Feelings of Wellbeing in Adolescents

Transkript

Journal of Teacher Education and Educators
Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi
Cilt 1, Sayı 1, 2012, 81-105
81
Feelings of Wellbeing in Adolescents:
A Cross-cultural Study of Finnish and Japanese Students
Ergenlerde İyi Oluş Duyguları:
Finli ve Japon Öğrenciler Üzerinde Kültürler Arası Bir Araştırma
Tuula Merisuo-Storm1 , Soili Keskinen2 , Mariko Matsumoto3 Kikuyo Aoki4
and Misuzu Nagai5
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate how students studying in sixth and eighth
grade in very different contexts evaluate their own psychological wellbeing. The study
was conducted with 697 Finnish and 721 Japanese students. The study aimed to explore
if there were differences between the wellbeing of Finnish and Japanese male and female sixth and eighth grade students. The same questionnaire was used as a measure in
both countries. According to the results, the Japanese students more often suffered from
psychosomatic symptoms, symptoms of impulsiveness, social anxiety, and problems of
controlling emotions than Finnish students. The Finnish students more often admitted to
problems in their social relationships. The eighth graders revealed more symptoms than
the sixth graders and the girls more than the boys. The smallest wellbeing score was obtained by Japanese eighth grade girls.
Keywords: Wellbeing, Finnish student, Japanese student
Öz
Bu araştırmanın amacı farklı okullarda altıncı ve sekizinci sınıfta okuyan öğrencilerin
kendi psikolojik iyi oluşlarını nasıl değerlendirdiğini araştırmaktır. Araştırma 697 Finli
ve 721 Japon öğrenci ile yürütülmüştür. Araştırma ile Finli ve Japon, erkek ve kız, altıncı ve sekizinci sınıf öğrencilerinin iyi oluşları arasında farklar olup olmadığını ortaya
koymak amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmada kullanılan anket her iki ülkede de ölçme aracı olarak kullanılmıştır. Sonuçlara göre Japon öğrenciler Finli öğrencilerden daha sık olarak
psikosomatik belirtilerden, düşünmeden hareket etme belirtilerinden, sosyal kaygıdan ve
duyguları kontrol etme problemlerinden yakınmışlardır. Finli öğrenciler ise sıklıkla sosyal ilişkilerindeki problemlerini itiraf etmişlerdir. Sekizinci sınıflar altıncı sınıflardan ve
kızlar erkeklerden daha fazla sayıda psikosomatik belirti göstermiştir. En az iyi oluş puanı
Japon sekizinci sınıf kız öğrenciler tarafından alınmıştır.
Anahtar Sözcükler: İyi oluş, Finli öğrenci, Japon öğrenci
Tuula Merisuo-Storm: Adjunct professor, PhD, Department of Teacher Education, University of Turku,
Finland. For correspondence; e-mail: [email protected]
2
Soili Keskinen: Professor of Education, PhD, Department of Teacher Education, University of Turku,
Finland.
3
Mariko Matsumoto: Professor of Clinical Psychology, PhD, Center for Developmental clinical Psychology And Psychiatry, University of Nagoya, Japan.
4
Kikuyo Aoki: Associate Professor, PhD, Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, University of
Ochanomizu, Japan.
5
Misuzu Nagai:Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, University of Ochanomizu, Japan.
1
82
T. Merisuo-Storm et al.
Introduction
Youth is a transitional stage towards adulthood. In puberty, the challenges related to physical, emotional, and cognitive development may endanger young people’s
mental wellbeing. In addition, relationships with parents, peers and teachers can be
a hazard for their health (Mash & Wolfe, 2005). It is therefore important for mental
health professionals to investigate and try to understand various factors that affect a
person’s wellbeing in order to prevent and respond appropriately to young people’s
mental dysfunctions.
Roberts et al. (1998) reviewed 52 studies that attempted to estimate the prevalence
of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders and found that the samples that included
the preadolescents (ages 6 to 13 years) shared a mean prevalence of 13% with disorders, while the adolescent samples (over 13 years) had a mean prevalence of 17%.
Depression is the most common mental disorder for female adolescents and about
20% of them have symptoms of depression during the teenage years. At the same time,
they often have eating problems or are distressed (Birmaher & Axelson, 2001; Stice
et al., 2001). The number of symptoms of depression identified by girls themselves
increases significantly from the age of 13 to the age of 18. Girls’ depression, eating
problems, antisocial behaviour, and use of drugs change during these years and when
one symptom increases it can produce another symptom (Measelle et al., 2006). Therefore it is important to focus on different symptoms that interact with each other.
Numerous studies related to young people’s state of mind, health and school experiences have been conducted in Finland. The aim of the study conducted in 2006
(Luopa et al., 2006) was to investigate adolescents’ depression, use of alcohol and
drugs, and the risks they involve. The results of the study show that girls more often
than boys suffer from mild or semi-difficult depression. In addition, girls mentioned
more often specific symptoms such as tiredness and sleeping problems. To improve
their state of mind they commonly sought support from their friends, parents and other
relatives. Talking with parents seemed to have a positive effect on depression. By contrast, physical threat, lack of friends, or learning disabilities proved to be factors that
increased depression.
A longitudinal study (Luopa et al., 2005) conducted in western Finland investigated over 10 years lower secondary school students’ and upper secondary school
students’ living conditions, school work, health and health habits. The results of the
study show that lower secondary school students’ headaches, depression and tiredness
increased until the year 2001, decreased for a few years and have more recently again
become more common. The female students all had symptoms more often than the
male students. It seems that in Finland school children’s state of health is now becoming worse than ever as the number of psychosomatic symptoms, especially tiredness
and faintness, has increased during the last decade. One of the main reasons for this
may be that the number of students who find school work too stressful has increased
Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri Dergisi
83
during recent years (Kämppi et al. 2012).
In Japan, the number of adolescents’ psychosomatic symptoms, such as headaches, stomach cramps, and lack of appetite have also increased during the last decade
(Takahashi et al., 2002). A comparative study conducted in Japan and in Sweden on
fourth to ninth grade students showed that in Japan the students in the fourth to ninth
grades more often displayed the symptoms mentioned above than their peers in Sweden. Furthermore, the Japanese adolescents more frequently had mental symptoms
and were less satisfied with their lives than Swedish adolescents. This suggests that
cultural differences may have an impact on the nature and the quality of symptoms.
Factors related to urban life may also have an effect on students’ wellbeing (Landsford
et al., 2005).
Subjective Wellbeing
A person’s mental health is assessed to be good when he or she is able to manage normally in his or her everyday life. A person’s ability to adjust to living conditions and lead a well-balanced life is closely related to feelings of wellbeing (Vaillant,
2003). Mental wellbeing can be defined as a subjectively felt comprehensive state of
satisfaction and positive feeling. It includes both cognitive and emotional aspects. Examples of positive emotional feelings are joy, interest, and confidence. How content a
person in general is with his or her work, school, or human relationships has a significant effect on his or her satisfaction with life (Ben-Zur, 2003).
On the other hand, subjective wellbeing includes a person’s evaluation of his or
her life at any one moment as well as during longer periods of time (Diener et al.,
2003). Individual differences in personality and feelings of subjective wellbeing can
be seen early in life and always include a genetic component (Diener & Lucas, 1999).
Subjective wellbeing has been proved to be heritable (Vaillant, 2003). However, research has also shown that several other factors, such as a person’s temperament, ability to adjust to different circumstances (Sohlberg et al., 2002), efforts to reach goals,
and human relationships (Luopa et al., 2006) have an effect on their level of wellbeing. Nevertheless, no specific model has been found to combine these different factors
(Diener et al., 2003). Subjective wellbeing and happiness are also dependent on a person’s quality of life. The standard of wellbeing has been proved to be high in countries
where the citizens have many rights, opportunities for education, and generally good
socioeconomic status (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1991).
A person’s various personal and social resources in human relationships and life in
general have a significant effect on his or her wellbeing; however, material resources
have proved to be less important. Ben-Zur (2003) suggests that subjective wellbeing is only marginally related to external factors such as age, gender, citizenship, and
external behaviours. Internal factors for wellbeing are, for instance, self-esteem, selfcontrol, optimism, and an extrovert personality.
84
Additionally, family characteristics may be related to the wellbeing of adolescents. For example, positive correlations have been found between adolescents’ and
their parents’ subjective wellbeing (Ben-Zur 2003). Also, Larson and Richards (1994)
suggest that the model related to cognitions, values, attitudes, and emotions one has
adopted as a young child still exists in adolescence. Parents are important role models
for their children and give them a pattern of emotions and social skills. The quality of
these patterns may have an effect on how an adolescent feels and how he or she, for
instance, is able to solve problems that threaten his or her wellbeing. However, as all
family members have individual personalities, each of them may react to different situations in a different way (Ben-Zur, 2003).
School has an essential role in a young person’s life, especially as it balances his
or her living through social interaction. In addition, the teachers and the climate of the
school have an effect on an adolescent’s wellbeing. A study conducted by Vuille and
Schenkel (2001) showed that school has an influence on several factors related to an
adolescent’s wellbeing, and this influence seems to strengthen when a student moves
from primary school to secondary school. Especially in Japan, school has been found
to emphasise significantly cognitive, moral/religious, civic/national, physical, aesthetic and musical areas. There the aim is whole person education (Cummings, 2003).
Eating and weight problems may become risk factors for a young person’s wellbeing. One study showed that only 12% of girls and 17% of boys were satisfied with their
body. (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001). In another study (Presnell et al., 2004) it was
found that 24–46% of girls and 12–26% of boys were dissatisfied with their body. Specific reasons for the differences between the genders have not been found but there are
clearly different social pressures related to girls’ and boys’ bodies (Cafri et al., 2005).
Girls have been found to be most satisfied when they are slim, whereas boys want to
be muscular (Saarilehto et al., 2003).
A person’s conception of his or her body has a central role in the development of
eating problems (Cafri & Thompson, 2004). Several physical and mental factors, such
as low self-esteem and depression, and socio-cultural pressure can increase an adolescent’s bodily dissatisfaction (Cash, 2002; Paxton et al., 2005). Other factors that may
increase dissatisfaction are body size, ethnic group, and relationships with peers and
parents (Paxton et al., 2006). Presnell et al. (2004) found that a negative state of mind
increases young males’ but not young females’ bodily dissatisfaction. Although depressive symptoms have not been found to show a significant relationship to increases
in girls’ body dissatisfaction (Stice & Whitenton, 2002), a low ability to control emotions is likely to predict increasing dissatisfaction (Ohring et al., 2002). Such factors
are most likely to remain stable during adolescence, with developmental factors and
changes in roles appearing to have little influence on them (Paxton et al., 2006).
Based on the research findings and approaches mentioned above, the purpose of
the present study was to investigate how Finnish and Japanese girls and boys in sixth
85
and in eighth grade assessed their feelings of wellbeing. A further goal was to find out
what symptoms are connected to students’ dissatisfaction with their lives. The focus of
the study is on psychic and psychosomatic symptoms as well as on problems related
to social relationships, body image, and control of emotions, together with symptoms
related to depression, social anxiety, and impulsiveness. In addition, the study aims to
show the connections between symptoms and problems, young people’s general state
of mind and incidents that they have found depressing. Finally, the study attempts to
clarify what kind of supportive networks adolescents have: with whom they discuss
the problems related to studying, friendship, and family.
Method
Participants
The participants of the study included 1,418 (697 Finnish and 721 Japanese) students between the ages of 12 and 15. Finland and Japan were selected because both
countries have been top level achievers in international studies of student achievement.
Approximately one half of the sample was boys (N = 704) and one half girls (N = 714);
half were studying in the sixth grade (N = 643) and the other half in the eighth grade
(N = 775). The sample was discretionarily collected. The Japanese data were collected
in cities. Therefore the Finnish data were also collected in cities and large towns in
southern and western Finland. That is why one cannot do generalisations for the whole
population, only for urban adolescents.
Adolescent Wellbeing Questionnaire
The questionnaire was developed in Japan by Nagai and colleagues and was translated into Finnish. It contained items related to several different aspects of adolescents’
wellbeing (Nagai et al., 2007). The first set of items includes 41 statements relating
to mental and physical wellbeing (Tables 1, 4, 5 and 6) and eating and overweight
problems (Table 2). The second set of items includes nine questions related to the adolescents’ state of mind and control of their emotions (Table 3). The third set of items
includes seven questions related to social relationships and problems in them (Table
7). The items are rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree (5) to
strongly disagree (1).
A factor analysis of the first set of items was conducted in order to assess the
structure of the questionnaire. The statements were combined into three sum variables:
mental symptoms, symptoms related to eating and overweight problems, and physical
symptoms. The mental symptoms were then separated into three sum variables: depression, impulsiveness, and social anxiety and also factor analysed. Altogether there
are seven sum variables with α-rates varying from medium to good and correlations
between the sum variances varying from fair to strong (Tables 1–7).
Local
Localsociety
societyand
andculture
culture
86
Research
Research
Curriculum
Curriculum
Table
symptoms
variables
andand
correlations
withwith
sum sum
variable
and αand
α
Table1.1.1.Physical
Physical
symptoms
variables
and
correlations
with
sum
variable
Physical
symptoms
variables
correlations
variable
coefficient
coefficient
coefficient
Physicalsymptoms
symptoms
Physical
rr
Myneck
neckisisoften
oftenstiff
stiff
My
.65
.65
feelweak
weak
I Ifeel
.63
.63
occasionallyhave
haveaaheadache
headache
I Ioccasionally
.63
.63
Myheart
heartcan
cansuddenly
suddenlystart
starttotobeat
beatfaster
faster
My
.59
.59
havebreathing
breathingdifficulties
difficulties
I Ihave
.55
.55
WhenI’m
I’mnervous
nervousI Iget
getstomach
stomachcramps
cramps
When
.45
.45
α=.63
α=.63
Table2.
Eatingand
and
overweight
variables
and
correlations
with
sum
variableand
Table
2.2.Eating
Eating
and
overweight
variables
and
correlations
with
overweight
variables
and
correlations
with
sumsum
variableand
α
coefficient
coefficient
α coefficient
Eatingand
andoverweight
overweight
Eating
Gettingoverweight
overweightworries
worriesme.
me.
Getting
α=.83
rr α=.83
.87
.87
I’mafraid
afraidthat
thatI’m
I’mgetting
gettingtoo
toofat.
fat.
I’m
I
really
wish
I
could
lose
more
weight
I really wish I could lose more weight
.86
.86
.85
.85
I’mafraid
afraidthat
thatI Ieat
eattoo
toomuch
much
I’m
avoidfood
foodwith
withlots
lotsofofcalories.
calories.
I Iavoid
.81
.81
.66
.66
trytotoavoid
avoideating
eatingalthough
althoughIIam
amhungry.
hungry.
I Itry
.59
.59
**p<.001
**p<.001
Table3.3.Problems
Problemsinincontrolling
controlling emotions
emotions variables
variables and
and correlations
correlations with
with sum
sum variable
variable
Table
Table
3.
Problems
in
controlling
emotions
variables
and
correlations
with
sum
variable
and
α
coefficient
Table
3. Problems in controlling emotions variables and correlations with sum and
α coefficient
and
α
coefficient
variable
and α coefficient
Problemsinincontrolling
controllingemotions
emotions
Problems
Problems
in
controlling
emotions
I’mnot
notable
abletotocontrol
controlmy
myanger.
anger.
I’m
I’m
not
able
to
control
my
anger.
canstay
staycalm
calmeven
evenwhen
whensomething
somethingdisturbing
disturbinghappens.
happens.
I Ican
I can stay calm even when something disturbing happens.
α=.69
rr α=.69
r
α=.69
.59
.59
.59
.58
.58
.58
I give up too easily.
.58
It’s hard for me to cope when something bad happens.
.56
I’m able to control my feelings.
.54
Feelings control my behaviour.
.54
I consider myself tough.
.53
I always try to be composed
.50
It’s hard for me to cheer up.
.47
Table 4. Social anxiety variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient
Social anxiety
r
It’s hard for me to join conversations when people are discussing.
.56**
I feel useless.
.56**
α=.80
.53
.53
.50
Journal of Teacher Education and Educators/ Öğretmen Eğitimi ve Eğitimcileri
Dergisi
.50
.47
.47
87
Table 4. Social anxiety variables and correlations with sum variable and α
coefficient
Social anxiety
Social anxiety
I feel useless.
I feel useless.
I can’t express myself clearly enough.
I can’t express myself clearly enough.
It’s hard for me to make new friends
It’s hard for me to make new friends
I don’t know how to behave in front of a big group.
I don’t know how to behave in front of a big group.
I’m shy of expressing my opinions in front of people.
I’m shy of expressing my opinions in front of people.
I don’t believe that my dreams will come true.
I don’t believe that my dreams will come true.
I don’t enjoy doing anything.
I don’t enjoy doing anything.
I have nothing to be proud of.
I have nothing to be proud of.
** p<.001
** p<.001
r
α=.80
r
α=.80
.56**
.56**
.56**
.56**
.52**
.52**
.50**
.50**
.49**
.49**
.45**
.45**
.45**
.45**
.45**
.45**
.44**
.44**
Table 5. Depression variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient
Table5.5.Depression
Depression variables
variables and
Table
and correlations
correlationswith
withsum
sumvariable
variableand
andααcoefficient
coefficient
Depression
Depression
Nowadays I get unhappy for no reason.
Nowadays I get unhappy for no reason.
I weep often
I weep often
Lately all things have made me worried.
Lately all things have made me worried.
I worry what people think about me
I worry what people think about me
I feel lonely
I feel lonely
When something bad happens to me I can’t get it out of mind.
When something bad happens to me I can’t get it out of mind.
As soon as something bad happens to me it shows on my face
As soon as something bad happens to me it shows on my face
It’s sometimes hard for me to fall asleep
It’s sometimes hard for me to fall asleep
I can’t keep my room tidy.
I can’t keep my room tidy.
**p<.001
**p<.001
r α=.81
r α=.81
.66**
.66**
.66**
.66**
.62**
.62**
.60**
.60**
.55**
.55**
.55**
.55**
.42**
.42**
.35**
.35**
.22**
.22**
88
Table 6. Impulsiveness variables and correlations with sum variable and α
coefficient
Table 6. Impulsiveness variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient
Table 6. Impulsiveness variables and correlations with sum variable and α coefficient
Impulsiveness
Impulsiveness
It’s impossible for me to concentrate properly on anything.
It’s impossible for me to concentrate properly on anything.
I lose my temper for no reason at all.
I lose my temper for no reason at all.
I’m reluctant to try anything new.
I’m reluctant to try anything new.
I keep forgetting my homework or things I have promised to
I keep forgetting my homework or things I have promised to
do.
do.
Things don’t work no matter how hard I try.
Things don’t work no matter how hard I try.
When I lose my temper I want to break things.
When I lose my temper I want to break things.
I give up easily because I feel that the task is too hard for me.
I give up easily because I feel that the task is too hard for me.
I often quarrel about minor things.
I often quarrel about minor things.
**p<.001
**p<.001
r
α=.82
r
α=.82
.58**
.58**
.55**
.55**
.51**
.51**
.50**
.50**
.50**
.50**
.49**
.49**
.48**
.48**
.46**
.46**
Table 7. Problems in social relationships variables and correlations with sum variable
Table
Problems in
insocial
social relationships
relationships variables
variables and
Table
7.7.Problems
and correlations
correlationswith
withsum
sumvariable
and
α coefficient
and α coefficient
variable and α coefficient
Problems in social relationships.
Problems in social relationships.
I love my family.
I love my family.
I have a friend with whom I can talk about anything.
I have a friend with whom I can talk about anything.
I have a friend to whom I can tell my secrets.
I have a friend to whom I can tell my secrets.
I have lots of friends.
I have lots of friends.
I feel comfortable with my family.
I feel comfortable with my family.
I feel I have no place at home where I can relax.
I feel I have no place at home where I can relax.
My parents don’t understand me.
My parents don’t understand me.
r
α=.73
r
α=.73
.71
.71
.67
.67
.66
.66
.61
.61
.61
.61
.50
.50
.48
.48
As well as the multiple choice items there were two ‘yes or no’ questions which
aimed to gain information about the incidents that create depression and a possible
need for psychological help. In addition, the participants were asked to assess their
recent positive or negative state of mind on a scale from 0–100 (100 indicating feeling
well).
In the last section of the questionnaire three problems were described (related to
studying, friendships and family). Related to each problem the participants were asked
to name one person with whom they had talked about this problem or with whom they
would like to talk about the problem in the future if it arose. The participants chose
these persons from a given list: (1) class teacher; (2) supervisor of the afternoon club;
(3) school nurse; (4) subject teacher; (5) friend(s); (6) family; (7) grandparents; (8) I
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m
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The
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wel
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th
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graders
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girls
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Very
few
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most
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8).
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8). Thesymptoms
girls
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42.35,
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displayed
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and
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2b
1,1402
2 < .001,
adolescents
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tha
(Table
8).
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The study groups 47.66,
again often
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8).symptoms
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=
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shown between country and grade:2 the Japanese eighth Very
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of depression
often
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than
2
(Table
8).
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girls
reported
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adolescents
=the
.01,
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= 8.13,
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1,1402
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.004);
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1,1409
=
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.008;
9).
adolescentssymptoms
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Japanese
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47.66,
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symptoms
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the
2
between
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andreported
gender;
the
Japanese
girls
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imps
in42.35,
eighth
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(Table
8).
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.001,
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The
eighth
graders
showed
impulsiveness
adolescents (F1,1402 = 37.56, p <girls
.029).
p<
.001,
 ==slightly
(F1,1402
p<
.01,of
.006,
Table
8).
=
more
often
than the
boys
(F
graders
more
often
than
the
six
1,1402
Very
few= 8.13,
symptoms
depression
were
(Table
8).
The
often
displayed
the
boys
(F
girlssymptoms
inreported
eighth than
grade
most
often
22
1
=
.029).
42.35,
p
<
.001,

2
The
study
groups
again
showed
a
few
impulsiveness
sym
slightly
more
often
than
the
boy
=
8.13,
p
<
.01,

=
.006,
Table
8).
(F
1,1402p < .001,  = .033), and2the eighth graders more often
47.66,
Very
symptoms
of
were
reported
(T
= 75.95,
p < .001,
depression
= in
.051),
and
the the
girls
symptoms more often than the sixth graders
(F
2 often
between
country
and
gender;
Japanese
girls
eighth
grade
most
1,1402few
symptoms was the same in bothgraders
countries
(F1,1404
=
1.92,
p =sixth
.17,
 =again
.001
The
study
groups
more
oftenof
than
the
graders
(F
Very
symptoms
depression
repo
adolescents in Japan
more
reported
symptoms
ofwere
impulsiv
2 2fewoften
between
country
and
gender;
th
2
=(F
42.35,
p<
.001,
same
=
1.92,
p
=
.
symptoms
the
in
both
countries
(F
= 7.29,
pwas
< .01,
=.029).
.005).
An
interaction
was
found
slightly more often than the boys (F1,1402
The
study
groups
again
=
8.13,
p
<
.01,

=
.006,
Table
8).
1,1402
adolescents
in
more
of
p1,1404
<Japan
.001,
22 =sym
.09
often displayed symptoms than the
boys
(F1,1404
girls
in
eighth
grade
most
often
showed
2 = 145.90,
1.9
symptoms
waspthe
same(Fin
countries
(F1,1404
=few
37.56,
< .001,
=both
.026).
The
adolescents (FVery
= 8.13,
p <eighth
.01,
 graders
==.006
1,1402
1,1402
symptoms
ofadolescents
depression
were
reported
in
Japan
more
of(T
between country and gender; the Japanese
reported
impulsiveness
symptoms
most
= often
145.90,
.
oftengirls
displayed
symptoms
than
the
boys (F1,1404
2p <
=
37.56,
pa.0
adolescents
(F
The (F
study
groups
again
showed
graders more often than the sixth graders
=
43.31,
p
<
.001,

=
1,1402
1,1404
Analysis
90
Table 8. The results of psychosomatic symptoms and symptoms of depression,
Table 8. The results of psychosomatic symptoms and symptoms of depression, impulsiveness and social anxiety
impulsiveness and social anxiety
Psychosomatic
symptoms
Girls
Boys
Total
6th grade
Finland
8thgrade
Total
6th grade
Japan
8thgrade
Total
M
Sd
M
Sd
M
Sd
2.0
0.6
1.8
0.6
1.9
0.6
2.3
0.6
2.0
0.6
2.2
0.6
2.2
0.6
1.9
0.6
2.1
0.6
2.1
0.9
1.8
0.7
2.0
0.8
2.4
0.8
2.1
0.8
2.3
0.8
2.3
0.8
2.0
0.8
2.1
0.8
M
Sd
M
Sd
M
Sd
6th grade
2.6
0.7
2.2
0.7
2.4
0.7
Finland
8thgrade
2.9
0.8
2.2
0.6
2.6
0.8
Japan
from a given list:
(1) class teacher; (2) superviso
Total
6th grade 8thgrade
Total
subject 2.6
teacher; (5)
2.8
2.9 friend(s);
2.8 (6) family; (7) gran
0.8
1.0
0.9
0.9
(9) some2.1other person.
2.2
2.5
2.3
0.6 from 0.9
0.8 (1) class
0.8 teacher; (2) superv
a given list:
2.5
2.4
2.7
2.5
0.8 subject
0.9 teacher;
0.8 (5) friend(s);
0.9
(6) family; (7) g
M
Sd
M
Sd
M
Sd
2.0
0.7
2.0
0.6
2.0
0.6
2.3
0.7
2.3
0.7
2.3
0.7
2.2
2.3
2.7
2.5
0.7
0.8
0.7
p0.8< .05) but the samp
2.2
2.1
2.5
2.3
Analysis0.7
0.7
0.8
analysis,0.8Spearman’s
correlation
coefficient, fac
2.2
2.2
2.6
2.4
The data0.8were analysed
with the SPSS 1
0.7
0.8
0.8 were
were used.
Yes/no questions
analysed by fre
Depression
Girls
Boys
Total
m a given list: (1) class teacher; (2) supervisor of the afternoon
club; (3) school nurse; (4)
Analysis
Impulsiveness
Finland
Japan
th
th
th
th person.
(9)
some
other
6
grade
8
grade
Total
6
grade
8
grade
Total with
were
analysed
bject teacher; (5) friend(s); (6) family; (7) grandparents; (8) IThe
do data
not talk
with
anyone;
andthe SPSS 12.0
Girls
some other person.
Boys
Analysis
Total
p < .05) but the sa
anxiety
Finland
Japan
analysis
was performed
by
sum of squares m
The data were Social
analysed
with the
distribution
notthe
normal
6th SPSS
grade 12.0.1
8thgradeprogram.
Total The
6th grade
8thgradewasTotal
analysis,
correlation
coefficient,
Girls
M
2.3
2.3 Spearman’s
2.7
2.5
rotation
because
it was
felt
that
different factors r
olmogorov-Smirnov,
p < .05)
but 2.2
the sample
was2.3
large (N
= 1,418).
Then
variance
Sd
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.9
0.8
0.8
used. Yes/no
were analysed by
M
2.1
2.2
2.1 were 2.0
2.5 questions
2.3
each and
other.
alysis, Spearman’sBoys
correlation
coefficient,
factor
analysis,
Cronbach’s
alpha-analysis
Sd
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
was performed
by the sum of squares
Total
M
2.1
2.3
2.2 analysis
2.6
re used. Yes/no questions
were
analysed
by frequency
analysis.2.2
The extraction
of2.4
the factor
Sd
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8
rotation because it was felt that different factor
alysis was performed by the sum of squares method. The rotation
method used was skewResults
each other.
On average
adolescents
hadrelated
few problems
related
to eating
and
overweight.
On
average
comparatively
few physical sy
ation because it was
felt thatthe
different
factors
to wellbeing
might
well
correlate
with
The girls
mostresults
of the of
problems
(Table
9). The number
of the eating and overweight
Tablehad
9. The
eating and
overweight
problems
adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic sy
problems
p = .82). The girls more often
Eatingwas
andthe same in both countries
Finland (U = 247098.0,
ResultsJapan
th
th
th 2
overweight
grade
grade
grade
Total
had these
problems than6the
boys8(F1,1407
=Total
236.82,
.001,8
==.144)
andhowever,
they had the differe
5.48, 6pthpgrade
=< .02,
.004);
Girls
M
2.5
2.7
2.6
2.4
2.8
2.6
On
average
comparatively
them more often in eighth grade than in sixth grade (U = 52128.5, p < .001), whereasfew physical
Results
Sd
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.0 The girls
1.0 reported
1.0
(Table 8).
psychosomatic sy
the boys
these
in eighth 1.7
grade than1.9in sixth1.8
=
Boysdid not have
M
2.0 problems
1.7 more 1.8
adolescents
had2 slightlygrade
more(Upsychosomatic
On average
comparatively
few
physical
symptoms
were
reported
(Table
8).
Japanese
Sd
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.9
56426.5, p = .09). However, on average eighth
graders
more 
often
had eating
andeighth grade
47.66,
p < .001,
= .033),
and the
2
Total
M
2.2
2.2
2.2 5.48, 2.0
2.3
2.2
p
=
.02,

=
.004);
however,
the diffe
overweight
problems
than
sixth
graders
(F1,1407
=
5.37,
p
<
.02,
=
.004).
Japanese
2
olescents had slightly more Sd
psychosomatic
symptoms
than Finnish
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.0(F1,1405 =
= .029).
42.35,
p1.0
< .001,adolescents
1.0
girls most often reported eating and overweight problems (F1,1407 = 13.45, p < .001,
(Table 8). The girls reported psychosomatic
8, p = .02, 2 ==.009).
.004); however, the differences between Very
the two
wereofsmall
fewcountries
symptoms
depression were
ch other.
47.66,
p <than
.001,
2boys
= .033), and =the eighth gra
able 8). The girls reported psychosomatic symptoms more
often
the
1,1405countries (F1,140
symptoms was the same in(F
both
2
= .029).
42.35, pthe
< .001,
graders
66, p < .001, 2 = .033), and the eighth graders more often
sixth
(F1,1405
oftenthan
displayed
symptoms
than
the=boys (F1,1404 =
Very few symptoms of depression w
35, p < .001, 2 = .029).
graders more often than the sixth graders (F1,140
Total
M
Sd
Boys
M
Sd
M
Sd
2.2 analysed
2.2 with the
2.6 SPSS 2.4
The2.3data were
12.0.1 program. The d
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8
analysis,
Spearman’s
correlation coe
91
Journal
of Teacher Education and Educators/
Eğitimi
ve Eğitimcileri
Dergisi was
pÖğretmen
< .05)
but
the sample
large (N
were used. Yes/no questions were ana
analysis, Spearman’s correlation coefficient, factor analysis, and
analysis was performed by the sum o
Table 9. The results of
eating
andYes/no
overweight
problems
overweight
problems
were
used.
questions
were analysed by frequency analysis. T
rotation
Eating and
Finland
Japanbecause it was felt that differ
by
the sum
of squares
overweight
6thanalysis
grade 8thwas
grade performed
Total
6th grade
8thgrade
Totalmethod. The rotatio
each
other.
Girls
M
2.5
2.7
2.8
2.6
rotation
because
it2.6
was felt 2.4
that different
Sd
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0 factors
1.0 related to wellbeing
Total
2.1
0.7
2.0
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.9
1.8
each
other.
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.9
Results
from
(2)
2.2 a given
2.2 list: (1)
2.2 class teacher;
2.0
2.3 supervisor
2.2 of the afternoon c
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
1.0
On average
comparatively
subject teacher; (5) friend(s); (6) family;
(7) grandparents;
(8) I few
do n
Results of the afternoon club; (3) school nurse; (4)
from a given list: (1) class teacher; (2) supervisor
adolescents had slightly more psych
average
comparatively
few
physical
symptoms
problems of
emotions
came
up(8)
(Table
Japanese
adolescents
subject teacher;Some
(5) friend(s);
(6)controlling
family;On
(7)
grandparents;
I do10).
not
talk
with
anyone;
andwere rep
2

=
.004);
5.48,
p
=
.02,
had them more often than Finnish adolescents (F1,1405 = 108.98, p < .001, = .072). however,
adolescents had slightly more psychosomatic symptoms than Fin
The girls had more often experienced emotional control and
state8).
of mind
problems
(Table
The girls
reported psycho
Analysis 2
5.48,
p
=
.02,

=
.004);
however,
the
differences
than the boys (F1,1405 = 50.57, p < .001, = .035) and eighth graders experiencedbetween the
data(U=
were
analysed
with
12.0.1
The
47.66,
pSPSS
< .001,
2graders
=program.
.033), and
thedie
these problems more than sixthThe
graders
55879.5,
p< .05).
Inthe
Japan,
eighth
(Table 8). The girls reported psychosomatic symptoms more ofte
Analysis
more often reported problems
of controlling emotions
sixthbut
graders
(U
= 54307.0,
p than
< .05)
the.001,
sample
was large (N =
42.35,
p<
2 = .029).
2
The data
wereInanalysed
with 47.66,
the
was
notmore
normal
<12.0.1
.001, program.
= .033),The
anddistribution
the these
eighthtwo
graders
p < .01).
Finland there
wasSPSS
nopsignificant
difference
between
groups
(U often than
analysis,
Spearman’s
correlation
coefficient,
factor
analysis,
and C
Very
few
symptoms
= 57290.5, p = p
.28).
< .05) 42.35,
but the
large (N = 1,418). Then varianceof depre
= .029).
p <sample
.001, 2was
were used. Yes/no questions were
analysedwas
by the
frequency
T
symptoms
same inanalysis.
both coun
analysis, Spearman’s
correlation
coefficient,
factor
analysis, and
alpha-analysis
Table10.
10.
Theresults
results
of the
theVery
problems
controlling
emotions
fewofsymptoms
of Cronbach’s
depression were
reported (Table
Table
The
of
problems
controlling
emotions
analysis was performed by the often
sum of
squares symptoms
method. The
displayed
thanrotation
the bo
Control
of
Finland
were used. Yes/no
questions
were analysed
by frequency analysis.
TheJapan
extraction
of the
factor
=
1.92,
p = .17, 
symptoms
(F
th
th was the same in
th both countries
th
1,1404
emotions
6rotation
grade because
8 grade it Total
6
grade
8
grade
Total
was felt that different factors related to wellbeing
often
than
the sixth gra
Girls
M sum2.5
2.6 method.
2.6 The rotation
2.9 graders
3.0moreused
2.9 was
analysis was performed
by the
of squares
method
skewoften
displayed
symptoms
than
Sd
0.6 other.0.7
0.7
0.7 the boys
0.7 (F1,1404
0.7 = 145.90, p < .001,
each
Boys
M different
2.3
2.3 related
2.3 to wellbeing
2.6 girlsmight
in2.8eighth
grade
mostwith
often showe
rotation because it
was felt that
factors
well2.7
correlate
graders
more
(F0.6
1,1404 = 43.31, p < .001
Sd
0.6
0.6 often
0.6than the
0.6sixth graders
0.6
Total
M
2.4
2.5
2.5
2.7
2.9
2.8 groups again show
The
study
each other.
girls
in eighth
of depression (Ta
Sd
0.6 Results
0.7 grade
0.7most often
0.7 showed
0.7 symptoms
0.7
adolescents in Japan more often re
Table 10. The results of the problems
of controlling
Theaverage
study
groups emotions
again few
showed
a few impulsiveness
sy
physical
On average the adolescentsOn
assessed
theircomparatively
relationships with
their
friendssymptoms
and fam- were repo
Table
11.
The
results
of
the
problems
in
social
relationships
=
37.56,
p
<
.001
adolescents
(F
Results Control of
1,1402
Japan
ily to be
good, and there6seemed
toFinland
be few
ingrade
theseoften
social
relationships
(Table of impuls
inproblems
Japan more
reported
symptoms
th adolescents
th
emotions
grade 8thgradehad Total
8thgrade
adolescents
psychosomatic
Social
Finland slightly6 more
Japan Total symptoms than Finn
11). Finnish
adolescents had
problems
than
Japanese
adolescents
inJapanese
their
On average
comparatively
few
physical
symptoms
were
reported
(Table
8).
symptoms
often
than the sixth g
Girls
2.6
2.9
3.0
2.9 Total
th slightly
th more
2more
relationships M
62.5
grade 82.6
grade
Total
6th grade
8thgrade
=.004);
37.56,
p < .001,
= .026). The
eighth the
gradt
adolescents
20.7
1,1402
Sd
0.6
0.7
0.7 graders
0.7
.02,(F
however,
the differences
between
relationships
5.53,
p =0.72.2
.019,
==2.2
.004),
and
experienced
Girls (F1,1393
M =5.48,
2.2 p
1.9eighth 2.2
2.1
M psychosomatic
2.3
2.3 symptoms
2.3
2.6 Finnish
2.8 adolescents
2.7often than
adolescents had Boys
slightly more
than
(F1,1405
more
the=boys (F1,
Sd social
0.9 relationships
0.8more often
0.9 sixth
0.7slightly
0.7
0.7
more problems in Sd
their
than
(F1,1393
18.81,
p 75.95,
<
p <often
.00
symptoms
than
the
sixth
graders
0.6
0.6 The
0.6
0.6graders
0.6
0.6=(F
1,1402 =
(Table
8).
girls
reported
psychosomatic
symptoms
more
M
2.0
2.0
2.1
2Boys
M
2.4
2.52.2
2.52.1
2.7
2.9 2.2
2.8
5.48, p = .02,
.004);However,
however,
the
differences
between
the
two
countries
were
small
.001,Total
==.013).
there
was
no
difference
in
the
number
of
the
girls’
and
the
between
country
and
gender;
the
Japa
Sd
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.8
Sd
0.6
0.7
0.7 0.8
2 0.8
=0.7
7.29,
p < .01, 2 = .005)
slightly
more
the
boys 0.7
(F1,1402
=than
.033),
and
graders
47.66,
.001,often
0.7
boys’ problems.
Total
M
2.1 p <2.2
2.2
2.0 the eighth
2.2
2.1 more2 often than t
(Table 8). The girls reportedSdpsychosomatic
often
than
the boys
(F1,1405
= 8.13,
p0.7
< .01,
 = =.006, Tab
(F1,1402
0.9
0.8symptoms
0.8 more0.7
0.7
2and gender; the Japanese girls reported impulsive
between
country
= .029).
42.35,
p < .001,insocial
Table
11.
The and
results
the
relationships
.033),
theof
gradersinmore
often
than the sixth graders (F1,1405 =
47.66, p < .001,Table
2 =11.
The
results
ofeighth
theproblems
problems
social
relationships
2
=
8.13,
p
<
.01,

=
.006,
Table
(F1,1402
Social
Finland
Japan 8). were reported (Table
Very few symptoms
of depression
2
relationships
6th grade 8thgrade
Total
6th grade 8thgrade
Total
= .029).
42.35, p < .001, 
Girls
M
2.2
2.2was the2.2same in1.9both countries
2.2
2.1
symptoms
(F
1,1404 = 1.92, p = .17, 
0.9
0.8were reported
0.9
0.7
Very few symptoms Sdof depression
(Table 0.7
8). The 0.7
number
of the
Boys
M
2.0
2.2
2.1
2.0
2.2
2.1
often
displayed
symptoms 0.8
than the boys (F 0.8 = 145.90, p < .001,
0.8
0.8
symptoms was the same in Sd
both countries
(F1,1404 =0.8
1.92, p = .17, 20.7= .001).1,1404
The girls more
Total
M
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.0
2.2
2.1
graders more
often
graders
(F0.71,1404 = 43.31, p < .001
2
Sd
0.8than the
0.7 sixth 0.7
often displayed symptoms than
the0.9
boys (F0.8
1,1404 = 145.90, p < .001,  = .094), and the eighth
girls in eighth grade most often showed symptoms of depression (Ta
graders more often than the sixth graders (F1,1404 = 43.31, p < .001, 2 = .030). Overall, the
The study groups again showed a few impulsiveness sy
girls in eighth grade most often showed symptoms of depression (Table 8).
adolescents in Japan more often reported symptoms of impulsi
from a given list: (1) class teacher; (2) supervisor of th
subject teacher; (5) friend(s);questions.
(6) family;
(7)answers
grandparents
The
show
(9)
some
other
person.
Experiences of depressing life events were measured with three categor
subject
teacher;
(5)
friend(s);
(6)
family;
(7)
grandpare
92
practically the same number o
questions. The answers showed that the adolescents in the two countries h
= .08). In Finland, 34% and
Analysis
practically the
same number of depressing incidents during the last month (χ2 =
Experiences of depressing life events were measured with three categorical ‘yes
Analysis
resulting
in depressive
feeling
The data
were
analysed
with39%
theinSPSS
12.0.1
program.
The
distribu
or no’ questions.
TheInanswers
showed
that
the
adolescents
thethe
two
countries
had
= .08).
Finland,
34%
and
in
Japan
of
adolescents
had
experienc
Analysis
data were
analysed
with
the
SPSS
12.0.1
progra
these
feelings
more
often
tha
experienced practically
the same number ofThe
depressing
incidents
during
the
last
month
pduring
< .05)
but
the
sample
was
large
(N =
1,4
resulting
in depressive feelingsThe
the
last
month.
The
girls
seemed
to pro
ha
data
were
analysed
with the SPSS
12.0.1
(χ2 = 3.05, df = 1, p = .08). In Finland,
34%
and
in
Japan
39%
of
the
adolescents
had
(Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p <often
.05)than
but sixth
the sample
was
graders
(χ2 =
analysis,
Spearman’s
correlation
factor
and
more
often
than
boys
(χ2coefficient,
=during
44.01,the
1,
panalysis,
< .001),
andCronb
eight
experienced these
a life feelings
event
resulting
in
depressive
feelings
month.
The
pdflast
<=.05)
but
the sample
w
analysis,
Spearman’s
correlation
coefficient,
factor analy
the
matter
with
mo
girls seemed to havewere
experienced
these
feelings
more
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than
boys
(χ2
=
44.01,
df
=someone
used.
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questions
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analysed
by
frequency
analysis.
The
ex
often than sixth graders (χ2
= 15.13,
df = 1, p correlation
< .001). ). coefficient,
In addition, factor
the girls
analysis,
Spearman’s
1, p < .001), and eighth graders morewere
often
than Yes/no
sixth
graders
(χ2 =were
15.13,analysed
df = 1, pby
< frequencyan
used.
questions
consult
a
psychologist
(χ2met
=a
analysis
performed
bymatter
the sum
of
squares
method.
The
rotation
the matter
withwas
someone
more
often
than
boys.
They
also
more
often
expre
.001). ). In addition,
the girls
had
discussed
the
with
someone
more
often
than
were used. Yes/no questions were analysed by frequen
analysis
was
performed
by the
sum
squares
T
often
had
discussed
the matte
boys. They also more
often expressed
a need
to
consult
a psychologist
(χ2
=of27.48,
df method.
rotation
because
it
was
felt
thatdfdifferent
factors
related
to wellbeing
migh
consult a psychologist (χ2
=
27.48,
=
2,
p
<
.001).
Furthermore,
the
eight
analysis
was performed
by the sum
of squares method
= 2, p < .001). Furthermore, the eighth
graders
more
the matter
rotation
because
itoften
washad
feltdiscussed
that
different
factors
to
.001).
Similarly,
in related
both cou
each
other.
often
discussed
with
than
the
(χ2related
= 24.
with someone
than had
the sixth
gradersthe
(χ2matter
= 24.64,
df =someone
1, pit<was
.001).
ingraders
both
rotation
because
feltSimilarly,
thatsixth
different
factors
2
eachthe
other.
.02,
= 1, p <
countries the.001).
adolescents
had discussed
problems
with
anotherperson
person
((
==.02,
df df
Similarly,
in both each
countries
the
adolescents
had
discussed
the problem
other.
= 1, p < .90). Likewise, there was no difference in the adolescents’ need for counselling
counselling
in theintwo
Results
person ((2==1.03,
.02, df
df==2,1,p p< <
.90).
Likewise,
thereforwas
no difference
thecou
ad
in the two countries
.60;
Table
12).
Results
On
average
comparatively
few
physical
symptoms
were
reported
On average, all the adolescents assessed their state2 of mind to be good. The Finnfor counselling in the two countries
( = 1.03, df = 2, p < .60; Table 12).
Results
On average
few 13),
physical
ish sixth graders expressed the best estimations
of their comparatively
state of mind (Table
and symptoms
adolescents had slightly more
psychosomatic
symptoms
Finnish oa
Table 12.than
Frequencies
On average
comparatively
few adophysical sympto
the Finnish adolescents altogether expressed better
estimations
than the Japanese
adolescents
had slightly more psychosomatic
and a need to symptoms
consult a p
2
.004);The
however,
the differences
lescents (F1,1383 =5.48,
20.54,pp=< .02,
.001, ==.015).
boys assessed
their state ofbetween
mind the two c
adolescents
had slightly
more
psychosomatic
sympto
Table 12. Frequencies
of depression
incidents,
discussions
about incident
.02, 2= =.016)
.004);
the differences
betw
to be better than the girls (F1,1383 =5.48,
22.14,pp=< .001,
and however,
the sixth
graders
to
Depressing
(Table
8). to
The
girls areported
psychosomatic
symptoms
more
often
tha
and
a need
consult
psychologist
2
th
.004); however,
the differences
be better than eighth graders (F1,1383 =5.48,
38.64,pp=< .02,
.001, ==.027).
incident
6
(Table
8). The girls reported psychosomatic symptomsgrm
2
p
<
.001,

=
.033),
andduring
the eighth
graders
more
often
the 36
si
Those who had 47.66,
experienced
a
depressing
incident
the last
month
evaluated
Girls
Yesthan
Depressing
Japan
(Table
8). Finland
The
symptom
2 girls reported psychosomatic
th
th
th
th
47.66,
p <(Table
.001,
 =However,
.033),
and
the6 eighth
graders
o
64
their state of mind toincident
be worse than the
others
of them
the Finngrade
8 13).
grade
Total
grade
8NogrademoreTo
42.35, p < .001, 2 6= .029).
2
Missing
0
=
.033),
and
the
eighth
graders
mo
47.66,
p
<
.001,

ish adolescents estimated
mind to be better
than the Japanese adolescents
Girls their state
Yes of
39
53
4
42.35, 36
p < .001, 482 = .029).43
Very No
few the
symptoms
of 51
depression
reported
(Table
8).205
64 estimated
60
46
(U = 28576.5, p < .05). Furthermore,
boys
their
mindBoys
to
be betterYes
2 state57ofwere
No
79
42.35,
< .001,
 = .029).
0 p few
1graders
0 of
1
Very
were
than the girls (U = 25143.5, pMissing
< .001). Moreover,
sixth symptoms
who
haddepression
experienced
a 1 reporte
2 1
Missing
=
1.92,
p
=
.17,

=
symptoms
was
the
same
in
both
countries
(F
1,1404 30
Yes
31
3.
Very
few
symptoms
ofgraders
depression
were repo
depressing incident Boys
estimated their
state of 20
mind
to be
better
than26eighth
withYes30
Total
28
No symptoms
79 was the
69 same in74both countries
70
70 = 1.92,
7
(F1,1404
72
similar experiences often
(U = 26959.0,
p <symptoms
.05). 1The adolescents
who(Fhad not= experienced
displayed
than the boys
145.90,
p <No.001,
2 =
Missing
0
0
=
1.
symptoms was0 the same01,1404
in both countries
(F
1,1404
Missing
0
any depressing incidents
the last
month
of mind
to
often
displayed
symptoms
than
the boys
= 145.90,
Total duringYes
28 evaluated
40 their state
34
34 be(Fbest
1,1404 42
23
=
43.31,
p
<
.001,

graders
more
often
than
the
sixth
graders
(F
1,1404 65
No
72 displayed
57 = 145.6
(Table 13). Finnish adolescents evaluated
their
state of 60
mind
to be65
better
than
often
symptoms
than
theJapanese
boys (F
1,1404
Discussion
with
= 43.31
graders
more
often
than
the
sixth
graders
(F
1,1404
Missing
0
0
1
1
adolescents (U = 73822.5,
< .001).
The girls
theshowed
boys who
had not experienced
someone
6th gr
girls inpeighth
grade
mostand
often
symptoms
of depression1 (Table
8
graders
more
often
than
the
sixth
graders
(F
=
43
1,1404
depressing incidentsDiscussion
during thewith
last girls
monthinevaluated
their most
state of
mind
to be equally
eighth Finland
grade
often
showed
symptoms
depr
Japan of
The study groups
againth showed a few impulsiveness
sympto
th
as good (U = 86587.5,
p = .053).
someone
6th grade
8 grade
Totaloften6showed
grade symptoms
8thgrade ofTo
girls
in eighth
grade most
d
The study groups again showed a few impulsiv
adolescents in Japan more often reported symptoms of impulsivene
The study groups again showed a few impu
adolescents in Japan more often reported symptoms o
adolescents (F1,1402 = 37.56, p < .001, 2 = .026). The eighth graders sh
adolescents in Japan more often reported symptom
adolescents (F1,1402 = 37.56, p < .001, 2 = .026). The ei
symptoms more often than the sixth graders (F1,1402 = 75.95,2 p < .001, 2
adolescents (F1,1402 = 37.56, p < .001,  = .026). The
symptoms more often than the sixth graders2 (F1,1402 = 75.9
slightly more often than the boys (F1,1402 = 7.29, p < .01,  = .005). An i
symptoms more often than the sixth graders (F1,1402 = 7
slightly more often than the boys (F1,1402 = 7.29, p < .01, 
between country and gender; the Japanese girls reported impulsiveness s
slightly more often than the boys (F1,1402 = 7.29, p < .0
between country and gender; the Japanese
girls reported i
(F1,1402 = 8.13, p < .01, 2 = .006, Table 8).
between country and gender; the Japanese girls report
(F1,1402 = 8.13, p < .01, 2 = .006, Table 8).
(F1,1402 = 8.13, p < .01, 2 = .006, Table 8).
Table12.
12.Frequencies
Frequencies of
of depression
Table
depression incidents,
incidents,discussions
discussionsabout
aboutincidents,
incidents,
and a need to consult a psychologist
and a need to consult a psychologist
Depressing
incident
Girls
Yes
No
Missing
Boys
Yes
No
Missing
Total
Yes
No
Missing
6th grade
36
64
0
20
79
1
28
72
0
Finland
8thgrade
48
51
1
31
69
0
40
60
0
Total
43
57
0
26
74
0
34
65
1
6th grade
39
60
1
30
70
0
34
65
1
Japan
8thgrade
53
46
1
30
70
0
42
57
1
Total
47
52
1
30
70
0
39
61
0
Discussion with
someone
Girls
Yes
No
Missing
Boys
Yes
No
Missing
Total
Yes
No
Missing
6th grade
25
73
2
15
82
3
20
78
2
Finland
8thgrade
39
55
6
25
70
5
32
63
5
Total
33
63
4
20
76
4
26
70
4
6th grade
22
58
20
13
68
19
17
63
20
Japan
8thgrade
36
42
22
13
60
27
25
50
25
Total
30
48
22
13
64
23
22
56
22
Need for
discussion
Girls
Yes
No
Missing
Boys
Yes
No
Missing
Total
Yes
No
Missing
6th grade
10
90
0
3
97
0
6
93
1
Finland
8thgrade
15
82
3
3
95
2
9
88
3
Total
13
85
2
3
96
1
8
90
2
6th grade
9
90
1
6
92
2
8
91
1
Japan
8thgrade
12
87
1
5
94
1
9
90
1
Total
11
88
1
6
93
1
8
92
0
93
94
Table 13. The results of the estimations of state of mind, by country, grade
Table
13. The results of the estimations of state of mind, by country, grade and gender
and gender
State of mind
Girls
Boys
Total
M
Sd
M
Sd
M
Sd
6th grade
81.9
16.8
84.4
17.4
83.2
17.1
Finland
8thgrade
72.4
20.5
79.8
19.8
76.1
20.5
Total
76.7
19.5
82.0
18.8
79.3
19.3
6th grade
75.1
22.2
80.6
22.6
78.0
22.5
Japan
8thgrade
68.8
23.3
73.5
22.4
71.0
23.0
Total
71.5
23.0
76.9
22.8
74.2
23.0
Depressing
incidents
Girls
M
Sd
Boys
M
Sd
Total
M
Sd
6th grade
71.1
19.2
77.1
20.4
73.3
19.7
Finland
8thgrade
63.3
22.0
70.8
25.3
66.2
23.5
Total
66.2
21.3
73.1
23.8
68.8
22.4
6th grade
61.6
25.5
69.6
27.9
65.4
26.8
Japan
8thgrade
62.0
23.9
64.4
23.0
62.8
23.5
Total
61.9
24.4
67.0
25.5
63.8
24.9
No Depressing
incidents
Girls
M
Sd
Boys
M
Sd
Total
M
Sd
6th grade
87.9
11.5
86.2
16.1
87.0
14.3
Finland
8thgrade
81.4
14.1
84.0
15.1
82.9
14.7
Total
84.8
13.2
85.1
15.6
85.0
14.6
6th grade
83.7
14.3
85.1
18.3
84.5
16.6
Japan
8thgrade
76.3
20.2
77.5
21.1
77.0
20.7
Total
80.0
17.9
81.2
20.2
80.6
19.2
According to their answers, the adolescents had discussed their problems related
to their education and family most often with their friends or family members. They
had also discussed with class teachers or subject teachers, especially when they had
problems in education. However, the answers showed that some of the adolescents did
not discuss their problems with anyone, and did not want to do so either. Other persons
that the adolescents discussed their problems with were most often grandparents or
girl/boyfriends.
The frequencies showed that adolescents discuss and want to discuss their problems with friends and family members in both countries. In Finland 39% of the adolescents discussed problems related to their studying with their family members but only
18% of the Japanese adolescents did that. They discussed these problems more often
than the Finnish adolescents with class teachers and subject teachers (put together
19%). Furthermore, it seems that the Japanese adolescents also discuss problems other
than school related ones more often with their teachers than Finnish adolescents. There
are no significant differences in the boys’ and the girls’ responses. The sixth graders
seem to discuss all kinds of problems with their teachers more often than the eighth
graders do.
95
Discussion
On average the adolescents surveyed revealed few symptoms of mental ill health.
They reported most often symptoms of depression and problems related to state of
mind and controlling emotions. The schools have several occasions, especially in art
classes, to discuss emotions with adolescents. However, to be able to do this the teachers should understand their role as extensive supporters of their students. The girls had
almost all symptoms more often than the boys and the eighth graders more often than
the sixth graders. No single symptom proved to occur significantly more often than the
other symptoms. The Japanese adolescents had more often psychosomatic symptoms,
symptoms of impulsiveness, social anxiety, and problems of controlling emotions than
the Finnish adolescents. The Finnish adolescents had problems in their social relationships more often than Japanese adolescents. The group with the least wellbeing was
that of the Japanese girls in eighth grade. They most often had problems in controlling
emotions, symptoms of depression, and eating and overweight problems. The adolescents in both countries felt that their state of mind was considerably good, but the Finnish adolescents evaluated their state of mind to be better than the Japanese adolescents.
One-third of the adolescents had experienced some depressing incident during the
last month. Almost half of these adolescents had discussed it with some other person.
Naturally those who had experienced that kind of an incident more often than the others felt that they needed to consult a psychologist. However, this was an opinion of
only one-fifth of them. The Finnish adolescents discussed their problems with their
family members more often than the Japanese adolescents, and the Japanese adolescents turned to their teachers with their problems more often than the Finnish adolescents. Therefore it is important to consider if Japanese teachers have opportunities to
support their students individually because the study groups in Japan are so large.
The results support the findings of the previous international studies (Landsford et
al., 2005; Tanaka et al., 2005), which showed that Japanese adolescents do not feel as
well as adolescents in Western countries. In addition, the result that the eighth graders
more often had symptoms than the sixth graders is consistent with several previous
studies indicating that psychosomatic symptoms, symptoms of impulsiveness, social
anxiety, and problems of controlling emotions increase during adolescence (Costello
et al., 2003; Measelle et al., 2006; Roberts et al., 1998.) The girls more often than
the boys had depression, impulsiveness, social anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms, and
problems related to controlling emotions and in how they picture themselves. Nevertheless, both genders equally often had problems in social relationships. Also these
results are congruent with the results of several previous studies (Angold et al., 1998;
Birmaher & Axelson, 2001; Landsford et al., 2005; Presnell et al., 2004).
In the present study, most of the students’ symptoms were related to depression
and controlling of emotions. For instance, Angold et al. (1998) argue that the difference
in girls’ and boys’ symptoms of depression increase significantly during adolescence.
96
However, the results of the present study show that in sixth grade the girls already had
more symptoms of depression than the boys. Moreover, the symptoms of depression
were often related to other symptoms. Also Birmaher and Axelson (2001) as well as
Stice et al. (2001) point out that depression is frequently connected to several psychological problems and it often makes diagnosing difficult. The Japanese students felt
more often than the Finnish students that they had difficulties in controlling their emotions. This may be due to cultural differences. In Japanese culture specific norms control people’s behaviour. Marshall (1994) summarises the impact of Confucian tradition
on modern education, one of them being the pressure to keep social harmony. This
reduces students’ possibilities to show their emotions. Moreover, Japanese collective
culture makes showing individual emotions difficult (Shimahara, 1995). The Japanese
educational goal is not for an independent individual as understood in Western thinking but for an interdependent personhood (Markus & Kitayama, 1998).
Although Finland is considered as an individualist Western country, the results of
this study show that family is important for young Finnish people. Almost half of Finnish adolescents discussed their problems with their family members. Although family
is also important for Japanese people, the results showed that Japanese adolescents
often turn to their teachers when they have problems. However, the results also showed
that, although Finnish adolescents discuss their problems more often with their family
members, they have more problems in their social relationships than Japanese adolescents.
According to their answers, adolescents talked about their problems most often
with their friends or family members. Previous studies have also shown that parents
have the most important influence on their children’s emotional lives throughout adolescence (Greene & Way, 2005). Wentzel & McNamara (1999) argue that parents have
an important role in their children’s social competence at school. Close parental relationships can help them in developing intimate relationships with peers and provide
a safeguard against depression and feelings of low self-worth. Research has also suggested that those adolescents who have established good peer relationships display
higher levels of emotional wellbeing and lower levels of emotional distress than those
who have no friends (Wenzel et al., 2004).
The students also discussed with class teachers or subject teachers, especially
when they had problems in studying. This was the case especially in Japan. As Brewster and Bowen (2004) state, teacher support has a great influence especially during
the middle-school years. It decreases students’ problem behaviours and improves their
academic outcomes. Social support from adults and peers promotes the psychological wellbeing of students. In the study conducted by Buchanan and Bowen (2008)
the students with a strong combination of adult and peer support gained the highest
psychological wellbeing scores. Therefore it is essential to enhance students’ relationships with teachers and other adults within and outside the school setting. In addition,
97
increasing positive relationships among students is important. School and home are
the most central environments in a child’s life. Creating strong connections between
these two would significantly promote students’ wellbeing (Ben-Arieh et al., 2009.)
Children born in Finland have since the 1980s been among the healthiest in the
world. However, there are several factors that challenge school children’s health today:
the growth of students’ mental problems, overweight problems, and risk of social exclusion. In the twenty-first century the number of children who have been transferred
to special education has significantly increased. One pupil in 10 has some medically
diagnosed disease or disability that needs nursing or support. If social problems are
included, one-third of all students need special support or nursing. In Finland more and
more of the responsibility for school health care has been transferred to municipalities
and to each of its schools. The annually revised curriculum that every school makes
also includes plans for school children’s health care. In addition, the curriculum includes plans for how school children’s wellbeing is taken care of (Stakes, 2002).
The Japanese educational system’s success in developing and deploying human
capital has also been recognised abroad and Japan’s education has been considered to
be one of the main reasons for the nation’s economic achievements (Pokarier, 2002).
However, Japanese education is criticised, for instance, for being too strict, and for
stealing students’ youth, creativity and spontaneity (Roesgaard, 1998).
Several means are used simultaneously to enhance Finnish school children’s wellbeing and health. It is necessary to bring the factors that endanger students’ wellbeing
and how they can be prevented to the attention of all school personnel. A secure and
pleasant school environment has an important role as a promoter of wellbeing. Health
education is a new school subject that includes theoretical and practical knowledge for
students about how they can take care of their own health. Student welfare services
have to be available for students weekly during the lessons. Student welfare groups are
multi-professional expert groups that use school nurses’, school doctors’, school welfare officers’, school psychologists’, and teachers’ professional expertise to promote
students’ wellbeing.
Assessing, observing, and promoting school children’s wellbeing is included in
each school’s curriculum. The goal is that the school nurse meets all students and
does a personal physical examination at least once a year. In Finland the Ministry of
Social Affairs and Health recommends that there should be one full-time school nurse
per 600–700 students. School welfare personnel and parents together make a personal
welfare and health plan for each student. In Japan the Ministry of Education has made
efforts to improve education by new curricular emphases, new teaching material and
additional in-service training possibilities for teachers. Poukka (2011) has analysed
the Japanese curriculum, especially from the view of moral education. She found that
important aspects are, for instance, continuous self-development and caring for others,
which are crucial for students’ wellbeing.
98
In special situations a Finnish student and his or her parents have an opportunity
to discuss matters related to the student’s health, wellbeing, and learning skills with a
school welfare officer or a school psychologist. This kind of cooperation is always required when a student is transferred to special education. According to law every child
has a right to get the support and assistance that he or she needs in order to be able to
attend school. A school psychologist supports a student together with his or her teacher
and parents, and a school welfare officer uses means that social work provides to help
him or her when he or she has special difficulties (Stakes, 2002).
In Finland the law guarantees good opportunities to maintain health and wellbeing for a student. Organisationally the possibilities are favourable for maintenance of
school health care, but in practice the fact that the number of school welfare officers
and school psychologists in municipalities is insufficient causes problems. The plans
that the schools have made in order to support students’ wellbeing in practice are still
inadequate. Furthermore, it is difficult for the whole school personnel to commit themselves to observing and promoting students’ wellbeing.
Özet
Giriş
Gençlik, yetişkinliğe giden geçici bir evredir. Buluğ çağında fiziksel, duygusal ve
bilişsel gelişim ile ilgili zorluklar gençlerin zihinsel iyi oluşunu tehlikeye atabilir. Ayıca ebeveynlerle, arkadaşlarla ve öğretmelerle ilişkiler onların sağlığı için bir tehlike
olabilir (Mash & Wolfe, 2005). Depresyon kız ergenler için en yaygın zihinsel bozukluktur ve kızların yaklaşık %20’sinin gençlik yıllarında depresyon belirtileri vardır.
Aynı zamanda kızlarda sıklıkla yeme problemleri görülür veya yemek yeme konusu
sıkıntılıdır (Birmaher & Axelson, 2001; Stice ve diğerleri, 2001).
Bir kimsenin kendi bedenini algılama biçiminin yeme problemlerinin gelişiminde
önemli rolü vardır (Cafri & Thompson, 2004). Düşük özsaygı ve depresyon, beden
ölçüsü, etnik grup, sosyokültürel baskı ve arkadaşlarla ve ebeveynlerle ilişkiler bir
ergenin bedensel tatminsizliğini arttırabilir (Cash, 2002; Paxton ve diğerleri., 2005;
Paxton ve diğerleri, 2006). Tatminsizliği arttırabilen diğer etkenler beden ölçüsü, etnik
grup, arkadaşlar ve ebeveynlerle ilişkilerdir (Paxton ve diğerleri, 2006). Birkaç araştırma kızların bedenlerinden memnun olma derecesinin erkeklere göre daha az olduğunu
ortaya koymuştur (örneğin, Presnell ve diğerleri, 2004; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001).
Cinsiyetler arasındaki farklılıkların belirli sebepleri bulunmamıştır. Fakat kızların ve
erkeklerin bedenleri ile ilgili farklı sosyal baskılar vardır (Cafri ve dierleri, 2005; Ohring ve diğerleri, 2002). Kızlar zayıf olduklarında kendilerinden daha memnun olurlarken erkekler kaslı olmak isterler (Saarilehto ve diğerleri, 2003).
Finlandiya’da Luopa ve diğerleri (2005) tarafından yürütülen boylamsal bir çalış-
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ma ortaokul ilk sınıf öğrencilerinin baş ağrılarının, depresyonlarının ve yorgunluklarının 2001 yılına kadar arttığını, sonra birkaç yıllığına düştüğünü ve yakın zamanlarda yine yaygın hale geldiğini göstermiştir. Bunun temel sebeplerinden biri okul işini
çok stresli bulan öğrencilerin sayısının son yıllarda artmış olabileceğidir (Kämppi ve
diğerleri, 2012). Luopa ve diğerleri (2006) kızların erkeklerden daha sık hafif veya
erkeklerin yarı şiddetinde depresyon, yorgunluk ve uyku problemleri çektiklerini bulmuşlardır. Bu öğrenciler zihin durumlarını iyileştirmek için genellikle arkadaşlarından, ebeveynlerinden ve akrabalarından destek aramışlardır.
Japonya’da ergenlerin baş ağrısı, mide krampları ve iştahsızlık gibi psikosomatik
belirtilerinin sayısı da son on yılda artmıştır (Takahashi ve diğerleri, 2002). Japonya’da
ve İsveç’te yürütülen karşılaştırmalı bir araştırma Japonya’da yedinci ile dokuzuncu
sınıf arasındaki öğrencilerin yukarıda belirtilen sıkıntıları İsveç’teki arkadaşlarından
daha sık yaşadıklarını göstermiştir. Ayrıca onların rahatsızlıklarında sıklıkla zihinsel
belirtilere rastlanmış ve bu öğrencilerin hayatlarından İsveç’teki ergenlere göre daha
az memnun oldukları belirlenmiştir. Bu durum kültürel farklılıkların rahatsızlıkların
belirtilerinin doğası ve niteliği üzerinde etkileri olabildiğini gösterir (Landsford ve
diğerleri, 2005.)
Bir kişinin zihinsel sağlığının günlük yaşamında her şeyi normal idare edebiliyorsa iyi olduğu ölçülür. İnsanların yaşam koşullarına uyum sağlama ve iyi dengelenmiş
bir yaşam sürme yeteneği iyi oluş hisleri ile yakından ilişkilidir (Vaillant, 2003). Zihinsel iyi oluş, öznel olarak hissedilen kapsamlı bir memnuniyet durumu ve olumlu duygu
olarak tanımlanabilir (Ben-Zur, 2003). Öznel iyi oluş bir kimsenin yaşamının herhangi
bir zamanda ve uzun zaman boyunca değerlendirmesini kapsar (Diener ve diğerleri,
2003). Kişilikteki ve öznel iyi oluş duygularındaki farklılıklar erken yaşlarda görülebilir (Diener & Lucas, 1999) ve bunun kalıtsal olduğu kanıtlanmıştır (Vaillant, 2003).
Bununla birlikte bir kişinin mizacının, farklı ortamlara uyum sağlama yeteneğinin
(Sohlberg ve diğerleri, 2002), amaçlara ulaşmak için sarf ettikleri çabanın ve insan ilişkilerinin (Luopa ve diğerleri, 2006), kişinin iyi oluş düzeyi üzerinde bir etkisi vardır.
Öznel iyi oluş ve mutluluk da bir kimsenin yaşam kalitesine bağlıdır. Vatandaşların
birçok hakka, eğitim fırsatına ve genellikle iyi sosyoekonomik statüye sahip olduğu
ülkelerde iyi oluş standardının yüksek olduğu kanıtlanmıştır (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1991).
Aile özellikleri ergenlerin iyi oluşları ile ilişkili olabilir. Örneğin ergenlerin öznel
iyi oluşları ile ebeveynlerinin öznel iyi oluşları arasında olumlu korelasyonlar bulunmuştur (Ben-Zur, 2003; Larson & Richards, 1994). Vuille ve Schenkel (2001) okulun
bir ergenin iyi oluşu ile bununla ilişkili birkaç durum üzerinde etkisi olduğunu bulmuşlardır. Özellikle Japonya’da, okulların bilişsel, ahlaki/dini, kentsel/ulusal, fiziksel,
estetik ve müziksel alanları anlamlı şekilde vurguladığı bulunmuştur. Burada amaç
bütünsel kişi eğitimidir (Cummings, 2003). Bu çalışmanın amacı çok farklı ortamlarda
altıncı ve sekizinci sınıfa giden öğrencilerin kendi psikolojik iyi oluşunu nasıl değer-
100
lendirdiğini araştırmaktır.
Yöntem
Araştırma 697 Finli ve 721 Japon öğrenciyle yürütülmüştür. Araştırmayla Finli ve
Japon altıncı ve sekizinci sınıf erkek ve kız öğrencilerin iyi oluşları arasında farklar
bulunup bulunmadığı ortaya konmaya çalışılmıştır. Araştırmada Japonya’da Nagai ve
diğerleri tarafından geliştirilmiş olan anket Fince’ye çevrilerek kullanılmıştır. Anket
ergenlerin iyi oluşunun birkaç farklı yönü ile ilişkili maddeleri içermektedir (Nagai ve
diğerleri, 2007).
Bulgular
Araştırmanın sonuçlarına bakıldığında “ortalamaya” göre az sayıda fiziksel belirti belirlenmiştir. Japon öğrencilerin Finli öğrencilere göre psikosomatik belirtilerinin
çok az farkla fazla olduğu; bununla birlikte, iki ülke arasındaki farkın az olduğu görülmüştür. Kızlar psikosomatik belirtileri erkeklere göre ve sekizinci sınıflar altıncı sınıflara göre daha sık bildirmişlerdir. Japon ergenlerin Finli ergenlere göre psikosomatik
belirtileri, düşünmeden hareket etme belirtilerini, sosyal kaygı ve duyguları kontrol
etme problemlerini daha sık yaşadığı tespit edilmiştir. Finli ergenlerin Japon ergenlere göre sosyal ilişkilerinde problemlerinin daha sık olduğu; buna karşılık sekizinci
sınıftaki Japon kızların diğer öğrencilere göre duyguları kontrol etme problemlerinin,
depresyon belirtilerinin, yeme ve aşırı kilo problemlerinin daha sık olduğu sonucuna
ulaşılmıştır. Her iki ülkedeki ergenler zihinsel durumlarının oldukça iyi olduğunu hissettiklerini belirtmişler fakat Finli ergenler zihinsel durumlarını Japon ergenlere göre
daha iyi olarak değerlendirmişlerdir.
Sonuçlar Japon öğrencilerin Batı ülkelerindeki ergenler kadar iyi hissetmediklerini gösteren daha önce yapılmış uluslararası araştırmaların bulgularını desteklemektedir (Landsford ve diğerleri, 2005; Tanaka ve diğerleri, 2005). Ayrıca sekizinci
sınıfların altıncı sınıflara göre “daha sık” belirtileri sonucu; psikosomatik belirtilerin,
düşünmeden hareket etme belirtilerinin, sosyal kaygının ve duyguları kontrol etme
problemlerinin ergenlikte arttığını gösteren daha önce yapılmış birkaç araştırma ile tutarlıdır (Costello ve diğerleri, 2003; Measelle ve diğerleri, 2006; Roberts ve diğerleri,
1998). Kızların depresyon belirtileri, düşünmeden hareket etme davranışları, sosyal
kaygıları, psikosomatik belirtileri, duyguları kontrol etme ve kendilerini tanımlamaları ile ilgili problemleri erkeklere göre daha sıktı. Hâlbuki her iki cinsin de sosyal
ilişkilerde eşit sıklıkta problemleri vardı. Bu sonuçlar da önceden yapılmış birkaç araştırmanın sonuçları ile uyumludur (Angold ve diğerleri, 1998; Birmaher & Axelson,
2001; Landsford ve diğerleri, 2005; Presnell ve diğerleri, 2004).
Bu çalışmada öğrencilerin psikosomatik belirtilerinin çoğu depresyonla ve duyguları kontrol etmekle ilişkilidir. Örneğin Angold ve diğerleri (1998) kızların ve erkeklerin depresyon belirtilerindeki farkın ergenlikte anlamlı şekilde arttığını iddia ederler.
101
Bununla birlikte bu araştırmanın sonuçları altıncı sınıfta bile kızlarda erkeklere göre
daha fazla depresyon belirtileri bulunduğunu göstermektedir. Ayrıca depresyon belirtileri sıklıkla diğer belirtilerle ilişkili idi. Bundan başka Birmaher ve Axelson (2001) ayrıca Stice ve diğerleri (2001) depresyonun sıklıkla birkaç psikolojik problemle bağlantılı olduğuna ve bu durumun, çoğunlukla teşhisi zorlaştırdığına dikkat çekerler. Japon
öğrenciler Finli öğrencilerden daha sık olarak duygularını kontrol etmede zorluklar
çektiklerini hissetmişlerdir. Bu kültürel farklılıklardan kaynaklanabilir. Japon kültüründe belirli normlar insanların davranışlarını kontrol eder, bunlardan bir tanesi sosyal
uyumu muhafaza etmekteki baskıdır (Marshall, 1994). Bu, öğrencilerin duygularını
gösterme olanaklarını azaltır. Ayrıca Japon kolektif kültürü bireysel duyguları göstermeyi zorlaştırır (Shimahara, 1995). Japon eğitiminin amacı Batılı anlayıştaki gibi bağımsız bir birey olmak değil, birbirine bağlı kişi olmaktır (Markus & Kitayama, 1998).
Sonuç/Tartışma
Ebeveynlerin ergenlik boyunca çocuklarının duygusal yaşamları üzerinde önemli
bir etkisi vardır (Greene & Way, 2005). Ayrıca ebeveynlerin çocuklarının okuldaki
sosyal yeterliğinde de önemli bir rolü vardır. Yakın ebeveyn ilişkileri çocuklara arkadaşları ile yakın ilişkiler geliştirmelerinde yardımcı olabilir ve onları depresyona ve
düşük özdeğer duygularına karşı koruyabilir (Wentzel ve diğerleri, 2004; Wentzel ve
McNamara, 1999).
Öğrenciler özellikle ders çalışma ile ilgili problemleri olduğunda öğretmenleriyle
tartışmışlardır. Bu özellikle Japonya’da görülen bir durumdur. Brewster ve Bowen’ın
(2004) ifade ettiği gibi öğretmen desteği öğrencilerin problem davranışlarını azaltır
ve onların akademik başarılarını yükseltir. Yetişkinlerden ve akranlardan gelen sosyal destek öğrencilerin psikolojik iyi oluşlarını arttırır. Buchanan ve Bowen (2008)
tarafından yürütülen çalışmada güçlü bir yetişkin ve akran desteği kombinasyonuna
sahip öğrencilerin en yüksek psikolojik iyi oluş puanı kazandıkları bulunmuştur. Bu
yüzden öğrencilerin öğretmenlerle ve diğer yetişkinlerle olan ilişkilerini sağlamak ve
bu ilişkileri derinleştirmek önemlidir. Ayrıca öğrenciler arasında da olumlu ilişkileri
sağlamak önemlidir. Okul ve ev, bir çocuğun yaşamındaki en merkezi çevredir. Bu
ikisi arasında güçlü bağlantılar oluşturmak öğrencilerin iyi oluşlarını anlamlı şekilde
arttırabilir (Ben-Arieh ve diğerleri, 2009).
Japon eğitimi ve öğrenci yetiştirme anlayışı ulusun ekonomik başarılarının başlıca sebebi olarak tanımlanır (Pokarier, 2002). Bununla birlikte Japon eğitimi çok katı
olmakla ve öğrencilerin gençliğini, yaratıcılığını ve doğaçlamalarını çalmakla eleştirilir (Roesgaard, 1998). Japonya’da Eğitim Bakanlığı yeni müfredat vurguları, yeni
öğretim malzemeleri ve öğretmenler için ilave hizmet içi eğitim olanakları vasıtasıyla
eğitimi iyileştirmek için çaba sarf etmiştir. Poukka (2011) Japon bakanlık müfredatını
özellikle ahlaki eğitim açısından analiz etmiştir. Öğrencilerin iyi oluşları için üzerinde
durulan noktaların sürekli özgelişim ve diğerlerini dikkate alma olduğunu bulmuştur.
102
Finlandiya’da okul çocuklarının iyi oluşlarını ölçme, gözlemleme ve arttırma her
bir okulun müfredatına dâhil edilmiştir. Kanuna göre her çocuğun okula gidebilmek
için ihtiyaç duyduğu destek ve yardımı alma hakkı vardır. Bir okul psikoloğu bir öğrenciyi öğretmenleri ve ebeveynleri ile beraber destekler ve bir okul sosyal hizmet memuru, öğrencinin özel zorlukları olduğunda ona yardımcı olmak için devletin sağladığı
sosyal hizmet araçlarını kullanır (Stakes 2002). Bununla birlikte belediyedeki okul
sosyal hizmet memurlarının ve okul psikologlarının sayısı yeterlidir anlayışı uygulamada problemlere neden olabilmektedir. Çünkü okulların öğrencilerin iyi oluşlarını
desteklemek için yaptığı planlar uygulamada halen elverişli değildir. Bu yüzden tüm
okul personelinin kendini öğrencilerin iyi oluşlarını arttırmaya adaması zor görünmektedir.
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