
scholasticism and believed the search for truth would only be revealed by interpreting original Koranic
scripture. He insisted that the philosophical interpretation of the scholastic had corrupted the purity of Islam.
For example, he criticized the Aristotelian qadimists and defended independent theology. Ijtihad was the
basis of Merjani’s important work on fikh where he advocated the use of mathematical and astronomical
principles for delineating the Muslim months (Ibid, 50).
Merjani’s advocacy of educational and Islamic reform also stemmed from scenes of immorality he
witnessed in Buhkara and Samarqand. A brothel located in Samarqand housed roughly 400 Bukharan,
Tatar, and Russian prostitutes. Further, the widespread practice of dancing boys, dressed as women,
figured in evenings of entertainment. The fact that these boys prostituted disturbed Merjani the most
(Khalid, 1998:145). Turkestan Jadid Munawwar Qari stated, “Forbidden acts such as drinking, gambling,
pederasty, turning men into women and women into men, adultery, and backbiting” were the reason why
“our lands were captured and we were reviled and demeaned” (Ibid, 146). Merjani believed it was time to
make a choice between maintaining a traditional way of Muslim culture in Bukhara and Samarqand and
breaking with it. The following are six proposals he endorsed in breaking with “tradition”: 1) Freedom of
ijtihad or interpretation of religious law; 2) Abandonment of blind submission to the traditional authorities; 3)
Rejection of madrasas of books of scholastic, conservative philosophy; 4) Introduction into the madrasas of
teaching of the Quran, the Hadith and the history of Islam; 5) Introduction into the madrasas of teaching of
science and the Russian language; and 6) Return to Islamic culture and the purity of early Islam
(D’Encausse, 1966:59).
Before his departure from Bukhara, Merjani wrote a work critical of the ignorant scholasticism of the
religious class in Bukhara. He called upon Tatar youth to refrain from pursuing their religious education in
Bukhara and to study worldly (i.e. secular) subjects (Schamiloglu, 2001:354). Clandestinely, he had copies
of this manuscript distributed, but only after he departed Bukhara. Arriving back in the Middle Volga in
1849, Merjani was appointed Imam of Kazan’s first mosque. In this capacity, he proposed educational
reforms emphasizing the importance of teaching the history of Islam using both the Quran and Hadith.
Merjani’s thoughts on science and secularism, the comparison of Islamic and non-Islamic cultures, and the
future of Islamic culture were gathered in an impressive seven-volume work entitled Wefayat al-Aslaf wa
Tahiyat-al-Ahlaf (The legacy of the ancestors and the response of their descendents) (Rorlich, 1986:52). In
this particular writing, he heavily criticized the stagnant state of Muslim education, casting blame directly
upon the Islamic theologians. All of Merjani’s publications were written in Arabic except one – Mustafad alAkhbar fi-l-Ahwal Qazan wa Bulghar (Select information on the situation of Kazan and Bulgar) – which he
penned in the Volga Tatar dialect. This work was the first historiography of the Middle Volga Tatars written
in their own dialect.
Merjani not only wrote in Arabic and Tatar but also advocated education in the Russian language.
Merjani’s advocacy of Tatars learning the Russian language aroused suspicion throughout Kazan, and
skeptics accused him of endorsing Tatar Russification. But his critics could not have been more mistaken.
Merjani simply felt that studying science and Russian did not have to mean losing one’s national and Islamic
identity. Expounding the virtues of cosmopolitanism, Merjani sought to build bridges unilaterally between
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Tatar Muslims and their neighbors. Ironically, during this same time (1870), the Russians were preparing to
launch an educational strategy that supported, to some regard, Merjani’s cosmopolitan pursuit.
In 1842, the Russian Orientalist Nikolai Ivanovich Il’minskii (1822-1891) enrolled in the inaugural
class of the Kazan Theological Academy; a state endowed institution and affiliated with the Russian
Orthodox Church. In his third year, Il’minskii studied under Kazem Bek, a Muslim scholar and highly
educated Persian who had converted to Christianity and who taught Turkic languages and Arabic in the
academy. Il’minksii wrote in 1891, “I must admit I was interested not in Tatar, but in Professor Aleksandre
Kasimovich Kazem Bek: I had the chance to see him several times in the street, original in dress, lively,
graceful, and I was happy to have the opportunity to observe him closely” (Kreindler, 1969:47). After
graduating with his master’s degree in theology in 1846, Il’minskii was offered a position in the academy
teaching Turkic languages, as well as courses in Hebrew, mathematics, and botany.
Kazem Bek shared books from his personal library with Il’minskii, urging him to study the Arabic and
Persian elements of literary Tatar. The timing of this training was significant. In 1847, reacting to reports of
renewed apostasy movements among the Baptized Tatars, Tsar Nicholas I ordered the Holy Synod to
prepare a Tatar translation of the most important spiritual books of the Orthodox religion. By doing so, he
hoped to make the Orthodox liturgy more accessible to Tatars who had received the Christian faith. Kazem
Bek was assigned to translate some of the texts into Arabic, and he invited Il’minskii to assist him.
Il’minskii’s increasing proficiency in Arabic won him much praise from the Tatar community. In May
1847, he moved into a small attic room in one of Kazan’s madrasas where he studied Islam with other
shakirds (Geraci, 2001:52). Il’minskii’s mastery of Arabic and Turkish and his devotion in studying the
Quran shaped his approach in developing the curriculum for Russo native-schools. His approach was
based on the use of native languages and native teachers to convey the principles of Christianity to children
who did not understand the Russian language (Ibid, 52). At the same time, Il’minskii and his followers
contributed to numerous native languages by devising alphabets (in Russian transcription), formulating
grammar structures, compiling dictionaries, and writing textbooks.
The first two Russo-Tatar schools opened in Kazan on January 21 and May 10, 1879 (Ibid, 48).
Il’minskii founded hundreds of schools that applied his basic method, of teaching Orthodox belief using
native languages, and under his supervision Christian scriptures and Orthodox teachings were translated
into over a dozen languages, many of which had not previously existed in written form (Kreindler,
1969:205). He expected his students to form the nucleus of a future native orthodox priesthood who would
be much more competent in dealing with Tatar populations. By 1880, 13 of Russia’s 54 native schools were
located in Kazan. Between 1891 and 1917, it is estimated only 20 to 30 Tatars obtained their diploma from
a native school (Rorlich, 1986:87). The problem was that Il’minskii’s educational reform policies directly
opposed the Russian Empire’s emphasis on teaching all natives the Russian language.
Il’minskii originally devised his system to strengthen the religious convictions of Baptized Tatars in
the Kazan area; however, he eventually extended it to all Orthodox non-Russians in the East. Il’minskii
himself, whenever attacked as furthering national separatism by his work on native languages, defended his
actions by contending that national unity depended on widespread education. In his words, a “conscious
effort to uphold one’s own nationality is possible only with education and a certain level of development
which our natives do not at all possess” (Kreindler, 1969:205). By and large, Russia’s attempt to forcibly
convert the peoples of the Middle Volga to Christianity had failed miserably. By integrating native instruction
in schools, Il’minskii argued that other peoples would be friendly to the Russians and would eventually
merge with the Russians (Ibid, 205).
Il’minskii’s system had the most profound and lasting effects in the areas of literature and writing.
For the first time, since the Russian conquest, Tatar students were taught in their native language, thus
developing the basic modern cultural tools in forming a collective intelligentsia – a shared spoken and
written language. Indeed, years later, Il’minskii’s theoretical approach to educational reform would be
discredited; many scholars have even suggested his methods actually assisted the growth of the Jadid
schools. According to Alexandre Bennigsen, the Orthodox offensive spearheaded by Il’minskii was so
successful and - alarming to the Muslims - that “it was to be one of the immediate causes of the great
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Reformist Movement that….resulted in the revival of Islam in Russia at the end of the 19th century” (Ibid,
204). Most significant, Il’minskii’s system stimulated self-esteem and eventually national self-consciousness
which worked directly against Russification.
Il’minskii’s nemesis was the Crimean Tatar Ismail Bey Gaspirali. In the late nineteenth century,
Gaspirali was the leading figure of Jadidism throughout Russia and Turkistan. A successor to al-Kursavi
and Merjani, he summoned a nation of Muslims to share a collective history, language, and culture. Among
his adversaries were Russian nationalists, who were highly suspect of any educational reformist movement
initiated by non-Baptized inorodsty. Russian officials were distressed over the possibility of successful
Muslim educational reform. Il’minskii particularly opposed Gaspirali’s reforms exclaiming, “A Muslim
fanatically hostile to the infidels was less dangerous for the Russian state than a Muslim educated in the
European style, with a degree from a Russian or Western university” (Bennigsen, 1988:201-5).
In 1881, Gaspirali lamented the failure of the central Russian authority to lead “the Muslims to
progress and civilization,” charging that the tsars focused too narrowly on administrative concerns and
asserting that “Russian power has not gone beyond the demands of the state treasury and the maintenance
of social order and tranquility…Is there nothing more to …the great civilizing mission of Russia in the East?”
(Lazzerini, 1988: 60). Gaspirali wanted Muslims to understand their history, assess their contemporary
capabilities, accept the benefits of social progress, and join together in a united campaign to forge a future
consonant with both the spirit of Islamic teachings and the realities of modern life (Ibid, 50). In order to
accomplish these goals, he strongly felt Russians must acknowledge their responsibility to provide for the
secular needs of the Islamic community. Gaspirali challenged the Russian authorities to give “Muslims the
possibility to acquire knowledge, improve their access to new ideas and principles; then you will see how
quickly the Muslims come alive and lose their apathy” (Ibid, 60-61).
Orthodox missionaries and Russian nationalists attacked Gaspirali’s educational reform policies,
which they interpreted as politically threatening. Il’minskii proclaimed, “Tatars are khitryi; they do not give
their secrets to everyone” (Ibid, 57). Despite this antagonism, Gaspirali’s cosmopolitan education enabled
him to maneuver with relative ease between the boundaries of the Russian and Islamic world. He had lived
in Paris and Moscow; and had traveled to India, Egypt, Istanbul, and Turkistan. He was fluent in a number
of languages, including Russian. Contrary to Russian suspicions, however, Gaspirali published numerous
articles referring to Russians as the “Muslim’s elder brother.” He acknowledged Russia as the legitimate
successor to the Golden Horde. The Tatar yoke, he argued, had the unintended effect of fostering unity
among the principalities and facilitating the emergence of a single national and political territory (Ibid, 57).
He wrote, “Russia is becoming more and more a Muslim land, and everyone is predicting that in the future
she will stand as one of the greatest Muslim countries. In the future, I hope the near future, Russia will
become one of the significant Muslim states without detracting from her role as a great Christian power”
(Ibid, 52).
The Russian antagonists were not the Gaspirali’s only antagonists. He also found opposition from
the traditional Islamic clergy. Leading up to the nineteenth century, the teachings in maktebs and madrasas
consisted primarily of Islamic dogma rigidly enforced by conservative clerics. Corrupt ulama and their
mouthpiece, the mulla, insisted on the acceptance of shari‘a, as they interpreted it, and adat , as handed
down from the previous generations, as inviolable, even though many of the latter were contrary to Islam
(Shorish, 1986, 321). The tone of Gaspirali’s writings antagonized the qadimists who interpreted his vision
of pan-Turkic sentiments vis-à-vis educational reform as blasphemous. In an appeal to Muslims to reject
challenge of modernism and the new method education, qadimist Il’iajeddin Muhitdinov wrote: “In the world
three things exist to which one cannot give rein – an enemy, fire, and sickness – and against which one
needs immediately to take up a weapon, water, and medicine….; the enemy is the new customs (of which
the chief is instruction by the new-method), the fire is the study of (these new customs), and the sickness –
the results of that study” (Ibid, 52). Gaspirali, however, insisted that modern education was the only way to
revitalize Tatar culture and end Russian domination. Gaspirali’s program articulated in his newspaper,
Tercüman aimed to prevent Muslims from being condemned by and excluded from the dominant culture;
from remaining or becoming more firmly embedded in Russian minds as “the other”; and from being
victimized by a game that assigned truth, rationality, and social value solely to those inside the dominant
culture (Ibid, 62). As early as 1885, Tercüman had 200 readers in Turkistan, and this publication figured
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 prominently in the intellectual biographies of every prominent Central Asian Jadid (Khalid, 1998:90). In
addition, one of Gaspirali’s earlier publications, “Russian Islam – Thoughts and Notes on a Muslim’s
Observation,” had been widely distributed in Tashkent, Samarqand, and Buhkara. Gaspirali’s motivation in
choosing a common literary language was to generate a renewed interconnectedness among the Islamic
community, not to create a sovereign Turkic state. Ironically though, the Turkic speaking populations living
in Turkistan and the Middle Volga criticized Tercüman because they could not fully understand the dialect it
was printed in.
Gaspirali believed his pan-Turkic message would only be achieved through educational reform. His
new-method of education centered on teaching Arabic phonetically, thus enabling students to distinguish
Arabic letters that sound similar, to spell out words, and to learn how to write. Instead of memorizing the
names of the letters, children learned the sounds that the letters represented; the goal was to teach
students how to read and write rather than promote rote memorization of canonical texts. New-method
schools also taught such contemporary subjects as arithmetic, geography, science, and history (Ibid, 164).
By the turn of the century, these schools dominated elementary education among the Tatars. New-method
madrasas opened in Ufa and Kazan and by 1912, 90% of the 1,000 Tatar schools (both mektabs and
madrasas) in Kazan province had adopted a Jadid curriculum Geraci, 2001:265).
Not only was the curriculum in Gaspirali’s schools qualitatively different from the traditional
mektabs, but the physical appearance of a Jadid classroom was also different. A pedagogical manual
written by Gaspirali came complete with a diagram of the ideal classroom with windows, maps, globes,
blackboard, and desks neatly laid out in rows (Khalid, 1988:164). Gaspirali’s diagram alluded to the
disorder of the traditional mektabs - students sitting on the floor in a circle around the damla - as apposed to
the scientific order of the Jadid new-method school.
In addition to reform of the mektabs, Gaspirali advocated the improvement of women’s position in
Muslim society. He wrote, “whoever loves his own people and wishes it a great future, must concern
himself with the enlightenment and education of women, restore freedom and independence to them, and
give wide scope to the development of their minds and capabilities” (Fisher, 1988: 39). Citing Quranic
scripture, he emphasized the equality of women in matters of marriage, divorce, and inheritance.
Understanding that his perception directly challenged the qadimists’ position on the role of Muslim women in
society, Gaspirali stated, "I beg the reader to understand that I am not suggesting that shari‘a be changed;
this is impermissible" (Ibid, 39). Nevertheless, he believed it would be impossible for Muslims to raise their
standard of living to that of the West without women’s participation.
Scholars have estimated the total number of Jadid schools in Russia and Turkistan reached 5,000.
Gaspirali traveled widely in the Muslim areas of the empire doing his best to persuade the local dignitaries
of the importance of new-method schools. In some regions he was more successful than in others. In
Kazan, where interest in educational reform and social renewal predated Gaspirali’s educational philosophy
(largely owing to Kursavi’s and Merjani’s influence), Jadid schools meshed with the emergence of a Tatar
bourgeois class.
By the end of the nineteenth century, the Tatars diaspora numbered about 2.5 million spread out
over twelve provinces of the Volga/Trans Ural region, with a significant and growing presence in the Kazakh
Steppe, the lower Volga, and Central Asia (Lazzerini, 1994: 82-3). Subsequently, Tatar reaction to Russia’s
conquest of Turkistan led to the rise of new-method educational reforms among both Tatar and Turkistani
ethnic groups. Gaspirali was highly respected by the Central Asian Jadids, many of whom he had kept in
contact with throughout the years he visited Turkistan. The first Turkistan Jadid schools were opened in
Andijan (Uzbekistan) in 1897 and in Samarqand and Tokmak (Kyrgyzstan) in 1898. These early Turkistan
Jadid schools were exclusively for the local Tatar population. The first Uzbek Jadid school opened in
Tashkent in 1901, and two years later, the second opened in Samarqand. Turkistani Jadid schools used
Tatar textbooks until local editions become available; after 1905, the Tatar press served as the model for its
Turkistan counterpart (Ibid, 90). In 1902, the local educational administration commissioned Said Aziz
Khoja, a “native” teacher in one of the Tashkent schools, to write a textbook especially for the first year to
replace the Tatar manuals that had previously been used (Ibid, 159). Khoja’s work, Ustad-i awwal (The
First Teacher), was the first new-method textbook to be published in Central Asia (Khalid, 1998: 159-60).
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 The text imparted basic Turkic literature (or Persian in a few schools in Samarqand), as well as the ability to
recite the Quran and answer questions about religious rituals.
Fitrat (1886-1938) was the most prominent Central Asian Jadid to study in Turkey (1909-1914).
While in Turkey, he published two books (Debate between a Bukharan Mudarris and a European and Tales
of an Indian Traveler) that gained a wide audience back in Central Asia. In addition, Fitrat contributed
religious reform articles that appeared in many publications read by Central Asian Muslims and Jadids in
particular. In 1914, Fitrat studied under Yusuf Akcura, a chief ideologue of pan-Turkism (Ibid, 118). During
this time, Istanbul was the center of Islamic pan-Turkic sentiment and deep discussion surrounding Islamic
reform. The Central Asian Jadids were privy to these discussions as well, for they lived in the last
generation when Muslim intellectuals in different countries could communicate with each other without the
use of European languages (Ibid, 113). More than even, the Jadids felt modernity was fully congruent with
the “true” essence of Islam, and only an Islam purified of all accretions of the ages could ensure the wellbeing of all Muslims (Ibid, 113).
Interestingly, despite Gaspirali’s pan-Turkic aspirations, Tatars formed their own distinct
communities in Turkenstani cities, with their own schools and organizations. Viewing themselves as the
natural leaders of the Turkistani Muslims, the Tatars believed it was their mission to reform Turkistan’s
Muslims by spreading pan-Turkic ideology. But this mission did not pan out. Indeed, students in the
Turkestani madrasas did not live up to Gaspirali’s expectations for high achievement – a modern
cosmopolitan school. Visiting the renowned madrasas of Buhkara and Samarqand in 1893, Mehmed Zahir
Bigiev was particular disturbed by what he found. The students surprised him by “their complete ignorance
of the world”; his guides could not answer his questions; numerous customary practices, “holdovers from
paganism,” contravened explicit commands of the Shari’ a and the position of women was “extremely
pitiable” (Ibid, 92). According to a Tatar employee of the police department who traveled incognito in
Ferghana in 1909 to gauge the “mood of the population” (a common exercise), Tatars had stopped
interacting with the local population, which they referred to as ulek khaliq (dead people) for reasons of their
political inertia (Ibid, 92).
In 1913-1913, Muhammad Said from Transcaucasia visited new-method schools in Turkistan and
was not impressed by what he saw. He declared, “that there was not a single genuine and selfless teacher
in Turkistan” (Ibid, 90). The Tatar population in Turkistan had assumed that it would be responsible for
enlightening the Muslims, but historian Adeeb Khalid has noted that ultimately, Tatars in Turkestan wrote
exclusively for a Tatar audience in which Turkistan’s Muslims occupied a marginal place (Ibid, 92).
Why this timeline of Jadidism in Turkestan? The first Jadids in Turkestan were men of the old
cultural elite whose personal experiences had convinced them of the need for change (Ibid, 104). Although
the majority of them spoke Russian (self-taught), they were not products of the Russian educational system.
Contrarily, most of the Tatar Jadids from the Volga region came from families who had prospered in
commercial activities and had been educated in Russian schools and universities. Turkestan’s Jadids
remained much closer to the Islamic cultural tradition than Tatar Jadids and Jadids in other parts of the
Russian empire (Ibid, 105).
Despite these differences between Turkestani and Tatar Jadids, the Jadids in general perceived
themselves as advocators of progress. The single most important idea that connected the Jadids was a
collective internalization of the idea of progress. One Jadid textbook read, “In this century, all sciences and
crafts develop together….This is the century of science and progress. The sciences seen in this century
have never been seen before” (Ibid, 107). In addition, the Jadids were captivated by maps which provided
“a sense of the interconnectedness of peoples and countries” (Ibid, 109). Books published in Tatar,
Ottoman Turkish, and Arabic further shaped the worldview of Jadids in Turkestan. Jadids opened
bookstores in Turkestan’s major cities, offering books published in Kazan, India, Iran, Istanbul, Cairo, Beirut,
and Muslim publishing centers in Russia. In Samarqand, Turkestani Jadid Mahmud Khoja Behbudi’s
bookstore stocked books in Tatar, Ottoman Turkish, and Arabic covering a range of subjects including
history, geography, medicine, and religion. Customers could also browse dictionaries, atlases, charts,
maps, and globes. Jadids devoted much of their time and energy to reading books and encouraged
students and people around them to embrace and cultivate knowledge.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 In Turkistan, however, both Russian authorities and traditional Muslim leaders grew more and more
suspicious of the growing popularity of the Jadid schools. To compete with Jadid schools, the Russians
established native schools based on Il’minskii’s ideas. Only Muslim children were permitted to attend
russko-tuzemnaia schools and the curriculum was specifically designed to introduce the Russian language
and propagate Russian culture in students’ native languages. While many schools had two or three
Russian teachers, all made do with only one “native” teacher, so that often by the fourth year “native”
instruction amounted to no more than a half-hour a day. By 1913, more than 150 Russian-native schools
had been opened in Turkistan, an acknowledgment of the success of Jadid schools (Ibid, 157).
Gaspirali’s pan-Turkic ideas were less influential in Buhkara for three reasons. First, Buhkara had
retained its sovereignty after the Russian advance. While leaving control of Buhkara in the hands of the
emir, the Treaty of 1868 forced the emir to “acknowledge himself to be the obedient servant of the Emperor
of ALL the Russias” and “renounce the right to maintain direct and friendly relations with neighboring rulers
and khans and to conclude with them any commercial or other treaties [or to] undertake any military actions
against them without the knowledge and permission of the Supreme Russian Authority in Central Asia” (Ibid,
157). Secondly, in Bukhara, the Uzbeks were the national majority and were endowed with a pre-eminent
role in the state. Thirdly, the regime, mindful of its quasi-independent position and the humbled condition of
the other Turkish peoples in Russia, viewed the notion of a fusion of all of them in its own particular way
(Carrere D’Encausse, 1966:66). The Emir of Buhkara considered himself to be the protector of all Muslims
in Russia. Like Gaspirali, he too, would move towards a kind of pan-Turkism, but one based out of
Buhkara. Although Gaspirali’s ideas were well-known in Buhkara, people’s minds were most influenced by
the teachings of Jamal al-din-Afghani (Ibid, 66). Al-din-Afghani’s pan-Islamism evoked greater appeal in the
emirate precisely because the emir cast himself as its ruler.
The Bukharan Emir’s primary objective was to re-establish the independence of Turkistan and to
drive the Russians out. In 1889, Islamic revolts broke out in a territory formally known as the Khoqand
Khanate (the former khan had lost his throne in 1873 and had been incorporated into the Russian Empire).
Rebellions erupted in the cities of Andijan and subsequently in Ferghana, Margelllan, Osh, Namangan. A
Sufi Muslim named Muhammad Ali led the rebellion. Ali’s efforts were quickly suppressed, however, by the
Turkistan Infantry Battalion. He was hanged while many others were exiled to Siberia. However, after Ali’s
execution, the masses of Turkistan rallied spontaneously to the re-establishment of Khoqand Khanate, and,
above all, to the summons of holy war against the Russians (Ibid, 67). Seizing the opportunity, the Emir of
Bukhara proclaimed himself leader of this new emerging movement. He thus sought to preserve that which
in his view gave the emirate its privileged position among the Islamic territories of Russia (Ibid, 67).
Supported by the clergy, he reinforced what Kurvasi and Merjani had tried to escape, namely rigid Islamic
conservatism and a complete rejection of ijtihad.
CONCLUSION
Jadidism was not a universal educational reform policy that stemmed solely from Gaspirali’s panTurkic blueprint. It was an educational movement that took shape in the larger context of historical and
societal change. Jadids shared collective ideas related to the concept of progress, the emphasis on
education, and new-method teaching philosophies. However, Jadids and their supporters encountered
different struggles in society. For example, in the Crimea and Middle Volga, Gaspirali’s reform ideas were
highly influential; however, in Turkistan, his pan-Turkic ideology and advocacy of encouraging a more
cooperative relationship with Russia was met with greater opposition from both Russian authorities and
qadimists. In Bukhara, the political, cultural and religious goals of Jadidism were situated in the context of
strengthening its autonomy rather than uniting with the Russian Empire. Khalid defines Volga Tatar
Jadidism as the concerns of a nascent mercantile middle class facing the consequences of economic
change in the center of the empire along with intense pressure from the Church, which threatened to
obliterate the very existence of the Tatar community (Khalid, 1998:93). The Russian conquest of Turkistan
had severely weakened the Tatar monopoly of commerce in the region; thus providing one explanation why
Turkistan’s Tatar population chose to remain isolated within their communities.
The fragmentation of Jadids in Turkistan occupied different positions in society. Although Turkistan
reformers appropriated the new-methods introduced by the Tatars, their use of them was defined by political
81
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 and cultural differences. Many of Turkistan’s Jadids taught in Russo-native schools; hence, their efforts to
construct pan-Turkic ethnic identities within student populations raised suspicions. For example, geography
and history course taught in native languages inspired a collective thinking and sense of shared history.
This cultivation of knowledge had more to do with constructing Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Kazakh, and Tajik national
and ethnic identities rather than a pan-Turkic collective feeling. In Turkestan, Jadids were harassed and
suppressed by an alliance of traditional Islamic elites and Russian officials, all of whom were threatened by
the new national identities emerging under the Jadids’ auspices (Johnson, 2004:27). Movements toward
ethnic identity among the Turkic people in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries took precedence
over adopting a common language.
Many Kazan Tatar intellectuals, who usually supported the idea of Islamic solidarity, did not believe
that Gaspirali's focus on a common literary language was useful. Nashirvan Yanishev, for example, wrote
that "no one, with the exception of the Azeris, can understand the language of Tercüman; the farther north
you go, the fewer the people who read Tercüman” (Fisher, 1988:34). In addition, Il’minskii’s Russo-native
schools mandated that all schools adopt the Cyrillic alphabet, thus facilitating the growth of the values
associated with the imperial system. The experience was reflected in the Russo-native schools, with which
Jadid schools shared many characteristics. Many native teachers were prominent in Jadid circles, and
many of the younger Jadids attended Russo-native schools. Jadidism was part of a secular trend toward
functional literacy and the organization of general schooling in which new domains of cultural practice were
elaborated. It is significant that Gaspirali, “who was well acquainted with Il’minskii’s system, basically
performed the same task as Il’minskii, though in a totally different framework and with opposite objectives”
(Kreindler, 1969:204).
Many events inhibited Gaspirali’s pan-Turkic ideas from taking shape across this portion of the
Asian continent. Although Turkistani and Tatar Jadids conceptually agreed on the fundamental premise of
Jadidism, their historical relationships with Russia (the Volga Tatars had been conquered three centuries
earlier) varied tremendously. Without the modernizing intervention and support of Russia, Gaspirali
understood his message would be difficult to translate to the targeted populations. Further, the resistance
which occurred in the former Khoqand Khanate directly led to the strengthening of the qadimists’
fundamental Islamic theology in the Khanate of Bukhara. For centuries, Bukhara had been the Islamic
center of Turkistan; attempting to penetrate it in an effort to reform religious thought and cultural practices
was not an easy task. Kursavi had been sentenced to death by the Bukharan Emir and Merjani had
escaped just before his own sentence was handed down. The cultural traditions and religious practices
endorsed by Bukhara’s Islamic scholarly community advocated a more pan-Islamic perspective and
dismissed Gaspirali’s unifying pan-Turkic call.
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Hegemony,” in Central Asia in Historical Perspective, ed. Beatrice F. Manz. (Boulder::
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National Resilience (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1986).
14. M.H. Khasanov, “Tatar Renaissance in the Context of Eurasian Civilisation,” RussianAmerican Relations: Islamic and Turkic Dimensions in the Volga-Ural Basin, ed. Hafeez
Malik (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000).
15. Uli Shamiloglu, "Ictihad or Millat?: Reflections on Bukhara, Kazan, and the Legacy of
Russian Orientalism," Reform Movements and Revolutions in Turkestan: 1900-1924.
Studies in Honour of Osman Khoja / Türkistan'da Yenilik Hareketleri ve Ihtilaller: 19001924. Osman Hoca Anisina Incelemeler, ed. Timur Kocaoglu (Haarlem: SOTA, 2001).
16. Znamenskii, P. Istoriia Kazanskoi Dukhovnoi Akademii za pervyi period ee
sushchestvovaniia, 1842-1870 (A History of the Kazan Academy during the first period). 2
vol.: Kazan: tipog. Universiteta, 1891 in Isabelle Kreindler, Educational Policies Toward The
Eastern Nationalities in Tsarist Russia: A Study of Il’minskii’s System (1969).
17. Robert P. Geraci, Window on the East: national and imperial identities in late tsarist Russia
(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001).
18. Isabelle Kreindler, Educational Policies toward the Eastern Nationalities in Tsarist Russia: A
Study of Il’minskii’s Sytem (1969).
19. Kazanskaia Shkola, 445 in Isabelle Kreindler, Educational Policies Toward The Eastern
Nationalities in Tsarist Russia: A Study of Il’minskii’s System (1969).
20. Il’minksii, Pis’ma k Pobedonostsevu, 339, in Isabelle Kreindler, Educational Policies Toward
The Eastern Nationalities in Tsarist Russia: A Study of Il’minskii’s System (1969).
21. Alexandre Bennigsen, "The Muslims," 152; V. M. Gorokhov, Reaktsionnaia
shkol'naiapolitika tsarizma v otnoshenii tatar Povolzh'ia (Kazan, 1941), in Alan W. Fisher, "A
Model Leader for Asia, Ismail Gaspirali," The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland,
ed. Edward A. Allworth, (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988).
22. Edward Lazzerini, “Ismail Bey Gasprinskii (Gaspirali): The Discourse of Modernism and the
Russians”, in The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland, ed. Edward A. Allworth
(Durham: Duke University Press, 1998).
23. M. Mobin Shorish, “Traditional Islamic Education in Central Asia Prior to 1917,” in TurcoTatar Past Soviet Present: Studies Presented to Alexandre Bennigsen, ed. Ch. LemercierQuelquejay, G. Veinstein and S.E. Wimbush (Paris: Editions Peeters, 1986).
24. Alan W. Fisher, "A Model Leader for Asia, Ismail Gaspirali," The Tatars of Crima: Return to
the Homeland, ed. Edward A. Allworth, (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988), 39 in
Lazzerini, "Ismail Bey Gasprinskii," 225, citing and translating "Kerain-i kerame hutab,"
Tercüman 25 September 1906.
25. TWG, 19 May 1911, 10 April 1914 in Adeeb Khalid, The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform:
Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
26. Huseyin Atay, Osmanlilarda Yuksek Din Egitimi (Istanbul, 1983), 308-311 in Adeeb Khalid,
The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1998).
83
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 27. Muhammed Zahir Bigiev, Maverainnahrda siyahat (Kazan, 1908) in Adeeb Khalid, The
Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley: University of
28. TsGARUz, f. I, op.31, d. 540, 1. 1780b in Adeeb Khalid, The Politics of Muslim Cultural
Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
29. Muhammad Said, “Adab wa tarbiya,” Ayina, 10 May 1914, 557-559 in Adeeb Khalid, The
30. Ghulamuddin Akbarzada, Ta’lim-I sani (Tashkent, 1913), 27-28 in Adeeb Khalid, The
31. Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-body of a Nation (Honolulu,
1994) in Adeeb Khalid, The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
32. Information is derived from detailed price lists of books published by Behbudi in Ayina, 26
October 1913, 13 in Adeeb Khalid, The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in
Central Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
33. TWG, 8 September 1910; 19 May 1911 in Adeeb Khalid, The Politics of Muslim Cultural
Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
34. Geoffrey Wheeler, The Modern History of Soviet Central Asia, (New York: Frederick A.
Praeger, Publishers, 1964).
35. Zenkovsky, Pan Turkism and Islam, 114-15, citing Yulduz, no. 786 (1912) in Alan W.
Fisher, "A Model Leader for Asia, Ismail Gaspirali," The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the
Homeland, ed. Edward A. Allworth, (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988).
36. N.P. Ostroumov, “K istoriii Musul ‘manskogo obrazovatel ‘nogo dvizheniia v Rossii v 19 i 20
stoletiiakh,” Mir Islama, II, 5 (1913) in Isabelle Kreindler, Educational Policies toward the
Eastern Nationalities in Tsarist Russia: A Study of Il’minskii’s System (1969).
84
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 KAMU YÖNETİMİNDE ÇAĞDAŞ GELİŞMELER VE TÜRKİYE
Dr. Eyüp ZENGİN
Başbakanlık Türk İşbirliği ve Kalkınma İdaresi Başkanlığı
[email protected]
Dr. Cemal ÖZTAŞ
TBMM Milli Saraylar Dairesi Başkanı
[email protected]
ÖZET
Son yıllarda, gelişmiş ülkelerde kamu yönetimi anlayışında yaşanan dönüşüm süreci, katı,
hiyerarşik ve bürokratik kamu yönetimi anlayışı yerine, esnek, çıktılara odaklı, vatandaşın talep ve
tercihlerine önem veren, performans kriterlerine göre çalışan ve sonuçlardan dolayı yöneticilerin sorumluluk
aldığı yeni kamu yönetimi anlayışının toplumda genel olarak kabul görmesi sonucunu doğurmuştur.
Her alanda çok hızlı değişim ve dönüşümlerin yaşandığı bir dönemi yaşanmakta ve yaşanan bu
değişim ve dönüşümler iletişim ve bilişim teknolojilerinin de yardımıyla belli bir toplumla sınırlı kalmamakta
küresel bir nitelik taşımaktadır.
Yeni Kamu Yönetimi anlayışı, Yönetişim, Toplam Kalite Yönetimi, Performans Yönetimi, Hesap
Verebilirlik, Elektronik Devlet uygulmaları kamu yönetimi alanındaki son gelişmelerin başlıcalarını
oluşturmaktadır. Bu uygulamaların kamu yönetimi üzerinde genel olarak olumlu etkide bulundukları kabul
edilmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Yeni Kamu Yönetimi, Yönetişim, Toplam Kalite Yönetimi, Performans Yönetimi,
Hesap Verebilirlik, E- Devlet
GİRİŞ
Dünya yaklaşık son yirmi yıldır hüküm süren hızlı bir değişim sürecinden geçmektedir.
Küreselleşme ile ortaya çıkan ve 20’nci yüzyılın son çeyreğine damgasını vuran çok yönlü değişim
dinamikleri, 21’inci yüzyılın başlaması ile birlikte yeni bir çehre kazanan dünya düzeninin de temel
dayanaklarını oluşturmuşlardır (Saran, 2001:37-52).
Yaşanmakta olan küresel değişim, sadece belirli bir coğrafi bölge veya toplumla sınırlı değil tüm
dünya ölçeğinde; yalnızca belirli bir alanda değil, teknolojik, ekonomik, toplumsal, siyasal, yönetsel ve
kültürel olarak tüm alanlarda sürmektedir.
Oldukça karmaşık ve çok boyutlu olan toplumsal gelişmenin temelindeki küresel değişim
dinamikleri, tüm dünya ülkelerini etkilemekte, düşüncelerde, inançlarda, geleneklerde, değer yargılarında ve
kurumsal oluşumlarda yol açtıkları devrimlerle toplumların sosyo-ekonomik ve kültürel yapılarında köklü
değişim ve dönüşümlere neden olmaktadırlar (Bauman, 1999:77-83). Mikroelektronik, bilgisayar, iletişim ve
finans alanlarında gerçekleştirilen büyük atılımlarla gelişen bilgi teknolojilerinin tüm sektörlerde, ekonomik
ve toplumsal hayatın her alanında yaygın bir biçimde kullanılması, kısa sürede üretim ve verimliliği
arttırmakta; yeni teknolojik, sosyo-ekonomik ve kültürel gelişmeleri kamçılayan bu olgular hem birbirlerine
bağlı olarak ortaya çıkmakta, hem de aşama aşama birbirlerini tamamlamaktadırlar (Aktan & Tunç,
1998:120).
Türk Kamu Yönetiminde çağdaş yönetim tekniklerinin benimsenmesini, bu çerçevede kamu
hizmetlerinin kalitesini ve verimliliğini arttırmaya yönelik yaklaşımların hayata geçirilmesini gerektiren ya da
bunların tartışma gündemine gelmesine yol açan nedenler, dünyanın diğer ülkelerindeki kamu yönetimlerini
etkileyen ve değişim sürecine girmelerine yol açan nedenlerden farklı değildir (Saran, 2001:37-52).
85
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Küresel değişim sürecinin yükselen değerler üzerinde şekillenen yeni kamu yönetimi zihniyeti, genel
olarak kamu yönetimi alanında yerleşik anlayış ve yaklaşımlar üzerinde esaslı değişimlere neden olmaktadır
(Saran, 2004:20). Bu kapsamda kamu yönetimi:
-Katılıktan esnekliğe,
-Tek boyutluluktan veya tek aktörlükten, çok boyutluluğa ve çok aktörlüğe,
-Geçmiş yönelimli ve tepkiye dayalı bir anlayıştan, gelecek yönelimli ve ve sorunları ortay çıkmadan
önce önlemeye yönelik pro-aktif anlayışa,
-Ayrıntılarla uğraşmaktan ziyade asli işlerde yoğunlaşmaya,
-Hizmeti bizzat sağlayıcı ve sunucu olmaktan, düzenleyici, kolaylaştırıcı ve katalizör olmaya,
-Kapalılıktan şeffaflığa,
-Edilgen ve yönetilir olmaktan, aktif ve katılımcı olmaya,
-Sorumsuzluktan hesap verebilirliğe,
-Kaynakların kötü kullanımından etkili ve verimli olmaya,
-Belirsizlikten öngörülebilir olmaya doğru esaslı bir değişim sürecine girmiştir (Saran, 2004:20-21).
YENİ KAMU YÖNETİMİ ANLAYIŞI
Bir yüzyıllık yönetim anlayışı başladığı yönde bitti. 1980 ve 1990’ların yönetim ideolojisi, büyük
oranda Bilimsel Yönetim anlayışına benzemekle birlikte; aynı zamanda, önceden Taylorizm’i destekleyen bir
çok unsur tarafından kuşatılmıştır.
Yeni Kamu Yönetimi Anlayışı ve Hükümetin Yeniden Şekillendirilmesi yaklaşımları dünyanın bir çok
alanlarında sayısız değişimlere neden olmuşlardır. Yaklaşımlar, destekçilere sahip oldukları kadar
muhaliflere de sahiptirler. Olumlu olarak, desantralizasyon, müşteri odaklı olma ve maliyet duyarlı olma
ilkelerine vurgu yapmışlardır. Taylorizm’in handikapları gibi, ben merkezli olmaları, evrensel olma iddiaları
gibi handikapları da vardır. Aslında benzer kültürlerin bir ürünü olarak dün yanın her yerinde geçerli
olabileceklerini savunmuşlardır. Hızlı tanıtımı ile bazı iyi sonuçlara yol açsalar da, geçiş aşamasında ve
gelişmekte olan bir çok ülkede hoş olmayan sonuçlara neden olmuşlardır (Kızılcık, 2002:37-54).
YÖNETİŞİM YAKLAŞIMI
Yönetim bilimleri literatürüne son yıllarda yeni terimler girmeye başlamıştır. Bunlardan birisi de
“Yönetişim” (governance) ya da “Yeni Yürütüm Anlayışı” terimidir. Hükümet etme anlamındaki “Yönetim”
(government) den farklı bir anlamda kullanılan bu kavram, zaman içerisinde “Kurumsal Yönetim” (corporate
governance), “Demokratik Kurumsal Yönetim” (democratic governance) veya “İyi Kurumsal Yönetim” (good
corporate governance) gibi adlarla anılan yeni kavramların da temelini oluşturmuştur (Sanal, 2002:41-73).
Yönetişim kavramı her gün yaşamımıza daha fazla girmektedir. Aşağıya doğru, tepeden inme
kumandacılığa dayanan “klasik yönetim” anlayışı giderek yerini, aşağıdan gelen taleplerle, dinamikleri
yönetimin üst katmanla buluşturan yönetişim anlayışına bırakmaktadır. Bunda sivil toplum-devlet ilişkisinde,
sivil toplumun belirleyici olacak kadar güçlenmesi ve bu ölçüde de inisiyatif sahibi olması yönetişim ilkesinin
yaygınlaşmasına katkıda bulunmaktadır (Alodalı vd., 2004:141).
Yönetişim modelinde klasik kamu yönetimi anlayışında pek de yeri olmayan, devlet, özel sektör ve
sivil toplum örgütleri ve yarı resmi kuruluşlar gibi çok değişik ve farklı aktörler bir araya gelerek kamu hizmeti
sunumunda birlikte rol alabilirler. Bunun yanı sıra, bu modelde devlet kamu politikaları açısından kuralları
koyan ve uygulama süreçlerini denetleyen bir yapı arzetmekte fakat kamu hizmetini doğrudan sunan bir
organ olarak daha az bir rol üstlenmektedir. Ancak böyle çok aktörlü bir yapıda kimin ne derece ve hangi
ölçüde kamu hizmeti sunumundan sorumlu olacağı sorun kaynağı olabilecektir. Bu ise hesap verebilirlik
açısından olumsuzluklar doğurabilecektir. Yönetişimin kamu hizmeti sunumu açısından bir başka önemli
sonucu profesyonel yöneticilere uzmanlıklarını kullanma açısından daha fazla özgürlük ve esneklik
sağlanmasıdır. Böylelikle yöneticiler sonuçlara ulaşma açısından daha fazla sorumluluk üstlenmekte ve
gerektiğinde bunun hesabını verme yükümlülüğü ile karşı karşıya bulunmaktadırlar (Balcı, 2005:24-25).
86
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 PERFORMANS YÖNETİMİ
“Performans” en basit tanımıyla verimliliğin ölçülmesidir. Bu ölçme kurum için yapılırsa “Kurumsal
Performans,” çalışanlara yönelik yapılırsa “personel performans değerlendirilmesi” amacı taşır ve
işletmelerin personel politikasının etkinliğini ölçmede yarar sağlar. Bunun yöneticiye olduğu kadar kuruma
yansıyan sonuçları da olacaktır.
Performansın yönetilmesi özel sektörde olduğu kadar kamu sektöründe de giderek önem
kazanmaktadır. Vergi ödeyicilerin vergileri ile ödedikleri paraların nerelerde ve nasıl kullanıldığı bilincinin
yaygınlaşması performans yönetimi konusunu da gündeme getirmiştir. Performans yönetiminde kullanılan
performans göstergeleri yolu ile planlanan ve gerçekleşen performans arasındaki fark görülebilir, geçmiş ile
bugünkü performans düzeyi arasında nasıl bir gelişim gösterildiği izlenebilir. Kamu hizmetinin yıllar boyunca
izlediği trend yakalanabilir, kurumlar birbirleri ile kıyaslanarak en iyi uygulamaların yaygınlaşması mümkün
olabilir (Balcı, 2005:25-27).
Performans yönetiminin devlette şeffaflığın sağlanması konusuyla yakından ilgisi vardır. Çünkü
vergi ödeyicileri ödedikleri vergilerin nereye ve nasıl harcandığını performans sonuçlarıyla değerlendirme
olanağın asahip olabilmektedirler. Bunun sonucunda sağlanan sonuçlarla şeffaf ve hesap verebilir bir
yönetim anlayışına ulaşmak söz konusu olabilecektir. Dolayısıyla performans yönetimini sadece teknik bir
konu olarak ele almak yerine kamu hizmet sunumunun demokratik yollardan denetiminin güçlendirilmesi
olarak değerlendirmek daha doğru olacaktır. Bununla birlikte performansın ölçülmesi ve değerlendirilmesi
özellikle kamu örgütlerinde hiç te kolay bir iş değildir. Özel sektörde tek önemli ve sürükleyici amaç kar iken
kamuda birbirleriyle çelişebilen bir çok amaç olabilmektedir. Bunların nasıl uzlaştırılacağı ve hangisine
öncelik verileceği politik bir konudur (Balcı, 2005:25-27).
TOPLAM KALİTE YÖNETİMİ
Toplam Kalite Yönetimi; (TKY) müşterilerin beklentilerini karşılamak veya daha fazla aşmak
amacıyla kurumsal süreci sürekli iyileştiren, kurum çalışanlarını yetkilendiren ve bir takım değer ve
prensipleri kapsayan bir yönetim sistemi olarak tanımlanabilir. Toplam Kalite Yönetimi (TKY) de, kuruluşların
kaynaklarının etkin ve verimli kullanılmasında, liderlik, katılımcılık, müşteri odaklılık, sürekli gelişme, iletişim
ve sürekli eğitim ilkeleri ile etkili olmaktadır.
Toplam Kalite Yönetimine etkin bir şekilde geçilebilmesi amacıyla üst yönetimin bir kurumsal kültür
geliştirmesi, kurumsal kültürü geliştirebilmesi amacıyla yönetim tarzını aşağıdaki şekilde değiştirmesi
gerekir; (Dursun, 2005:41-60)
A-)İnsanlardan ziyade kurumsal süreçlerin ölçümü yapmalıdır;
B-)Kesin sonuç belirlemekten kaçınmalıdır;
C-)İletişim engellerini kaldırmalıdır;
D-)Kurum çalışanlarının iyi iş yapmak istediklerini anlamalıdır;
E-)Kurum çalışanlarına yetki vermelidir;
F-)Kurumda emir vermekten ziyade liderlik yapmalıdır;
G-)Kurum çalışanlarına tek taraflı konuşmak yerine onları dinlemeyi tercih etmelidir;
H-)Kurumsal nitelikte sürekli bir şekilde vizyon, misyon ve amaçlar belirlemelidir;
İ-)Çalışmaktan zevk almalı ve diğer kurum çalışanlarının kendisiyle birlikte çalışmasından zevk
almasını sağlamalıdır.
Türk kamu yönetiminde üst yönetim, bu şekildeki bir yönetim tarzı yerine geleneksel yönetim tarzını
benimsemekte, kurum çalışanlarına söz hakkı tanımayarak onlara tek taraflı olarak emir ve talimat
yağdırmakta, personelin kendisini yönetmeye çalışmakta ve personeline karşı iletişim engellerini kaldırmak
yerine ilave ek engeller koymaya çalışmaktadır (Dursun, 2005:41-60).
Dünyanın bir çok ülkesinde uygulama alanı bulmuş ve başarıyla uygulamaları süren bu yönetim
tekniğini kamuda uygulayarak başarılı olmak mümkün gözükmektedir.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Toplam Kalite uygulamaları sayesinde kamuda sürekli değişikliklerin sağlanması ve istenilen
noktaya gelinmesi çok kolay değildir. Mikro düzeyde işletmelerin makro düzeyde ise Türkiye’nin zaman
kaybetmeden ancak sabır ve ısrarla Toplam Kalite mantığı içinde hareket etmesiyle 2000'li yıllara daha
emin bir şekilde taşınacaktır. Türkiye’nin bunu gerçekleştirecek tüm alt yapısı vardır. Türkiye’nin bu
gelişmeyi gerçekten istemesi ve işçi, işveren, devlet, üniversite ve diğer kuruluşların, kararlılık, cesaret,
işbirliği ve anlayışı gerekmektedir. Bunu yapacak ve gelişmiş ülkeler seviyesine çıkacak her türlü kaynak
mevcuttur. Fakat zamanın yitirilmemesi gerekmektedir (Ardıç & Baş, 2007).
HESAP VEREBİLİRLİK
Değişebilir özelliği ve çeşitli disiplinlere göre oluşan anlamı nedeniyle, hesap verebilirliğin açık ve
anlaşılır bir tanımını vermek kolay görünmemektedir. Hesap verebilirlik, “eylemlerle ilgili sebep, bilgi ve
hesap verme ve alma kapasitesi, yeteneği ve isteği” olarak genel bir şekilde tanımlanmaktadır. Hesap
verebilirlik, sadece hesap üretme, hesap verme kapasite ve yeteneği değil, aynı zamanda hesap alabilme
yeteneğidir. Bu çerçevede Hesap verebilirlik, sadece bilginin açıklama şekli değil, aynı zamanda sosyoekonomik, politik etkileşim ve bağımlılık ilişkilerinde karşılıklı ve sürekli hesap alma ve verme sürecidir.
Açıklık ve Hesap verebilirlik, yerel sorumlulukla ilgili iki önemli kavramdır. Aslında bu iki kavram,
gerek merkezi yönetimin gerekse yerel halkın yerel yönetime ve onu yöneten yerel otoriteye güvenini
sağlamak açısından büyük önem taşır. Yerel yönetimler şeffaf oldukları ölçüde yerel halkın denetimine açık
kuruluşlardır. Şeffaflık bu idarelere duyulan güveni artırabilir. Ancak, bu sayede yerel halkla yerel yönetim
arasındaki sorumluluk ilişkisi (ve Hesap verebilirlik,) daha belirgin bir şekilde ortaya çıkar (Ulusoy,
2000:135). Şüphesiz kamu yönetiminde şeffaflık ve Hesap verebilirlik, birbiriyle etkileşim içinde olan
olgulardır. Yani yönetimde şeffaflığın sağlanabilmesi için etkili işleyen Hesap verebilirlik, sisteminin
varlığına; Hesap verebilirlik, sisteminin iyi işlemesi için de yönetimde şeffaflığa ihtiyaç vardır (Ulusoy,
2000:135).
Demokratik sistemlerde, halk kamu kaynaklarını kullanmakla görevli olanlardan, bu fonların nasıl
kullanıldığının hesabının sorulmasını bekler. Bu nedenle, kamu fonlarının en rasyonel şekilde kullanılmasını
temin edecek ister seçilmiş olsun isterse atanmış olsun bütün yöneticiler ve görevliler birinci derecede
sorumludurlar. Kamu kaynaklarının kullanımında karar sahibi olan seçilmiş ve atanmış her yöneticinin
yönetimlerinden ötürü hesap vermesi esastır. Kamusal denetim, bu hesap verme zincirinde önemli bir bağ
oluşturur. Hesap verme yükümlülüğünü hem yukarıya, kaynakları temin eden seçilmiş veya atanmış üyelere
doğru ve hem de dışarıya, tüketicilere, yardım alanlara, vergi mükelleflerine ve sonuçta tüm topluma
yayarak güçlendirir (Gören, 2000:123).
Bir ülkede etkin devlet sisteminin olmayışı ve iyi işleyen bir denetim mekanizmasının kurulamaması;
yolsuzluklara, kamu kaynaklarının israf edilmesine ve bu kaynakların amaç dışı kullanılmasına sebep
olabilir. Halkın yönetime katılımı ve hesap sorabilme yeteneğinin geliştirilmesi ile yöneticilerde de hesap
verme yükümlülüğünün oluşturulması, yolsuzlukların engellenmesinde, kamusal fonların etkin, verimli ve
ekonomik kullanılmasında son derece önemlidir.
ELEKTRONİK DEVLET
Elektronik Devlet, Kamu hizmetlerinin, vatandaşlara, çalışanlara ve iş ortaklarına Bilgi Teknolojisi
vasıtasıyla ulaşmalarını ve bundan yararlanmalarını sağlayan organizasyon; yine başka bir tanımda; Kamu
kuruluşları, vatandaşlar ve ticari kurumlar arasındaki bilgi, hizmet ve mal alışverişlerinde teknolojinin
kullanılmasıyla performansı ve verimlilik artışını hedefleyen devlet modeli şeklinde tanımlanmaktadır (Çelik,
2003:148-159).
Elektronik dünyasındaki gelişmeler ve internet dünyayı her alanda etkileyen, değiştiren ve
dönüştüren gelişmeler olarak yönetimi de yakından ilgilendirmektedir. Yeni zamanların miti internet
teknolojisi, bilgi toplumu, bilgi otoyolları kavramlarıyla birlikte üçüncü büyüleyici kavram olarak
görülmektedir. Bu alanda yığınla yayın yapılmakta, kamusal ve özel kurumlar yoğun bir ilgiyle gelişmeleri
izlemektedirler. Kavram olarak multimedya, aynı anda resim, ses, ve bilgi aktarımını sağlayan, karşılıklı
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 etkileşime dayanan ve daha önce ayrı ayrı olarak kullanılan medya araçlarının birleştirilmesiyle dijital alanda
ortaya çıkan uygulamaları anlatır (Çukurçayır, 2002:211-224).
Özellikle internetin kullanımı, bilginin, kültürün, siyasetin, ekonominin bütün ulusal ve yerel
sınırlarını kaldırmıştır. Dünyanın gerçek anlamda küçük bir köy halini alması, internet sayesindedir. Bu
bağlamda, siyasal düzlemde de artık elektronik demokrasiden söz edilmekte ve internetle demokrasiye ne
gibi katkıların yapılabileceği üzerinde araştırmalar ve çözümlemeler yapılmaktadır. Doğrudan etkileşime
dayanması, doğrudan demokrasi düşünün gerçekleşmesi olanağı olarak görülmektedir (Aksoy, 1996:159).
E-Devlette amaç; çalışma yöntemlerinin optimize edilmesi, maliyetlerin düşürülmesi, işlemlerin
hızlandırılması, hizmet kalitesinin yükseltilmesi, hata oranının en aza indirgenmesi, verimliliğin artırılması,
bürokrasinin azaltılması, rüşvetin ortadan kaldırılması, kurumların iç işleyişinin iyileştirilmesi, şeffaflık
anlayışının benimsenmesi, veri/bilgilere kolay, hızlı ve rahat erişimin sağlanması, ülkenin her köşesine aynı
kalitede eşzamanlı servis hizmeti verilmesi şeklinde özetlenebilir (Çelik, 2003:148-159).
Teknolojik yenilikler, kalem ve daktilo üzerine yirminci yüzyılın başlarında şekillenen klasik yönetim modelini,
hızla değişen bilgi ve teknoloji yoğun toplumlar için yetersiz kılmıştır. Her çeşit bilginin ve verinin, çok az
maliyetle ve hızlıca elde edilebildiği, dağıtılabildiği, bireyler, kurumlar, bireylerle kurumlar arasındaki mal ve
hizmet alma ilişkisinin on-line yöntemlerle daha etkin ve verimli biçimde gerçekleştiği teknolojik yenilikler
çağı, geleneksel kamu yönetiminin hizmet üretme ve sunma yöntemleri için de yeni bir anlayış ya da model
getirmiştir. Bu, elektronik devlet (E-devlet) modelidir (Kösecik & Karkın, 2003:119-140).
“E-devlet, faks makinesinden kablosuz avuç içi pilot sistemlerine kadar, kamu yönetiminin günlük
işlerini kolaylaştıran bütün bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerinin kullanılmasını içerir. Yaygın biçimde kabul edilen
tanıma göre E-devlet, vatandaşın devletin sunduğu hizmetlere ve devletin sahip olduğu bilgilere ulaşmasını
kolaylaştıran, vatandaşın devletin faaliyetlerine katılmasını ve bu faaliyetlerden memnuniyetini sağlayan
yoğun biçimde İnternet odaklı faaliyetler bütünüdür; devletin, vatandaşla kamu sektörü arasındaki ilişkiyi,
iyileştirilmiş, verimli, mali açıdan etkin hizmet ve bilgi aracılığıyla iyileştirmeye yönelik kesintisiz bir
taahhüdüdür.”
Klasik devlet anlayışında, hükümet tarafından verilen çeşitli hizmetlerde, vatandaşlar çok fazla
bürokrasi işlemiyle karşı karşıya kalmaktadır. Basit prosedürler, çalışanlar için uygulanması karmaşık
yapılar haline gelmekte ve bunun bir sonucu olarak, işlerin yürütülebilmesi için çok fazla sayıda personel ve
memur işe alınmaktadır. Ayrıca, basit işlemler için sayısız formlar ve imzalar gerekebilmekte, bazı
durumlarda işlemler aylarca sürmekte ve zaman kaybına yol açmaktadır (Yıldırır & Karakurt, 2004).
Her yeniliğin başlangıç aşamasında görüldüğü gibi, E-Devlet hizmetlerinin uygulanması sürecinde
önemli sorunlar ortaya çıkmaktadır. Gerekli yasal düzenlemelerin yapılması (elektronik ortamda bilgilerin
güvenliği, elektronik imza, on-line ihaleler, alım satım konularında olduğu gibi), hizmetlerin on-line olarak
yapılması için vatandaşların eşit ve yaygın olarak internete erişimini sağlayacak yeterli teknik altyapının
oluşturulması ve bu yapının işleyişi için gerekli finansmanın sağlanması, yerleşik bürokratik idari sistemin
uyumu, personelin eğitimi ve adaptasyonu E-Devlethizmetlerinin uygulanmasında karşılaşılan başlıca
sorunlardır.
İnternetin 1993 yılından itibaren kullanılmaya başlandığı Türkiye’de, internete bağlantı ve E-Devlet
hizmetleri kullanma düzeyi, son yıllarda bu alandaki ilerlemelere rağmen, diğer ülkelere oranla oldukça
düşüktür. Örneğin, Taylor Nelson Sofres şirketinin 2001 yılında 26 ülkede yaptığı araştırmada Türkiye EDevlet hizmetlerini kullanma sıralamasında %3’lük oranla sonuncu; aynı şirketin 2002 yılında yinelediği
araştırmada ise aynı sıralamada 30 ülke arasında %13’lük oranla yirmi dördüncü olmuştur. Vatandaşların
İnternet bağlantısına sahip olma ve düzenli olarak İnternet kullanma oranları açısından da Türkiye AB
ortalamasının altındadır (T.C. Başbakanlık, 2002).
Merkezi yönetim dışında yerel yönetimlerde de E-Devlet uygulamaları yaygınlaşmaktadır. Ancak,
genellikle uygulamalar mali durumu ve teknik altyapısı yeterli belediyelerle sınırlı kalmaktadır. Bu konuda
belediyeler örneğinde yapılan çalışmalar, belediye web sitelerinin vatandaşlarla etkileşimde bulunmak ya da
kamu bilgi ve hizmetlerini sunmaktan çok İnternet üzerinde bir broşür gibi tanıtım amaçlı, belediye başkanı
ya da partisinin reklam aracı olarak kullanılmakta olduğunu göstermektedir (Yıldız, 1999:144-156.) Bunun
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 yanında, merkezi yönetimin, E-Devlet hizmetlerinin yaygınlaşması için gerekli kaynaklara sahip bir yerel
yönetim sistemini mümkün kılan reformları gerçekleştirememesinin de bunda payı büyüktür(Kösecik &
Karkın, 2003:119-140).
E-Devlet dönüşümü, devletin hizmetlerini sunarken vatandaş/kurum/kuruluşların Türkiye'de
kamusal bilgi altyapısının ve kamu bilgi otoyolunun kurulmasına yönelik olarak alınan kararların başında
Ulaştırma Bakanlığı’na bağlı Bilim ve Teknoloji Yüksek Kurulu'nun aldığı karar gelmektedir. Bu kararın
sonuç raporu “Türkiye Ulusal Enformasyon Alt Yapısı Ana Planı” ismiyle Ekim 1999 yılında hazırlanmıştır.
Raporun en önemli kısmı kamusal alanda yeni kurumsal yapılanmayla ilgili önerilerde bulunmasıdır. Bu
öneriler 4 ana başlık altında toplanmış ve Türkiye için gerekli uygun model önerilerinde bulunulmuştur. Bu 4
ana başlık ise aşağıda sıralanmıştır (Kösecik & Karkın, 2003:119-140):
1-Enformasyon Alt Yapıları ve Bilgi Toplumu Yapılanmaları,
2-Telekomünikasyon Alanında Düzenleyici Yapılar,
3-Kamu Yönetiminde Teknolojilerin Kullanımıyla ilgili Yapılanma,
4-Enformatik Sanayi Politikalarıyla ilgili Yapılanmalar.
E-Devlet hizmetleri, bütün kamu örgütleri için olduğu gibi yerel yönetimler açısından da önemli
açılımlar getirmektedir. Yerel hizmetlerin sunumunda etkinlik, verimlilik, hızlılık, süreklilik, şeffaflık ve erişim
kolaylığı gibi ortaya çıkan sonuçlar, hizmetlerin alıcısı olan vatandaşlar lehine olacaktır. Şüphesiz, elektronik
ortamda sunulması mümkün olan yerel bilgi ve hizmetlerin internet aracılığıyla halka sunulması, önemli
ölçüde bir yerel yönetim birimindeki yöneticilerin ve genel politika belirleyicilerin bu konuya yaklaşımlarına
bağlıdır (Kösecik & Karkın, 2003:119-140).
DEĞERLENDİRME
Sosyo-ekonomik, siyasal, kültürel, teknolojik ve iletişimle ilgili alanlardaki değişimlerin birbirlerini
tetikleyerek ve gittikçe globalleşerek yaygınlaştığı günümüz dünyasında, kamu hizmetlerinin üretimi ve
sunumundan sorumlu kamu yönetimi sistemlerinin bu değişim, dönüşüm ve reorganizasyonlara kayıtsız
kalması düşünülemezdi. Üstelik kamu yönetimlerinin düşük performansla çalıştıkları ve fonksiyonlarını nispi
olarak yüksek maliyetle yerine getirebildikleri artık kanıtlanmış bir gerçek gibidir (Günaydın, 2003:127-148).
Türk Kamu Yönetiminde çağdaş yönetim tekniklerinin benimsenmesini, bu çerçevede kamu
hizmetlerinin kalitesini ve verimliliğini arttırmaya yönelik yaklaşımların hayata geçirilmesini gerektiren ya da
bunların tartışma gündemine gelmesine yol açan nedenler, dünyanın diğer ülkelerindeki kamu yönetimlerini
etkileyen ve değişim sürecine girmelerine yol açan nedenlerden farklı değildir (Saran, 2001:37-52). Bu
bağlamda küreselleşme ile birlikte, ülkeler arasındaki ekonomik ve siyasal sınırları bir çok bakımdan
anlamsız kılan, ulusal pazar ölçeğinin yıkılmasına yol açan, insanların devlet yönetimlerine olan bakışlarını
ve kamu hizmetlerine ilişkin beklentilerini büyük ölçüde değiştiren, bireycilik, rekabetçilik, kârlılık, verimlilik,
esneklik gibi girişim ruhuna ve özgürlükçü düşüncelere dayalı değerlerin yönetim anlayışına egemen
olmasını sağlayan ekonomik, toplumsal, siyasal ve kültürel değişim dinamikleri tüm dünyadaki kamu
yönetimlerini etkilediği gibi Türk Kamu Yönetimini de etkilemiştir.
KAYNAKLAR
1. Ahmet Ulusoy, “Yerel Yönetimler ve Vergilendirme Yetkisi”, Vergi Sorunları Dergisi, Sayı: 145,
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Derneği, Ankara 2002.
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Yönetiminde ve Kamu Hizmetlerinde Kalite (Ed. Coşkun Can Aktan-Ulvi Saran) Ankara-2005.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 7. Hasan Dursun, “Toplam Kalite Yönetimi İlkeleri Çerçevesinde Türk Kamu Yönetimine Genel Bir
Bakış,” Türk İdare Dergisi, Sayı 446.
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Denizli Belediyesi Örneği,” Türk İdare Dergisi, Sayı 443.
16. Osman Günaydın, “Kamu Yönetiminde Yeniden Yapılanma,” Türk İdare Dergisi, Sayı 440.
17. Recep Kızılcık, “Liberal Batı Demokrasileri ve Türk Kamu Yönetimi Sistemindeki Gelişmeler,” Türk
İdare Dergisi, Sayı 434.
18. Recep Sanal, “Kurumsal Yönetim (Corporate Governance) Kavramı ve Türk Kamu Yönetimi
Açısından Önemi,” Türk İdare Dergisi, Sayı 435.
19. T.C. Başbakanlık, “Herkes İçin Bilgi Toplumu-e-Türkiye Girişimi 1. Ara Raporu,” Ankara 2002 .
20. Ulvi Saran, “ Kamu Yönetiminde Yeniden Yapılanma-Kalite Odaklı Bir Yaklaşım,” Atlas Yayıncılık,
Birinci Baskı, Ankara, Ağustos 2004.
21. Ulvi Saran, “Küresel Değişim Dinamiklerinin Kamu Yönetimi Alanındaki Etkileri,” Türk İdare Dergisi,
Sayı 433, 2001.
22. Zygmunt Bauman, Küreselleşme, (çev.) Abdullah Yılmaz, Ayrıntı Yayınları, İstanbul, 1999.
91
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 ЛИНГВОДИДАКТИКА РУССКИХ ЧАСТИЦ В ШКОЛЕ И ВУЗЕ
Алимпиева Л.В.
Международный университет Ататюрк-Алатоо
В школьной и вузовской практике тема «Частицы» является одной из трудных. Это связано с
тем, что частицы как служебные слова характеризуются рядом особенностей: они составляют
функционально неоднородную группу слов, для которой до настоящего времени не найдено общего
частеречного значения; они не имеют очерченных границ, позволяющих однозначно относить те или
иные лексические единицы к частицам.
Современное языкознание традиционно рассматривает частицы на синтаксической основе.
Данный подход к изучению частиц соответствует природе частиц: они характеризуются отсутствием
формоизменения, особенностью семантики, а также распространенностью на всех уровнях
синтаксиса. Частицы в структуре предложения выполняют различные функции: участвуют в
построении предложений и усиливают предикат, вносят дополнительные оттенки в значения других
слов, участвуют как значимые элементы в позиционной структуре предложения, дополнительно
характеризуют высказывание. Общепризнанным фактом является следующее положение:
грамматическим признаком частиц является их
несамостоятельность. При нулевых
морфологических показателях и лексической знаменательности, частицы имеют дифференциальные
синтаксические признаки, которые позволяют выделить их в самостоятельный класс служебных
слов. К синтаксическим признакам следует отнести: формирование семантической структуры
предложения, оформление актуального членения, обозначение его целеустановки.
Частицы в этом плане отличаются от других частей речи, в том числе и от предлогов и
союзов, тем, что если другие части речи выполняют в языке грамматические функции, то основная
функция частиц заключена в выполнении прагматической функции. Частицы в своем большинстве
формируют коммуникативную структуру предложения, то есть имеют постоянный коммуникативный
статус. Если в высказывании используется какой-либо элемент, то он должен обладать
определенным значением на уровне коммуникации.
Частицы субъективно модифицируют семантику, информативную структуру или прагматику
высказывания, вносят различные добавочные смысловые, эмоционально-экспрессивные,
модальные значения в отдельные слова, словосочетания, целые предложения. Они указывают на
характер взаимодействия говорящего и его адресата, выражают позицию говорящего: как он
относится к содержанию сообщаемого; подтверждает или не воспринимает информацию;
соглашается с информацией или нет; считает эту информацию истинной или нет; как соотносит эту
информацию в пространственно-временном континууме; определяет соответствие, уместность и
точность новой информации с ранее полученной.
Напомним, что современными требованиями, предъявляемыми к урокам русского языка в
средней школе с русским языком обучения, являются, во-первых, вооружение учащихся знаниями
основ науки о языке; во-вторых, формирование умений грамотно, четко и доступно выражать свои
мысли в письменной и устной речи; в-третьих, усиление внимания формированию практических
языковых и речевых умений и навыков.
Для учащихся средней школы с русским языком обучения трудной для усвоения является
орфография частиц, поскольку правильность их написания определяется умением учеников
отграничивать частицы от других неизменяемых частей речи, сложностью правописания частиц не и
ни. Изучение орфографии частиц диктует необходимость приведения учащимися под руководством
учителя в определенную систему все правила, связанные с написанием частиц с различными
знаменательными частями речи, которые изучались ими в предыдущих классах. Поэтому от учителя
требуется умение организовать повторение пройденного материала по частицам. Так, необходимо
уделить внимание следующим темам: Раздельное и дефисное написание частиц; Приставка не- и
частица не с различными частями речи; Различение частицы ни, союза ни – ни, приставки ни.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 В процессе работы по развитию речи при изучении частиц основное внимание должно быть
уделено ознакомлению учащихся с возможностью использования частиц в различных стилях речи,
привитию учащимся навыков их употребления с целью придания их русской речи выразительности и
эмоционально-экспрессивной окраски, выработке навыков образования форм глагольных
наклонений. Учащиеся школ также допускают ошибки при освоении частицы как служебной части
речи. «Наивный семантизм», присущий учащимся на всех ступенях изучения морфологии в средней
школе с русским языком обучения, не позволяет многим из них отличить, например, наречие от
частицы. Чтобы научить учащегося отличать омонимичные слова, необходимо научить его
абстрагироваться от функций омонимов,
различать части речи по совокупности признаков,
вооружить способами сознательного и содержательного анализа грамматических значений
знаменательного и служебного слов. Для такой целенаправленной работы необходимо продумать
стратегию обучения частицам в школе. Например, для изучения частицы как служебной части речи в
7 классе средней школы отведено 18 часов. Из них, по крайней мере, 2 часа необходимо уделить
обучению учащихся различать омонимичные частицам союзы и наречия. Например, можно
предложить учащимся сравнить предложения Мал золотник, да дорог и Да здравствует мир на
Земле! Учащиеся должны ответить на следующие вопросы: 1) Что связывает слово да в первом
предложении?; 2) К какой служебной части речи относится слово да в этом предложении?; 3) Можно
ли сравнить первое предложение со вторым?; 4) Какое слово из первого предложения вновь
встречается во втором предложении?; 5) Чем отличается слово да, которое использовано во втором
предложении, от слова да - в первом? Эти вопросы должны подвести учащихся к выводу, что в
первом предложении использован союз да, который связывает сочинительной связью однородные
члены; во втором предложении слово да является частицей, так как не выполняет функцию связи
членов предложения, а придает предложению торжественность, возвышенность. Сравнительный
анализ, например, предложений Учитель объясняет новый урок просто и доходчиво и Я просто
ослеп от солнечного света! должен подвести учащихся к выводу, что в первом предложении слово
просто относится к наречию, поскольку выступает в функции второстепенного члена предложения, а
именно, является обстоятельством образа действия, зависит от сказуемого и отвечает на вопрос
как? Во втором предложении слово просто не является членом предложения, к нему нельзя
поставить вопрос, оно усиливает значение сказуемого. Следовательно, во втором предложении
слово просто является частицей.
Несколько часов необходимо уделить ознакомлению учащихся группам частиц; в частности –
формообразующим, модальным и усилительным. Теме, посвященной модальным частицам,
целесообразно отвести 2 часа.
Модальность, как известно, включается в число наиболее существенных характеристик
предложения как языковой единицы и является основанием для формально-грамматической
классификации предложений по модальному признаку. Различие предложений по субъективной
модальности – степени достоверности содержания предложения с точки зрения отправителя
информации – есть их различие и по форме и по содержанию. Предложения различных видов,
разделяясь по субъективной модальности, образуют формальный парадигматический ряд. В
познавательном процессе, направленном на отражение того или иного явления действительности,
отправитель информации оценивает степень достоверности формирующейся у него мысли о
действительности с целью, чтобы получатель передаваемой информации имел соответствующую
языковую компетенцию (знания) и все условия для правильного
понимания и усвоения
передаваемой информации. В русском языке для выражения степени достоверности мысли
используются, наряду с интонацией и различными формами глаголов, частицы с модальными
значениями. Таким образом, целью первого часа является, во-первых, ознакомление учащихся с
вопросительным, указательным, уточняющим и выделительным оттенками значений модальных
частиц; во-вторых, формирование умения распознавать оттенки значений модальных частиц.
На втором часе продолжается ознакомление учащихся с модальными частицами,
выражающими восклицание, сомнение и усиление. После выполнения ряда упражнений, которые
направлены на формирование умения у учащихся выделять модальные частицы в различных
текстах, необходимо под руководством учителя заполнить две таблицы модальных частиц, которые
позволят учащимся наглядно представить все оттенки значений модальных частиц.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Таблица 1. Смысловые оттенки модальных частиц
вопрос
ли
разве
неужели
неужто
выделение
почти
только
указание
вот (а вот)
вон (а вон)
уточнение
именно
как раз
Таблица 2. Модальные частицы, выражающие чувства
восклицание
сомнение
как
что за
вряд ли
едва ли
смягчение
требования
- ка
усиление
ведь
все-таки
даже
же
и
ни
уж
Завершается изучение частиц повторением изученного и контрольным диктантом.
Программой 7 класса предусмотрена также работа по развитию связной речи по теме
«Частицы», которая направлена на развитие творческих способностей учащихся и формирование
практических языковых и речевых умений и навыков. Для этих целей программой дополнительно
отводятся еще 4 часа. Учащиеся в течение этих занятий должны вести работу над написанием
рассказов по вымышленному или предложенному учителем или одноклассниками сюжету, используя
русские частицы.
Программа по «Современному русскому языку» филологического факультета вуза
предполагает изучение студентами следующих тем по русским частицам: «Частица как средство
выражения смыслов. Частица и семантическая сфера модуса. Частицы и референция имени и
высказывания. Проблема разграничения частиц и других частей речи. Функциональносемантические разряды частиц» [Русский язык: теория, история, методика. Программы по языковым
дисциплинам 2007: 36]. Рассмотрим некоторые темы в методическом аспекте.
Тема «Частица как средство выражения смыслов» является главной и от того, как студенты
усвоят ее, будет зависеть понимание ими всей системы служебных слов русского языка. Студентам
важно осознать, что частицы, являясь элементами семантической сферы предложения,
подключаются к отдельному слову, словосочетанию, или к смыслу целого предложения и придают
каждой из этих единиц различные смысловые или модальные оттенки. Не имея самостоятельного
значения, частицы аккумулируют и актуализируют в высказывании множество имплицитных
смыслов, транслируют дополнительную информацию,
формирующую модальную рамку
высказывания. К этой теме примыкает тема «Частица и семантическая сфера модуса». Студентам
необходимо напомнить, что категория модуса входит в функционально-семантическое поле
модальностей, которое представляет собой двустороннее единство, объединяющее все средства
данного языка, способные передать то или иное общее значение, и все смыслы, которые можно
этими средствами выразить» [Всеволодова 2000: 17], но отличается от собственно категории
модальности тем, что модус выражает субъективные, идущие от говорящего, смыслы. Студентам
предлагается рассмотреть фрагмент диалога: – Как быстро наступили холода! – И не говорите! В
результате анализа студентов необходимо подвести к выводу, что частица и вместе с сильным
интонационным выделением в ответной реплике образует модус согласия, то есть смысл – «я с
вами согласен». Таким образом, модусный смысл сопровождает диктум высказывания. Студентам
необходимо выработать навык фиксации и дешифровки передаваемых частицами смыслов. В этом
плане большую помощь может оказать работа над логико-модальными частицами, которые
94
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 представляют собой универсальное средство выражения модусных компонентов предложения.
Студентам предлагается рассмотреть два предложения: Хоть дочь учится и Дочь хоть учится.
Вместе с преподавателем они должны выделить у частицы хоть такое модусное значение, как
положительная оценка, которое, наряду с описанием действительности
событий, передает
отношение, мнение говорящего об этом факте действительности. В первом предложении частица
хоть имеет
следующие смыслы: а) никто не учится, кроме нее; б) учится только она; в) хорошо,
что она учится. А во втором – следующие: а) дочь ничем другим не занимается; б) она только
учится; в) дочь, по крайней мере, учится, и это уже хорошо; г) дочь, по крайней мере, учится, а
другие дети и этого не делают.
Тема «Проблема разграничения частиц и других частей речи» предполагает усвоение
студентами следующих теоретических сведений: служебные слова в плане употребительности стоят
во главе частотного списка; предлоги, союзы, частицы создают лексико-грамматическую структуру
текста и обеспечивают понимание текста любой длины. Особенность служебных слов также
заключается в их морфологической неизменяемости, в слитности их категориальных грамматических
и лексических значений, в их немногочисленности. Они лишены лексической определенности и
обозначают самые общие отношения и способы членения мысли. К служебным словам относят
предлоги – лексически несамостоятельные слова, которые служат для выражения различных
семантико-синтаксических отношений между словами, союзы – лексические единицы, которые
служат для выражения различных семантико-синтаксических отношений между словоформами в
предложении, предложениями и частями предложений, а также частицы, которые служат для
выражений разных оттенков субъективной модальности. Е.А. Стародумова называет служебные
слова морфемами особого рода – частями других единиц, в формировании которых участвуют
служебные слова того или иного класса. Исходя из этого, она определяет предлог как морфему
словоформы (исключая послелоги и «союзные» предлоги), союз – как морфему синтаксической
конструкции, а частицу – как морфему коммуникативной единицы [Стародумова 1988: 8].
Служебные слова объединяются в части речи на основе функционально-грамматической
общности. Как лексические и грамматические единицы служебные слова противопоставлены
знаменательным словам, поскольку лишены номинативных значений, присущих знаменательным
словам: не называют предметов, признаков, свойств, действий.
Их лексическое значение
абстрагировано от отношений, которые они выражают в предложении. Служебные слова
объединяются в части речи на основе функционально-грамматической общности. В этом плане они
приближаются к словоизменительным морфемам
и находятся на грани словаря и грамматики
[Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь 1990: 472 – 473]. Студентам филологических
факультетов вузов важно уяснить методику противопоставления служебных частей речи
знаменательным. На практических занятиях по современному русскому языку студентам необходимо
разъяснить, что служебные части речи противопоставляются знаменательным на основании
функционального принципа, который относит к служебным словам те слова, которые не могут быть
употреблены самостоятельно в качестве слова-предложения и не могут быть членом предложения.
Здесь уместно предложить студентам произвести синтаксический разбор нескольких предложений,
в структуре которых присутствуют служебные слова, и наглядно показать, как функционируют
знаменательные и служебные слова. Служебные части речи, в свою очередь, делятся на две группы
по наличию/отсутствию функции выразителя связи между словоформами, членами предложения или
частями сложного предложения. Так, предлоги выполняют функцию выразителя связи между
словоформами (например, Птицы чуть слышно пели в саду), а союзы – между членами простого
(например, Набежала туча и уронила на землю первые капли весеннего дождя) и частями сложного
предложения (например, Когда в товарищах согласья нет, на лад их дело не пойдет). Частицы, в
отличие от предлогов и союзов, связующей функции не выполняют, не выражают грамматических
значений, не участвуют как формальные средства в построении словосочетаний и предложений
(например, Даже он пришел).
Таким образом, методика преподавания частицы как служебной части речи требует
серьезной подготовительной работы к каждому занятию как для учителя средней школы, так и для
преподавателя вуза, она должна стать залогом успеха в реализации основной цели курса русского
95
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 языка в школе и вузе – вооружения учащихся знаниями основ науки о языке на базе синтетической
направленности и практического аспекта анализа языковых явлений.
ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1. Апресян Ю.Д. Избранные труды. Т. 1. Лексическая семантика
2. (синонимические средства языка): 2 изд., испр. и доп. – Москва: Школа «Языки русской
культуры», Издательская фирма «Восточная литература» РАН, 1995. – VIII с., 472 с.
3. Богданова Г.А. Уроки русского языка в 7 классе: Книга для учителя. – 2-е изд., испр. и доп. –
Москва: Просвещение, 1991. – 207 с.
4. Всеволодова М.В. Теория функционально-коммуникативного синтаксиса. – Москва: Изд-во
МГУ, 2000. – 502 с.
5. Дудников А.В. Современный русский язык: Учебник. – Москва: Высшая школа, 1990. – 424 с.
6. Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь / Гл. ред. В.Н. Ярцева. – Москва: Сов.
энциклопедия, 1990. – С. 472 – 473.
7. Новиков Л.А. Семантика русского языка // Избранные труды. Т. 1. Проблемы языкового
значения.– М.: Изд-во Рос. ун-та дружбы народов, 2001. – С. 7.
8. Русская грамматика: В 2 т. – Москва: Наука, 1980. – Т. 1. – 784 с.
9. Русский язык: теория, история, методика. Программы по языковым дисциплинам. – Бишкек,
БГУ им. К. Карасаева., 2007. – С. 36.
10. Русский язык в начальных классах: Теория и практика обучения/ М.С. Соловейчик, П.С.
Жедек, Н.Н. Светловская и др.; Под ред. М.С. Соловейчик. – Москва, Просвещение, 1993. –
383 с.
11. Стародумова Е.А. Акцентирующие частицы в русском языке. – Владивосток: Изд-во
Дальневост. ун-та, 1988. – 96 с.
12. Современный русский язык: Теория. Анализ языковых единиц: Учебник. В 2 частях. – Ч. 2.
Морфология: Синтаксис/ В.В. Бабайцева, Н.А. Николина, Л.Д. Чеснокова и др./ Под ред. Е.И.
Дибровой. – Москва: Издательский центр «Академия», 2001. – 704 с.
13. Современный русский язык: Учебник для студ. вузов, обучающихся по спец. «Филология»/
П.А. Лекант, Е.И. Диброва, Л.Л. Касаткин и др. / /Под ред. П.А. Леканта. – 4-е изд.,
стереотип. – Москва: Дрофа, 2007. – 557 с.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 APPLIED SCIENCES 97
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 ELECTRONIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (EIS) for INTERNATIONAL ATATURK ALATOO UNIVERSITY
Mustafa Simsek,
Computer Engineering Department,
International Ataturk Alatoo University, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan.
[email protected]
1.
INTRODUCTION
Usage of EIS is constantly increasing in many situations such as airports, universities, schools. The
fact that EIS enables rapid information exchange, immediate change of administrative, and unique
information; makes it very helpful for people for rapidly information transfers, especially for students and
lectures for administrative information. Components such as PC and a plasma display are at reasonable
prices and excellent free software is available. A standard software can be created according to application
i.e. for university problems, multi languages, etc.(TR,ENG,RU,KYR).
ELS has to include all necessary information and it must be updated immediately by a secret
person such as the secretary.
2.
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
For an effective problem description, the situation should be as follows:
- Using all information by papers and building windows.
- Each information must be displayed using a plasma display (monitor) and a PC
so that the changes can be done immediately.
- All information must be displayed in four languages (TR,ENG,RU,KYR)
- Usage of the last technology.
- The daily changes and important news are to be informed.
3.
REALIZATION
The proposed EIS (planned) at the International Ataturk Alatoo University has the following
characteristics:
The EIS uses a web server to store and deliver the information and host the application for
changing the information. The data can be entered using an ordinary PC via on internet browser (ex.
Internet Explorer or Firefox). A plasma display is connected to PC to present the information. A public or
private network can be also used for a connection to all existing PCs. An effective solution will be integrated
all these parts into a single PC which is the solution at International Ataturk Alatoo University. The web
server can use any type of already existing web servers. It is based on open source software like Apache,
PHP and MySql and run on a GNU/ Linux operating system.
The information page however, must have an index file structure according to the university needs.
The HTML documents can be displayed in some browser window using frames. The window is divided into
columns and rows with specified size and numbers. There are two HTML pages, one of them is static and
second one is dynamic, depending on the information types.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Ex.figure 1
The PHP script makes the input form available so the daily changes can be entered. All changes
are entered into a MYSQL database. Three tables have been implemented.
room changes
welcome visitors
upcoming events
The university logo and analog clock are placed in the information page. Every computer with a web
browser e.g. Firefox, Internet Explorer can be used as a terminal.
Example 3
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 4.
CONCLUSION
The International Ataturk Alatoo University in Bishkek uses the presented EIS as an
economical and flexible solution. This EIS uses a web interface to enter the information (changes). It
has a simple operation and the information is updated via internet. The new information displays
placed in appropriate public places.
5.
REFERENCES
[1]
Peter Schmid , Dr. Gökhan Apaydın, Electronic Information System For
Educational Institutions, IKECCO’2007
[2] Mehdi Achour, et al. PHP Manual.http://ch2.php.net/manual/en/index.php,
1997-2007 the PHP Documentation Group
[3] Apache Software Foundation. Apache.http://www.apache.org/
[4]
The PHP Group. PHP. http://php.net/
[5]
MySQL AB.MySQL. http://www.mysql.com/
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Q-BASIC: A PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS
Mirzagül ZAKIROVA
International Atatürk ALATOO University
Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
Niyazi ARI, Prof. Dr.
University of Technology
Zurich, Switzerland
ABSTRACT
This paper shows how the programming language QBASIC can be used in High Schools. This
lecture takes one year lectures with exercises in class room.
1.
INTRODUCTION
In the early days of programming, it was usually the scientific elite doing the programming and they
were usually trained to do the programming work. The programming language BASIC became quickly
popular, although it was disliked by programmers of more "low-level" languages such as assembly and
FORTRAN. In 1985 Microsoft released its own version of BASIC called QBasic with their MS-DOS 5.0
operating system (Akgöbek, 1995 / Koffman, 2000). Since then, nearly every PC user owner had his/her
own copy of QBasic, making it a widely known language.
QBasic is a very simple language to pick up, and yet it can accomplish a great deal. One of the
advantages is to introduce people to programming without having to worry about the internal workings of the
computer. It's simple to compute equations, to create games, business applications, simple databases, and
graphics. The best aspect of the language is its close resemblance to English language.
This paper introduces the simple concepts of programming on high schools (http://www.tedfelix.com).
2.
VARIABLES
A variable is a name which can contain a value. Programming involves giving values to these
names and presenting them in some form to the user. A variable has a type which is defined by the kind of
value it holds. If the variable holds a number, it may be of integer, floating decimal, long integer, or
imaginary. If the variable holds symbols or text, it may be a character variable or a string variable.
Here are some examples of values a variable might contain:
STRING
INTEGER
LONG
SINGLE
DOUBLE
"Kyrgyzstan Bishkek"
10
123456
12.345
12345.6789
The first is a string. Strings contain text. The last four are number types. But the computer does not
know what kind of value you are trying to give a variable unless you tell it! There are two methods of telling
the computer what kind of variable you are using:
1. Explicitly declare the variable AS a type. This is done by using the DIM statement. Say you
wanted to make a variable called number which would contain an integer (whole number, no digits after the
decimal point). You would do it like this:
DIM number AS INTEGER
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Then you would use that variable as an integer. The word DIM actually originates from the word
Dimension, but you won't see why until we discuss the topic of arrays.
2. Put a symbol after the variable name which is defined as representing that type. QBasic has a set
of symbols which represent each variable type:
$:
%:
&:
!:
#:
String
Integer
Long
Single
Double
Appending one of these symbols to the name of a variable when we use it in the program tells.
3.
INTERACTING WITH THE COMPUTER
We type qbasic at the DOS prompt and enter the following program.
CLS
PRINT " Kyrgyzstan : This text will appear on the screen"
END
The first statement -- CLS -- stands for "clear screen." It erases whatever was on the display before
it was executed. PRINT simply displays its argument on the screen at the current text cursor location. The
argument in this case is the text enclosed in quotes. PRINT displays text within quotes directly, or it can
display the value of a variable, like this:
CLS
x% = 10
y% = 100
PRINT "The value of x is "; x%; " and the value of y is "; y%
END
Figure 3.1. CLS and PRINT commands
This will yield the output; The value of x is 10 and the value of y is 100. The semicolons indicate that
the next time something is printed; it will be right after where the last PRINT statement left off.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 CLS
INPUT "What is your name? ", yourName$
INPUT "How old are you? ", age%
PRINT "So, "; yourName$; ", you are "; age%; " years old.
END
That's interesting."
Figure 3.2. INPUT command
First INPUT asks the name of user and assigns it to the string variable yourName$. Then the age is
requested, and the result is printed in a sentence.
Another advantage of programming is the conditional test. Basically, the program tests if a condition
is true, and if it is, it does something. Qbasic’s all commands and statements are English-like, that’s why it is
not hard as it seems
CLS
PRINT "1. Say hello"
' option 1
PRINT "2. Say nice tie"
' option 2
INPUT "Enter your selection ", selection%
IF selection% = 1 THEN PRINT "Merhaba"
IF selection% = 2 THEN PRINT "Salam"
END
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Figure 3.3. IF command
As a result of the program we have shown here Fig 3.3 .In this program we have two options and
according to these options we can set the value for the variable selection%. If the user pressed 1, it prints
Merhaba, but if they pressed 2, it prints Salam. Also notice the text after the ' in the code. These are remark
statements. Anything printed after a ' on a line does not affect the outcome of the program, they are
reminders.
Syntax: IF condition THEN task1 ELSE task2
IF the condition is true, THEN do the first task, but if the condition is false then do second task.
CLS
INPUT "Press 1 if you want to see the results of Math exam. ", mathresult%
IF number% = 1 THEN PRINT " 89 " ELSE PRINT "You haven’t pressed 1 yet! "
END
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 Figure 3.4.1 IF/THEN/ELSE command
Figure 3.4.2 IF/THEN/ELSE command
The results for the program are shown by figure 3.4.1 and figure 3.4.2.
Consider the following problem: in order to find the areas of the circles with some given radii and we
can use the following program:
CLS
pi! =
INPUT
area!
PRINT
END
3.1415
"What is the radius of the circle? ", radius!
= pi! * radius! ^ 2
"The area of the circle is ", area!
Figure 3.5 Area of circle
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 First, we're defining the variable pi. It's a single number, which means that it can be a fairly large
number with some decimal places. The exclamation mark tells QBasic that pi is of the single type. Next, the
user is prompted for the radius of their circle. Then the area is calculated. The * means "times," and the ^
(carrot) means "to the power of." radius! ^ 2 means "radius squared." This could also be written as pi! *
radius! * radius!
If we want to compute the areas of circles with more numbers of radius. For every radius, we must
run the program over again. This is not practical. If we had some kind of a loop until we wanted to quit that
just kept on repeating over and over it would be much more useful. QBasic has the Loop structures. They
start with the statement DO, and end with the statement LOOP. You can LOOP UNTIL or WHILE, or DO
UNTIL or WHILE a condition is true. Another option (which we will use) is to break out of the loop manually
as soon as a condition is true. Let’s revise the previous code:
CLS
pi! = 3.1415
DO
' Begin the loop here
INPUT "What is the radius of the circle? (-1 to end) ", radius!
IF radius! = -1 THEN EXIT DO
area! = pi! * radius! ^ 2
PRINT "The area of the circle is ", area!
PRINT
LOOP
' End the loop here
END
Figure 3.6 Area of circle with DO/LOOP
Now we can end the program by entering -1 as the radius. The program checks the radius after the
user inputs it and checks if it is -1. If it is, it exits the loop. If it isn't it just keeps going its merry way. The
PRINT with no arguments prints a blanks line so we can separate our answers.
4.
MORE ADVANCED DATA MANIPULATION
There are numerous methods to manipulate data and present it to the user in QBasic. One is called
an array. An array is a variable which can contain more than one value. For example, we might have an
array called a, and we could assign data to the members of that array. There might be a value for a(1), and
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 a different value for a(6). Before an array can be used, it must be declared. Arrays are declared with the
DIM statement. Here is an example of an array declaration:
DIM a(1 TO 10) AS INTEGER
There are now 10 different values that can be assigned to the array a, and they must all be integers.
It could also look like this:
DIM a%(1 TO 10)
Using the symbol ‘%’ for integer. We call the different values for the array members of the array.
Array a has 10 members. Array members can be assigned values by using a subscript number within
parentheses after the array name, like this:
a%(1) = 10
a%(2) = 20
…………
Arrays with multiple dimensions have y members in the second dimension for every x member of
the first dimension in the following algorithm:
DIM array (1 TO x, 1 TO y) AS INTEGER
So if the actual declaration looked like this:
DIM a$(1 TO 3, 1 TO 3)
You would have the following members to assign values to:
a$(1,1)
a$(2,1)
…………
5.
a$(1,2)
a$(2,2)
a$(1,3)
a$(2,3)
GRAPHICS
Graphics programming in QBasic can get fairly complex. Let’s start from the beginning. The screen
is made up of hundreds of pixels. The number of pixels horizontally and the vertically determines the
resolution of monitor. In DOS we can be in one of any number of graphics modes, which define the current
graphics resolution (pixels), text resolution (characters), number of colours, and number of video pages.
There are 13 screen graphics modes in QBasic, and each has its different purpose. There are a number of
graphics routines used in QBasic which allow a variety of graphical effects:
SCREEN 12
LINE (0,0)-(640,480), 1
CIRCLE (320, 240), 20, 2
PSET (10,10), 14
DRAW "c15 bm100,400 e5 f5 l5"
END
The first line initializes the graphics mode to 12, which is 16 colours, 1 page of video memory, and
640x480 resolutions.
LINE draws a line from one coordinate to another. The first optional argument after the coordinates
(which are not optional) is the colour. After that, a B ("box") or BF ("box fill") can be used to draw a box or a
box filled with the colour specified. The first coordinate can be omitted and the - left in to draw a line from
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 the current graphics position (CP) to the relative coordinates specified. LINE - (100, 0) will draw a line from
the current graphics position to 100 pixels to the right.
CIRCLE draws a circle with the centre at the coordinates specified. The first argument (required)
after the coordinates is the radius of the circle. Then comes the colour. After that, if you want to draw an arc,
is the starting angle of the arc in radians, then the ending angle of the arc. To make an arc, first touch up on
your geometry, then recall that to convert from degrees to radians is PI (3.14159265) divided by 180. The
last argument is used if you want to make an ellipse, and is the ratio of the y axis to the x axis. So CIRCLE
(320,240), 20, 2, 3.1415, 0, .5 would draw an elliptical green arc with the centre at the middle of the screen,
starting at 180 degrees (PI) and going t o 0 degrees, with a compression ratio of 1 to 2 (x axis twice as big
as the y). This looks like a wide smiley face mouth.
PSET fills a pixel at the screen coordinate you specify with the colour we specify. In this case,
yellow.
Finally, the DRAW statement. The DRAW statement has its own commands. When we get in to
scaling and rotation we will need to know our draw commands pretty well. The draw command in the above
code example can be read as "colour 15 (white), move without drawing to screen coordinate 100,400, draw
left 5 units, draw up and right 5 units, draw down and right 5 units, and draw left 5 units." In other words, a
triangle. A unit is set by the current scale mode, which by default is 4. Since default scale mode is 4, one
unit represents 4 pixels. So our triangle is 40 pixels wide at the base.
There are 16 defined colours in QBasic, graphics mode 12. The COLOR statement sets the current
colour for text output. I highly recommend memorizing the colours as well. Run this program:
SCREEN 12
FOR i% = 0 TO 15
COLOR i%
PRINT "COLOR"; i%
NEXT i%
This will print out the 16 colours used in QBasic. 0 is black, so that obviously won't show up. A quick
reference for colours while you're in the QBasic IDE (integrated development environment) is to look under
the OPTIONS | DISPLAY menu. The colours listed there are in the QBasic order, starting with black and
ending with bright white.
Now you know the basic graphics routines and their uses... let’s make a couple programs that
demonstrate them to a greater extent. First, a program which prompts the user for a radius, calculates the
area and circumference, and draws the circle in a random colour on the screen.
SCREEN 12
RANDOMIZE TIMER
CONST pi! = 3.1415
DO
COLOR 15: INPUT "Radius (-1 to quit) --> ", radius!
IF radius! = -1 THEN EXIT DO
area! = pi! * radius! ^ 2
circum! = pi! * 2 * radius!
COLOR 14
PRINT "Area =
"; area!
PRINT "Circumference = "; circum!
CIRCLE (320,240), radius!, INT(RND * 15 + 1)
DO: LOOP WHILE INKEY$ = ""
CLS
LOOP
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 COLOR 9: PRINT "Exit!"
END
We first set the screen graphics mode and generate a random seed number based on the system
timer. Then we prompt for the radius in a vivid bright white, and test to see if we should end the program.
We then calculate the area and circumference, and print the results in yellow. Then we draw the circle from
the middle of the screen at the radius given in a random colour. This random colour is set by first generating
a random number from 0 to 14, adding 1 to it, and converting it to an integer with the INT function. The next
line seems weird. The INKEY$ statement reads the keyboard and returns the string representation of the
key pressed. We are looping while INKE Y$ is nothing, or in other words, while the user isn't pressing
anything. The loop goes on forever until the user presses any key, and at this time a value will be given to
INKEY$ which you might decide to use. The screen is then cleared for the next entry. If the user breaks the
loop by entering -1 for the radius, we print Exit! in bright blue letters.
There are a lot more colours than just 16. In fact, you can change the values of each of the 16
colours to represent some other colour that you specify. You do this with the PALETTE statement. The
following applies to screen modes 12 and 13. This statement has two arguments: the colour you want to
change and the colour you specify. Specifying a colour is the hard part. Here is my version of the syntax of
the palette statement
PALETTE colour, blueValue * 256 ^ 2 + greenValue * 256 + redValue
Colour is the colour you are changing. The _Values are numbers from 0 to 63 which specify the
intensity of that colour. You must use the multipliers after the values and use the addition operator to
separate them. So let’s make a program that fades the screen in and out, from black to purple. (Blue and
red make purple).
SCREEN 12
DO
FOR i% = 1 TO 63
PALETTE 0, i% * 256 ^ 2 + i%
NEXT i%
FOR i% = 63 TO 1 STEP -1
PALETTE 0, i% * 256 ^ 2 + i%
NEXT i%
LOOP WHILE INKEY$ = ""
END
We start by changing the value of black (0), which is the background colour to purple, from one
degree of blue + red, to the next. Then we bring it back down to black by decreasing the blue + red value.
We do this over and over until the user presses a key or begins to have seizures.
Scaling and rotation can be accomplished quite easily with the DRAW statement, although it
involves some weird looking code. First, let’s define a shape that we can scale and rotate.
box$ = "bu5 l5 d10 r10 u10 l5 bd5"
Interpretation: "move up 5 spaces without drawing, draw 5 spaces left, draw 10 spaces down, and
draw 10 spaces right, draw 10 spaces up, draw 5 spaces left, and move 5 spaces down without drawing."
This forms a box. Notice that I started at the centre and not at a corner or side which would seem to be
easier. Well, when you rotate something, it draws based on the starting point of the object, and we want it to
rotate so if we put a pen at each corner of the box, it would draw a perfect circle. Therefore we set the
centre of the box as the starting point of the object. I call this the "object handle," not to be confused with the
handle used in the Windows API. The draw command stands for "turn angle," and obviously turns the object
in the degrees you specify. So if we turned the box from 0 to 360 degrees, drawing the box at each step and
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 erasing the previous image, we would get a rotating box. But we need one more function: VARPTR$.
VARPTR$ stands for "variable pointer," a term you can completely ignore unless you get into C or
Assembly programming. We need to somehow get the box$ shape into the draw string command we use
implement in the loop, so we have to take the address of the object string and plug it into the draw string.
This can be accomplished by using the X command, which tells VARPTR$ where to plug in the string's
address so it can be used. With box$ defined above, here's the code for a rotating box:
DO
angle% = angle% + 1
IF angle% >= 360 THEN angle% = 1
DRAW "c0 bm320,240 ta" + STR$(angle% - 1) + "X" + VARPTR$(box$)
DRAW "c1 bm320,240 ta" + STR$(angle%) + "X" + VARPTR$(box$)
END
Not that hard is it? We draw the box at the previous angle in black, and then draw the box at the
current angle in blue.
Scaling is done pretty much the same way, but instead of changing the angle and erasing the
previous image, we change the scale factor and erase the previous image. Recall that the default scale
factor for the DRAW statement is 4 pixels per unit. Well, if we increase this factor then we will have more
pixels per unit, thus giving the image the effect of enlargement. So if we set up a FOR...NEXT loop which
will increase the scale factor from 2 to, say, 2 00, we will get the effect of scaling. But let’s start with a
smaller image which is maybe 8 pixels wide from the start instead of 40 so we get a more dramatic effect.
SCREEN 12
box$ = "bu4 l4 d8 r8 u8 l4 bd4"
FOR s% = 2 TO 200
DRAW "c0 bm320,240 s" + STR$(s% - 1) + "X" + VARPTR$(box$)
DRAW "c2 bm320,240 s" + STR$(s%) + "X" + VARPTR$(box$)
NEXT s%
END
Notice what we're doing here. We are starting the scale factor at one half of default (2) because the
FOR...NEXT loop starts with s% at 2. The s draw command sets the scale factor. Notice also that we must
continuously anchor the object handle at a point to keep it scaling about the handle. We do this by moving
the object handle to 320,240 (centre of screen) each time through the loop. Whenever we want to put a
number into the draw string, we must concatenate the string format (STR$) of the number within the string.
Instead of concatenating the box$ with the rest of the string, it is faster to only pass the address of the
substring with the VARPTR$ function. So what if we want to scale and rotate something at the same time?
Simple, just set up a FOR...NEXT loop which increases the scale factor as before, and within the loop
increase the angle. But instead of subtracting a factor for the angle to erase the previous angle, let’s do it
this way: erase the previous image with the current angle, increase the angle, and then draw the current
image with the new current angle. This way if we want to change the factor at which the angle increases, we
will only have to change one number instead of two.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 SCREEN 12
box$ = "bu4 l4 d8 r8 u8 l4 bd4"
FOR s% = 2 TO 250
DRAW "c0 bm320,240 ta" + STR$(a%) + "s" + STR$(s% - 1) + "X" + VARPTR$(box$)
a% = a% + 1
IF a% >= 360 THEN a% = 1
DRAW "c1 bm320,240 ta" + STR$(a%) + "s" + STR$(s%) + "X" + VARPTR$(box$)
NEXT s%
END
The screen coordinates for different screen modes can be fairly difficult to work with, and they do
tend to be weird numbers. To make our code simpler to write, we can define a logical plane over the
physical plane. An example of a physical plane is the 640x480 resolution established by the SCREEN 12
screen mode. We can define a logical, or alternate user-defined plane with the WINDOW statement.
SCREEN 12
WINDOW (0,0)-(100,100)
CIRCLE (50,50),10,4
LINE (0,0)-(50,50),2
END
This trivial example defines a logical plane which is 100x100. 50,50 is now the center of the screen,
so this draws a red circle from the center with a radius of 10. The line statement draws a green line from the
lower left corner to the center of the screen. Notice that defining a logical plane sets the origin (0,0) to the
bottom left of the screen, instead of the default upper left. If you want the origin to be in the upper left with a
logical plane, add the SCRE EN keyword after WINDOW. So to define the graphics mode 12 screen
resolution, the code is:
SCREEN 12
WINDOW SCREEN (0, 0)-(640,480)
Finally, a little information on creating DRAW effects with the other QBasic graphics routines. Hope
we know some trigonometry for this part. Recall that in the unit circle, which has a radius of 1, that the
coordinates of a point on the circle given an angle is defined as (COS(angle), SIN(angle) ). Furthermore,
if we are given a point on the circle, we can find the angle by drawing a vertical line perpendicular to the x
axis from the point. If we take the arctangent of the vertical length of this line divided by the horizontal
distance of this line from the origin, we will get the angle. So the angle is defined as ATN(Y/X). With this
knowledge, it would be possible to create a spinning line using only the line command. If we create a loop
which increments the angle from 0 to 360 then we can take to COS, SIN of the angle to get the point we
should draw to. But there's only one more problem. The QBasic functions COS and SIN think in radians, so
we must first convert the angle to radians by multiplying PI / 180. That is quite easily done. Here is the code:
SCREEN 12
CONST PI = 3.1415
WINDOW SCREEN (-1,1)-(1,-1)
DO
LINE (0,0)-(COS(a% * PI / 180),SIN(a% * PI / 180)), 0
a% = a% + 1
IF a% >= 360 THEN a% = 1
LINE (0,0)-(COS(a% * PI / 180),SIN(a% * PI / 180)), 14
END
111
Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 We start by initializing the graphics mode, then defining PI as a constant - a variable which will
never change in the program execution. Then define the logical plane, and start the loop. The line starts
from the centre of the screen and goes to the coordinate specified by the COS, SIN of the angle. We loop
until the user presses a key.
There is one more type of graphics that QBasic has a strong point for: text. Graphical effects can be
made quite easily using only text in QBasic. There are a few functions that are quite useful when dealing
with text. T he first is the CHR$ function. If you pass a number to the CHR$ function, it will return the ASCII
(American standard code for information interchange) text value of that number. To find a listing of the
ASCII character codes, look in the help contents, and there is a listing there. For example, to print a smiley
face on the screen, the code is this:
CLS
PRINT CHR$(1)
END
Since the ASCII character code for a smiley face is 1, you can use the CHR$ function to get this.
Another useful function is ASC, which returns the ASCII value of a text value you pass to it. So ASC("A")
will return 65 because the ASCII value of A is 65. Every printable character (and then some) has an ASCII
value, so these two functions make it quite easy.
Finally, the LOCATE statement is extremely useful for any text based program. LOCATE sets the
text CP to the coordinates you specify. The first argument is the column, and the second is the row. So
CLS
LOCATE 5,10
PRINT CHR$(219)
END
Figure 5.1 CHR$ command
Will print a solid white block at column 5, row 10. And that's it for graphics! You now know nearly
every graphics routine in QBasic, and have the knowledge to make a game or highly graphical program.
Graphics depend on how you arrange them, so it requires an artistic skill to some degree.
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Alatoo Academic Studies……………………………………… ……………………..………………………………………...Vol 3, No1, Year 2008 6. CONCLUSIONS
QBASIC is an extremely popular language with thousands of different versions world-wide, so it is
mandatory that we learn it. But if we will continue in programming, we should learn some other
programming languages next.
7. REFERENCES
1. Akgöbek Ömer, Turbo Pascal ve Programlama Sanatı, Beta Basım Yayım Dağıtım A.Ş.,
İstanbul, 1995
2. Elliot B.Koffman Pascal, Literatür Yayıncılık-dağıtım-pazarlama Sanayi ve Tic.Limited
Şirketi, 2000
3. http://www.tedfelix.com/SupaSoft/snowflak.html - Snowflake: Snowflake Generator.
4. http://www.tedfelix.com/SupaSoft/strsplt2.html - Star Split 2: Starfield simulation.
5. http://www.tedfelix.com/SupaSoft - QBASIC samples.
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