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Democratic Reform and
Consolidation
The Cases of Mexico and Turkey
Evren Çelik Wiltse
© Evren Celik Wiltse 2015
First published by the ECPR Press in 2015
Cover: © Evren Celik Wiltse (2014) ‘Mexican Mural on Revolution’
The ECPR Press is the publishing imprint of the European Consortium for Political Research
(ECPR), a scholarly association, which supports and encourages the training, research and
cross-national co-operation of political scientists in institutions throughout Europe and beyond.
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Contents
List of Abbreviations
List of Figures and Tables
ix
xiii
Acknowledgementsxv
Prefacexix
Chapter One – Introduction
1
Chapter Two – Legacy of the Empires
13
Chapter Three – Nation-Building through Corporatism:
The Turkish Republic until the 1980 Crisis
49
Chapter Four – Mexico after 1910: Revolution, Modernisation,
Corporatist Nation-Building
97
Chapter Five – Democratic Progress in Mexico and Turkey After 1980
137
Chapter Six – Conclusion
213
Appendices223
Bibliography237
Index255
List of Abbreviations
AKP
Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi, Justice and Development Party of Turkey
AMLO
Andrés Manuel López Obrador
ANAP
Anavatan Partisi, Motherland Party of Turkey
AP
Adalet Partisi, Justice Party of Turkey
BoP
Balance of Payments
CEDESA
Centro de Desarollo Agropecuario, Center for Development in
Agriculture
CHP
Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi, Republican People’s Party of Turkey
CKMP
Cumhuriyetçi Köylü Millet Partisi, Republican Peasant and Nation Party
of Turkey
CMHN
Consejo Mexicano de Hombres de Negocios, Mexican Council of
Businessmen
CONCAMIN
Confederation of Industrial Chambers of Mexico
CONCANACO
The Confederation of Chambers of Commerce of Mexico
CROM
Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers
CTM
Confederacion de Trabajadores de Mexico, Confederation of Workers of
Mexico
DGM
Devlet Güvenlik Mahkemeleri, State Security Courts in Turkey
DISK
Devrimci İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu, Confederation of
Revolutionary Workers’ Unions in Turkey
DP
Demokrat Parti, Democrat Party of Turkey
DPT
Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı, State Planning Organisation of Turkey
DTP
Demokratik Toplum Partisi, Democratic Society Party of Turkey
EU
The European Union
EZLN
Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, Zapatista National Liberation
Army
FDI
Foreign Direct Investment
FDR
Franklin Delano Roosevelt
GATT
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
IFE
Instituto Federal Electoral, Federal Electoral Institute of Mexico
IMF
International Monetary Fund
IMSS
Instituto Mexicano de Segura Social, Mexican Social Security Institute
x
Democratic Reform and Consolidation
IS/ISIS
Islamic State, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria
ISI
Import substitution industrialization
MGK
Milli Güvenlik Kurulu, National Security Council of Turkey
MHP
Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi, National Action Party of Turkey
MNP
Milli Nizam Partisi, National Order Party of Turkey
MSP
Milli Selamet Partisi, National Salvation Party of Turkey
MUSIAD
Independent Industrialists’ and Businessmen’s Association of Turkey
NAFTA
North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement
NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
OAS
Organization of American States
OPDA
Ottoman Public Debt Administration, (Düyun-u Umumiye)
OYAK
Ordu Yardımlaşma Kurumu, Turkish Armed Forces Assistance and
Pension Fund
PAN
Partido Accion Nacional, National Action Party of Mexico
PEMEX
Petroleos Mexicanos, Mexican national oil company
PNR
Partido Nacional Revolucionario, National Revolutionary Party of
Mexico
PP
People’s Party, later became the Republican People’s Party of Turkey
PR
proportional representation system
PRD
Partido de la Revolución Democrática, Party of Democratic Revolution
of Mexico
PRI
Partido Revolucionario Institucional, Revolutionary Institutional Party of
Mexico
PROCEDE
Programa de Certificación de Derechos Ejidales y Titulación de Solares,
Certificate program for Mexican collective land owners.
PRONASOLNational Solidarity Program of Mexico for social assistance (later
PROGRESA)
SEE
State Economic Enterprise
SSK
Turkish Social Security Institution
TAF
Turkish Armed Forces
TEB
Türk Eczacılar Birliği, Pharmacists’ Association of Turkey
TEKEL
Turkish tobacco and alcohol monopoly
TGNA
Turkish Grand National Assembly
TIP
Türkiye İşçi Partisi, Worker’s Party of Turkey
TMMOB
Türk Mühendis ve Mimar Odaları Birliği, Union of Chamber of Turkish
Engineers and Architects
TOBB
Türkiye Odalar Borsalar Birliği, The Union of Chambers and Commodity
Exchanges of Turkey
List of Abbreviations
TRT
Turkish Radio Television, state-owned broadcasting agency of Turkey
TUSIAD
Turkish Industry and Business Association
TUSKON
Turkish Confederation of Businessmen and Industrialists
Türk-İş
Turkish Labour Confederation
UNAM
National Autonomous University of Mexico
VAT
Value added tax
YÖK
Yüksek Öğrenim Kurumu, Higher Education Council of Turkey
xi
List of Figures and Tables
Figures
Figure 2.1: Pyramid of Spanish colonial political and
administrative hierarchy
18
Figure 2.2: Pyramid of Ottoman political hierarchy
30
Figure 2.3: Registered bullion production in Spanish colonies
38
Figure 3.1: State–society relations under corporatism
55
Figure 3.2: Turkish political landscape, 1923–80
90
Figure 4.1: The corporatist triangle
113
Figure 4.2: The pendulum of Mexican politics
127
Figure 5.1: Concepts of democratic continuum
143
Figure 5.2: Exports and imports of goods and services in
Mexico, 1960–2008, as % of GDP
153
Figure 5.3: Foreign direct investment (FDI) net flows,
Mexico and Turkey compared, 1970–2012 159
Figure 5.4: Transition from authoritarian clientelism to
semi-clientelism and citizenship in Mexico
161
Figure 5.5: Import–export performance of Turkey as % of
GDP, 1960–2012
174
Figure 5.6: Import–export performance of Mexico as % of
GDP, 1968–2012
175
Figure 5.7: Political party landscape in Turkey after 1980 coup
187
Figure 5.8: Co-existence and hierarchy of multiple forms of
state–society relations in Turkey
202
xiv
Democratic Reform and Consolidation
Tables
Table 3.1: Unanimous decisions of Turkish Grand
National Assembly, 1920–46
62
Table 3.2: Prime ministers of Republic of Turkey, 1920–80
84
Table 3.3: Distribution of membership in rival union organisations,
by economic sector, 1975 (%)
93
Table 4.1: Impact of land reform during Cárdenas years
117
Table 4.2: Mexican industry, 1940–50
123
Table 4.3: Increase in agricultural production, 1946–52
124
Table 5.1: State Economic Enterprises (SEEs) in
Mexico, 1982–92
154
Table 5.2: Trade openness of Turkey, 1961–2000
176
Table 5.3: Results of 2007, 2011 and 2015 general elections and
distribution of seats in Turkish parliament
188
Table 5.4: Tolerance for diversity
198
Table 5.5: Interpersonal trust and sense of personal empowerment
199
Table 5.6: Provinces with highest % of Green Card holders in 2009
206
Table 5.7: Provinces with lowest % of Green Card holders in 2009
206
Table 6.1: Summary of findings on Turkish and Mexican cases
219
Table A1: Political Regimes in 2010 and 2015 according to the
Freedom House Rating System
223
Table A2: Freedom House Individual Country Ratings and
Status for Mexico and Turkey (1972–2014)
226