CONTENTS REVIEWERS of the 46th ISSUE

Transkript

CONTENTS
REVIEWERS of the 46th ISSUE
İçindekiler
46. Sayı Hakemleri
Being Online Peer Supporter-ed:
Experiences from a Work-based Learning
Programme
Fahriye Altinay Aksal, Zehra Altinay ,Gazivalerio De
Rossi & Aytekin İşman……………………………….1-22
Adaptation of The Wellness Evaluation of Lifestyle
Scale to Turkish
Türkan Doğan, İbrahim Yıldırım & Jane E. Myers
........................................................................... 23-40
An Evaluation of Environmental Responsibility and
Its Associated Factors: Reflections from PISA 2006
Ayhan Kürşat Erbaş, Gaye Tuncer Teksoz & Ceren
Tekkaya ……………………………………………….41-62
Language and Narrative Skills in Young Children
with Special Health Care Needs
Cevriye Ergül…………………………………….….63-80
A.Aykut Ceyhan
Robert A. Emmons
Adnan Kan
Ramazan Baştürk
Tuncay Ergene
Mehmet Güven
Joseph A. Taylor
Thomas M. Dana
Ahmet İlhan Şen
Zülfikar Deniz
Naciye Aksoy
Views of Teacher Performance: To What Extent Do
Multiple Observers Converge?
Bahar Gün……………………………………………81-100
Mary Lightbody
Pelin Yalçınoğlu
Teachers’ and Students’ Perceptions of Effective
Physics Teacher Characteristics
Fikret Korur & Ali Eryılmaz…………………….101-120
A Survey of Turkish Pre-Service Science Teachers’
Attitudes Toward the Environment
Sibel Özsoy…………………………………………121-140
Videos as an Instructional Tool in Pre-service
Science Teacher Education
Duygu Sonmez & Meral Hakverdi-Can……….....141-158
Sibel Yeşildere
Nejat Ekmekçi
Nalan Büyükkantarcıoğlu
Aymil Doğan
İbrahim H. Diken
Gaye Tuncer Teksöz
The Effects of Project- and Activity-supported
Practiceson Mathematics Education Achievement
and Student Views
Neil Taylor
Neşe (Işık) Tertemiz……………………………….159-178
Semra Sungur
The Toronto Empathy Questionnaire: Evaluation of
Psychometric Properties among Turkish University
Students
Tarık Totan , Tayfun Doğan & Fatma Sapmaz…179-198
Sadegül Akbaba Altun
Turkish Adaptation of the Gratitude Questionnaire
Asuman Yüksel & Nagihan Oğuz Duran………..199-216
Ali Güneş
Çiğdem İs Güzel
EURASIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
E Ğ İ T İ M A R A Ş T I R M A L A R I D E R G İ Sİ
A Quarterly Peer-Reviewed Journal, Year: 12 Issue: 46/ 2012
Üç Ayda Bir Yayımlanan Hakemli Dergi, Yıl: 12 Sayı: 46 / 2012
FOUNDING EDITOR / Kurucu Editör
Veysel Sönmez, Hacettepe University, Ankara, TURKEY
EDITOR / Editörler
Şakir Çınkır, Ankara University, Ankara, TURKEY
CO- EDITORS
Şenel Poyrazlı, Penn State University, PA, USA
Ramazan Baştürk, Pamukkale University, Denizli, TURKEY
Ahmet Aypay, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, TURKEY
INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD / Uluslararası Editörler Kurulu
INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD / Uluslararası Editörler Kurulu
Anita Pipere, Daugavpils University, LATVIA
Aslı Özgün Koca, Wayne State University, USA
Beatrice Adera, West Chester University,USA
Birgit Pepin, Sor-Trondelag Univ. College / NORWAY
Cem Birol, Near East University, Nicosia, TRNC
Danny Wyffels, KATHO University, Kortrijk, BELGIUM
David Bridges, Cambridge University /UK
Ekber Tomul, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur TURKEY
Erdinç Duru, Pamukkale University, Denizli, TURKEY
Fatma Hazır Bıkmaz, Ankara University, TURKEY
Hasan Hüseyin Aksoy, Ankara University, Ankara, TURKEY
Iordanescu Eugen, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, ROMANIA
Joe O'Hara, Dublin City University / IRELAND
Sven Persson, Malmö University, Malmö, SWEDEN
Theo Wubbels, Univeristiy of Utrecht/ NETHERLAND
Úrsula Casanova, Arizona State University, USA
Yusif Mammadov, Azerbaijan State Pedagogy University, Baku, AZERBIJAN
EDITORIAL OFFICE / Yayın Yönetim Yeri
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Printing Date / Basım Tarihi: 15.01.2012
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Dergide yayınlanan yazıların tüm sorumluluğu yazarlarına aittir
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research (ISSN 1302-597X) is a quarterely peer-reviewed journal published by Anı Yayıncılık
Eğitim Araştırmaları (ISSN 1302-597X) Anı Yayıncılık tarafından yılda dört kez yayımlanan hakemli bir dergidir.
© 2012 ANI Publishing. All rights reserved. © 2012 ANI Yayıncılık. Her hakkı saklıdır.
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Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, Issue 46, Winter 2012, 1-22
Being Online Peer Supporter-ed:
Experiences from a Work-based Learning
Programme
Fahriye Altinay Aksal*
Zehra Altinay**
Gazivalerio De Rossi***
Aytekin İşmaN****
Suggested Citation:
Aksal Altinay, F., Altinay, Z., De Rossi, G., & Isman, A. (2012). Being online peer
supported: Experiences from a work-based learning programme. Egitim
Arastirmaları-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 46, 1-22.
Abstract
Problem Statement: Work-based learning programmes have become an
increasingly popular way of fulfilling the desire for life-long learning;
multi-dimensional work-based learning modes have recently played a
large role in both personal and institutional development. The peculiarity
of this innovative way of learning derives from the fact that learning is
gained from work experience. Work-based learning programmes were
pioneered in undergraduate, graduate and doctorate programmes. This
learning process represents a unique approach to knowledge and has
created a new paradigm in educational thinking, with a specific
epistemology and methodology. The learning cycle relies on active
learning through work experience, with an emphasis on project
management capability. In addition, it provides an opportunity for
researchers to engage in on-line discussions with tutors and fellow
students. In this respect, the role of the online peer support process in
work-based research projects is worth investigating.
*Corresponding
Aouthor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Near East University, Faculty of Education, North
Cyprus, [email protected],
**Assist. Prof. Dr. Near East University, Faculty of Education, North Cyprus,
[email protected] ,
***Dr., Management consultant and independent researcher, Italy, [email protected],
**** Prof. Dr. Sakarya University, Turkey, [email protected]
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Fahriye Altınay Aksal, Zehra Altınay,Valerio De Rossi,& Aytekin İşman
Purpose of the Study: This study aimed to determine how the use of online
communication tools for peer support within the work-based learning
paradigm impacts learners’ self-development. Specifically, it focused on
whether peer-supporter-ed and -supportive roles enacted via on-line tools
in work-based learning programmes enhanced learners’ collaboration and
research management skills. It also examined whether online
communication facilitated critical thinking.
Methods: The research conducted was qualitative in nature, with a case
study approach. In-depth interviews, self-reports and researcher
observations were the data collection techniques used to explore the
experiences of participants in relation to the research focus. Triangulation
was employed with multiple data analysis.
Findings and Results: This study unveiled the benefits of peer supporter-ed
friendships within work-based learning programmes to the construction
of work-based projects grounded in bounded rationality. It should be
highlighted that online communication tools are extremely useful to
candidates who are studying and communicating from a distance.
Significantly, the findings demonstrated that being engaged in different
research contexts is not a barrier to learning; online communication tools
provide users with the opportunity to give mutual support. The research
presented here highlighted the ways in which online communication tools
facilitate critical thinking, collaboration and research management skills.
Conclusions and Recommendations: It is proposed that a model for workbased learning that explores candidates’ roles as peer supporters be
developed, so as to further the building of critical friendships through
online communication. It is also urged that collaborative effort be
encouraged as a means of achieving plausible outcomes within the workbased research process.
Keywords: Collaboration, online communication, peer support, workbased learning
The work experience is surely crucial in lifelong learning and continuing
professional development (CPD) contexts. CPD encourages flexibility in human
resources, as what is learned from work experience is crucial to both the needs of
institutional and professional development. In this respect, the work-based learning
process is essential to building knowledge and improving work practices, as it builds
a bridge between the learning needs of the individual and the strategic needs of the
institution (Costley, Armsby, 2007; Raelin, 1997). Therefore, it is of the utmost
importance that ways be found to apply the work-based learning process, from
which individuals, work groups and institutions benefit alike. The method of
learning relies on a range of methodologies and techniques, facilitation, mentoring,
action learning, focus groups, problem-based learning, reflection, and critical and
strategic questioning (Rhodes, Shiel, 2007). It is therefore evident that the value of the
work-based learning process is in the development of skills.
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research
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Work-based learning is a modern way of providing university-level learning in
the workplace. This model delivers learning tailored to the specific needs of both the
institution and the individual producing new knowledge and skills. These skills can
be categorized as: self-promotion, the exploration and creation of opportunities,
action planning, networking, matching and decision-making, negotiation, political
awareness, coping with uncertainty, development focus, skill transfer, selfconfidence, and self-awareness. Work-based learning enhances self-reliance.
The WBL process represents a peculiar approach to knowledge, where learnerpractitioners are able to reflect in-action and on action (Schön, 1983), using current
knowledge to make an impact within their communities of practice. New pedagogies
of work and learning have emerged (Rhodes, Shiel, 2007). Although work-based
learning involves a lack of social presence, as it makes participants responsible for
accomplishing different modules through self-discipline but without a physical
classroom, it has the value of promoting skill development.
The distinctive characteristic of the work-based learning approach is that it is a
field of degrees that includes masters and doctorates in Professional Studies, as well
as postgraduate awards in Professional Development. Work-based learning was first
developed as a field of study within the United Kingdom (UK), but an increasing
amount of international research is being conducted using online communication
(Lester, 2007; Workman, 2007).
Work-based learning and professional studies have a generic framework, with a
final work-based project. Delivery modes include on-campus, by distance learning or
as part of a corporate group. The distance learning approach enables researchers to
access learning materials and engage in on-line discussions with tutors and fellow
students. Work-based learning programmes typically have five steps: recognition
and accreditation of learning (RAL), programme planning, work-based research and
development methods and, finally, a work-based project. These steps lead to the
target qualification (http://www.mdx.ac.uk/wbl/about/how.asp).
During the learning process, communication among candidates plays an
important role in sharing and building knowledge. It is important for candidates to
work together toward a common purpose. Distance learners can collaborate
synchronously, via online meetings and instant messaging, or asynchronously, via emails and shared workspaces and forums. The collaborative life cycle gives
candidates the chance to engage in varying degrees of awareness, motivation, selfsynchronization, participation, mediation, reciprocity, reflection and engagement.
Therefore, the concept of peer support has become significant to the need for
collaboration. Peer support involves the provision of emotional or practical help to
others (Gibbs, Angelides, 2007; Gibbs, Angelides, 2008). In this study, the following
figure is used as a framework to explore the role of peer support through online
communication tools in work-based research conducted within a work-based
learning programme (Heisler, 2006).
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Peer Support
Informational Support

Sharing experiences and
information

Modeling effective skills
Emotional Support
 Encouragement
 Reinforcement
 Decreased sense of isolation


Mutual Reciprocity
Shared problem solving
Both receiving and giving
help
Enhances:
 Confidence
 Perceived social support
 Positive mood
 Understanding selfefficacy
Figure 1. Peer Support Framework
This study investigated the development of the peer support process for Doctor
of Professional Studies candidates through online communication tools. It thereby
assessed opportunities for peer support to enhance research management skills.
The following research questions were answered with an inductive approach:
1.
What are the advantages of being peer supporter-ed at the doctoral level within a
work-based learning programme?
2.
How do online communication tools foster/limit the knowledge-sharing of distance
learners?
3.
To what extent and how do learners develop peer support using online
communication tools?
4.
How do distance learners enhance their peer supporter-ed through online
communication tools at the doctoral level within work-based learning programmes?
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Method
As qualitative research aims to capture individual experiences within social
contexts, it interprets and considers socially-constructed meanings through the lens
of human experience (Bogdan, Biklen, 1992; Marshall, Rossman, 1999, Cohen,
Morrison, Manion, 2000). Phenomenology is considered to be a framework within
the inductive process, due to the descriptive nature of participants’ input.
Often, in qualitative research, a small number of subjects are studied extensively
and for a prolonged period, so that their social patterns and relationships may be
understood (Creswell, 1994). Great effort is made to prevent bias. In this study, one
member of the research team became an independent researcher. In coordinating the
research process and interpreting data, this person acted as a moderator, guiding the
study while also being a fly on the wall (Wolcott, 1995). As qualitative research is
pragmatic, interpretive and grounded in the lived experiences of people, qualitative
researchers engage in systematic reflection on their own roles in this research.
Qualitative research entails the complexity of social interactions as expressed in
daily life and is focused on the meanings attributed by participants to these
interactions, which underlines a broad approach to the study of social phenomena
(Marshall, 1999; Saunders, Lewis, Thornhill, 2000).
Furthermore, as qualitative research is inductive and context-bound, it provides
patterns and theories for understanding subjective reality. In this respect,
experiences, socially-constructed meanings, communications, negotiations and
interactions became critical to the inductive processes used in this type of research
(Silverman, 2005).
Case Study Approach
Case study research focuses on “…attempting to document the story of a
naturalistic-experiment-in-action, the routine moves educators and learners make in
a clearly known and readily defined discursive, conceptual and professional space
(the “case”), and the consequences of other people’s actions, foreseen and otherwise,
for learning and for the ongoing conduct of the research” (Yin, 1994). With the
present research, a case study approach was used to completely describe a
phenomenon in its own context and to conduct and disseminate research that would
impact practice.
Case studies are a useful way of exploring existing theories in isolated contexts.
Here, a case study was used to investigate and report on the complex dynamics,
interactions and experiences of participants in a work-based learning programme.
The research presents a concrete, detailed narrative of actual events (Freebody, 2003;
Yin, 1994). The researchers attempted to explore what they perceived as significant
features and to create reasonable interpretations of their findings, test the
trustworthiness of their interpretations, construct worthwhile arguments or stories,
relate these arguments to relevant literature and provide findings that other
researchers could validate or challenge by presenting alternative arguments.
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Participants
Three Doctor of Professional Studies candidates at Middlesex University
participated in this study. One was in safety management, and the other two were in
education. The participants had in common that they were researchers in the
Programme of Professional Studies, each engaged in a work-based research project.
Although the number of participants was limited, the role of peer support provided
through online communication in developing credible work-based projects was
investigated in depth. Collaboration among participants yielded satisfactory insight
into how the process worked and revealed practical solutions for constructing better
work-based projects within the programme. The DProf candidates were in part two
or in the research phase of the programme, working on implementing their workbased projects in professional contexts.
Purposive sampling was employed. Two participants came from the same
professional context, while the third was in a different working environment. In
addition, two of the participants practiced peer supporter-ed process. They used
online communication to collaborate and internalize how to be peer supporters. They
also became models for further studies. One of the researchers became an
independent researcher and observer for a year, so as to moderate the research
process while being a ‘fly on the wall’, reporting on peer support and its impact on
research projects within the professional studies programme.
Participation was voluntary. Participants willingly revealed that they
communicated through online tools such as WebCT, Skype, and email. Purposive
sampling was used, and a volunteer peer support group was constructed in a natural
way.
Data Collection Methods and Analysis
In-depth interviews, self-reports, and researcher observations were the data
collection methods employed to explore participants’ experiences with using peer
support to enhance work-based projects through online communication, negotiation
and discussion (Saunders, Lewis, Thornhill, 2000).
The in-depth interviews formed the basis for exploring participants’ perceptions
and experiences of the impact of peer supporter/ed on their own projects. These
interviews, carried out by the independent researcher, covered eight questions, which
were first piloted and then reviewed by experts, in order to enhance their credibility.
Interviews took about 50 minutes each and covered learning and professional
development, online communication tools within the programme, the process of peer
support and peer support’s contributions to the construction of work-based projects
within the programme.
Self-reports provided participants with the opportunity to reflect upon the peer
support process, the use of online tools and peer support’s contribution to their
programme. The peer support model (see Figure 1) was given to participants, to
familiarize them with its stages and expected outcomes. The framework of this research
was then reviewed and accepted by experts. Figure 1, which illustrates the peer
support framework, provides a rationale for the themes used in analysis of the
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gathered data. Data analysis was based on informational and emotional support, as
well as mutual reciprocity.
Researcher observations, based on a checklist, were used to record the complex
dynamics of interactions and negotiations among participants. The independent
researcher actively reported observations of the research process in relation to the
research focus. The observation checklist covered the stages and the fundamental
components of the peer support process. A structured observation checklist was
created and reviewed by experts. Furthermore, multiple types of data were
triangulated, based on the peer support model framework (see Figure 1).
The data were analyzed using content analysis. Themes were selected and
analyzed with regard to the research questions and the objectives of the peer support
framework (Altinay, Paraskevas, 2008). Ethics is at the heart of the research process.
In this respect, the researchers were careful to prevent bias and to ensure the
reliability and validity of the research. Participant consent forms were used, to
ensure that data could be reported and published. Although the case study was
small, multiple data collection methods and data triangulation helped to enhance the
richness and validity of the data, allowing for the collection of in-depth participant
experiences within the work-based learning programme (Cohen, Manion and
Morrison, 2000; Bryman, 2004).
The credibility of this study was ensured by expert reviews of the data.
Triangulation of the data based on the peer support framework ensured the
credibility of the research findings.
Results
The findings revealed that being peer-supported or -supportive within a workbased learning programme is beneficial and is recommendable for candidates who
seek to create work-based projects based on bounded rationality. It should be
underlined that online communication tools are a very constructive means of
communication for distance-learning students. Significantly, it has been
demonstrated that being in different professional contexts and being geographically
distant is not a barrier to expression, as online communication tools provide the
opportunity to share experiences and mutual support. The peer support framework
was explored by using data collection techniques to study the informational support,
emotional support, mutual reciprocity, and enhancement that are part of and result
from the peer support process.
In-depth Interview Findings
In regard to informational support as a component of peer support, in-depth
interviews showed that participants shared experiences and information about the
construction of work-based projects. Participants were in the research stages of their
work-based projects and used WebCT, email and Skype to exchange information and
experiences. Further, two of the participants cited the benefits of online
communication tools for learning. They emphasized the opportunity afforded by
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being in different fields to gain professional practice and professional development.
One participant noted, “Being in a work-based learning programme and being peersupporter/ed taught us how to be friends, as we are from different cultures and
fields.” In this respect, participants agreed that being peer-supported in terms of
informational support, enhanced teamwork, critical thinking and the ability to apply
bounded rationality to the creation of work-based projects in different subjects.
In regard to emotional support, participants revealed that they were confident in
encouraging one another. They stated that using online communication tools to
provide reinforcement enhanced their performance. One participant stated, “My peer
supporter encouraged me to remain enthusiastic while implementing my workbased project.” The same participant said, “I learned that it is the quality, not the
quantity, of messages that is significant when learning new information and
garnering suggestions for my work-based project”. Further, another participant
stated, “Encouragement and motivation of my peers enhanced my learning and
helped me construct better critical commentary on my work-based project.”
Participants agreed that the emotional support provided by online communication,
including encouragement, reinforcement and decreased sense of isolation, was the
most significant indicator of success.
Enhancement is an important outcome of peer supporter-ed. Research
participants stated that their learning, collaboration and sharing improved as the
result of their work-based learning. This makes them be made them confident,
strengthened their social support and positively reinforced their sense of selfefficacy.
Findings from the Self-Reports
In regard to informational support, participants’ self-reports confirmed that
participants shared sufficient experiences and information about projects. They gave
concrete examples of how they exchanged information and developed skills, with
regard to informational support.
One participant reported:
Although I had contact with few candidates, I developed a peer support
relationship with only one individual. I have shared information about the
programme structure, the RAL requirements and the oral presentation for the
Programme Approval Panel (PAP). The latter was the starting point of a fruitful peer
support and a real friendship with the aforementioned fellow candidate. We initially
started to communicate via email and asynchronously through the University’s VLE.
We then started using a synchronous way to communicate through Skype, free VoIP
(Voice over Internet Protocol) software which permits also videoconferencing. This
tool enabled us to communicate in an effective way and most importantly in real
time. I used this tool for a dummy presentation of my project proposal. It was an
effective way to test practically my presentation in a web-based videoconference very
similar to the one I would use with the university PAP. We critically discussed the
content as well as the structure of the presentation. This has built my confidence, and
the critical commentary, along with the feedback from my academic advisor, has
surely enhanced my proposal.
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Another participant reported on informational support:
I had contact with my peer that it was highly satisfied for me to exchange
information and experiences in our subject fields. We communicated through
WebCT, Skype and emails, to follow and exchange our progress on review of
learning, developing proposal and implementing effective work-based project in our
work context within the programme regulations. We found a chance to negotiate the
structure and the content of those documents which this has great role to develop
critical friendship, bounded rationality and confidence to produce better work.
Candidates stated that they found opportunities to exchange information and
discuss learning experiences and what they attempted to implement during the peer
support process.
As concerns emotional support, participants, especially those not from the UK
originally, reported that engaging in online communication and negotiation
decreased their sense of isolation within the work-based learning programme.
One participant noted:
I would also like to highlight the role played by the emotional support in a peer
support relationship. The isolation of the DL [distance learning] students can be, at
times, challenging. In my own experience, I found it extremely useful, the support
given, in terms of motivation. Often, peers formally or informally set a mutual
agreement with a timeline for specific tasks, such as, for instance, completing a phase
of the research project or a chapter review. This mutual agreement is an incentive to
complete the task within the deadline and to overcome the sense of isolation typical
of a DL environment. It can also be seen as a practical answer for the question “what
to do and when to do it” earlier expressed.
Another participant reported on emotional support as follows:
Before having a contact with my peer supporter, I felt isolated because of not
sharing any information with any DProf candidates. Making negotiation, exchange
of ideas put emphasis on my enthusiasm to make better works in the DProf journey
as an encouragement, reinforcement. This contact makes to report every week good
action to my friend and through this way I accomplished what I expected in my
journey.
Online communication and peer support –
discussion of the work-based learning process
encouragement and reinforcement. Significantly,
somebody was following what they were doing
progress of their work-based projects.
particularly, negotiation and
– provided participants with
participants appreciated that
and helping them further the
In regard to mutual reciprocity, participants reported that in their negotiations
and discussions, they developed empathy that helped them problem solve and
complete tasks.
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One participant reported on mutual reciprocity as follows:
I believe that [with] peer support, there is mutual understanding among us that
we understand each other within negotiation process of our research actions. Also,
we are flexible and emphatic on scheduling our meeting time in Skype, which is also
example of our mutuality.
Another participant said:
Mutual support is indeed emotionally rewarding for both peers: the supported
experiences a sense of appreciation and a positive reinforcement for the work done,
while the supporter experiences a sense of recognition and accomplishment for the
support given. In addition, the peer supported is then encouraged by own experience
to act as supporter when applicable and practicable, starting then a new cycle of peer
support this time with the roles inverted.
Significantly, participants reported that being peer-supported or -supportive in
their work-based learning programme improved their confidence, perceived social
support, mood and understanding of their own self-efficacy.
Findings from Observations
The independent researcher’s observations suggested that participants were
enthusiastic about improving their work-based projects. They demonstrated good
informational support, exchanging information about the work-based learning
process and their academic and personal lives. Significantly, they discussed learning,
developing proposals and implementing work-based projects in a strategic manner.
The observer reported that the process pushed participants to develop an
understanding of how to look at issues from different perspectives, i.e., how to
engage in critical thinking.
The independent researcher reported that participants were willing to
communicate, negotiate and discuss specific ways of improving their studies. To this
end, they collaborated, engaged in critical analysis and managed learning and
research for one another in the natural way that is the essence of the peer support
process.
The independent researcher also reported that the peer support provided by
participants reflected the discovery of a mutual understanding of the research
process in work-based learning programmes. Empathic reflections on and analysis of
tasks that they developed provided evidence of how they had been involved in
mutual reciprocity within the framework of peer support.
Researcher observations, as reported by a checklist, showed that peer support
and online communication enhanced critical thinking, collaboration and research
management within the work-based learning programme. Significantly, participant
self-reports underlined the fact that the online communication tools used in workbased learning facilitated critical thinking, collaboration and research management.
Each of these was explored in detail in relation to the impact of peer support within
the programme, as the development of these skills is the outcome of work-based
learning.
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Critical thinking is a fundamental ability that is transferable to life and future
learning (Bennett, Dunne, Care, 1999). It is necessary to develop critical thinking, in
order to carry out successful work-based projects. Critical thinking implies an
understanding of work context, roles and responsibilities, and desired outcomes. It
also involves encouraging others to defend and justify their views and to identify
outcomes and present constructive and critical analysis of context. Critical thinking
provides an external perspective on and challenge to professional values, concerns,
priorities and actions. Finally, it helps thinkers offer valued judgments only when
asked to conceptualize others’ ideas and identify strategic options. Participants
reflected on the relationship between their peer support experience and the
development of their critical thinking skills, using such concrete examples as the
messages exchanged during their online communications. The statements and
messages of participants are shown in Table I, which reveals that online
communication and work-based learning facilitated the growth of critical thinking
skills within the work-based learning context; however, participants did not
comment on their critical thinking abilities.
Collaboration is another significant ability within the work-based learning
programme and the peer support process. Collaboration includes offering positive
support and avoiding directing; encouraging others as they make decisions;
clarifying the ideas of others; encouraging specificity in others; encouraging mutual
respect and trust; engaging in reciprocal relationships; responding reflectively and
promptly to messages; giving feedback relevant to the main focus of tasks and
negotiating tasks with others (Bennett, Dunne, Care, 1999). Participants’ statements
and messages on collaboration are shown in Table II. Although collaboration ability
was developed via peer support, participants did not provide feedback on
“encouraging specificity in others” and “giving feedback relevant to the main focus
of the task”.
Research management is the core element of work-based learning programmes.
Candidates need both research and management skills to carry out work-based
projects and improve their work practices. Research management involves
investigating, reframing and self-managing one’s capabilities; conducting document
searches and data collection; reading scholarly materials; articulating inquiry
paradigms and allocating the time necessary to understand work context and take
initiative when approved (Bennett, Dunne, Care, 1999). Participants’ statements and
messages on the topic of research management are shown in Table III, from which it
is evident that participants developed their research management abilities with the
guidance and support of others within the work-based learning programme.
However, they did not articulate inquiry paradigms or allocate the time required to
understand the context of their work.
12
Table 1
Critical Thinking
Statements
Fully understand the
context of the work
Messages of Participant 1
“Yes, totally agree;
self-disclosure makes you to
create right understanding,
rather than making reality by
your own”
Fully understand roles
and responsibilities
Fully understand the
desired outcomes of
the work
Encourage others to
defend and justify
views
“Success and reality rely on
this difficulty.
That's why I like culture,
getting meanings from
people, but at the same
finding right and common
understanding –
you know, self disclosure in
communication”
“Giving critique also clarify
your idea and perception on
Douglas’ theory”
Identify strategic
options
“Doesn’t matter numbers of people,
I think. Data is important and its
impact”
“I have different measurable
indices to see the positioning of the
group in the two dimensional
framework”
“I am going to send you
consent forms to look at
giving critique [and] also
clarify your idea and
perception on Douglas
theory”
“Thanks for checking these details!
did you read the papers I sent
you?”
“If I do Focus Groups with ¾
individuals, what do you think; is it
ok”: “Yes, normal is four, but it is
enough, I think”
Provide external
perspective and
challenge
Reflect systematically
on professional values,
concerns, priorities
and actions in relation
to study support
Offer value judgments
only when asked
Conceptualize ideas of
others
“I had a small Focus Group today,
plus I made about 5 observations I
am building a theory....”
“Yes, but at the same time difficult
to be in two roles…”
Identify outcomes
Present constructive,
critical analysis of
context
“Did I send you adviser and
consultancy form before?”
“I have received the power point
thanks, did you change anything?”
“And also next week example
on in-depth interviews and
focus groups”
13
Table 2
Collaboration
Statements
Messages
Participant 1
of
“You studied
yesterday”
Offer positive
support and avoid
directing
“That's why my
progress is good.
I arranged every
detail for project.
After finishing, I
don't know what
I am going to do
– may be
publications”
“Even if it is sometime difficult to do as
planned, plans are made to be changed!
Isn’t it?”
Encourage others
when decision
making
“Sure, I am
searching for the
paper in my
computer!”
“Keep research diary also” “Yes I am
doing it”
Share
responsibility
with others for
learning
“Did I send you
adviser and
consultancy form
before?”
“I am working on my chapter V ... I am
doing observations, and I will start soon
with interviews”
Clarify the ideas
of others
Encourage
specificity in
others
“A good paper here:
http://www.sld.demon.co.uk/wbdocs.pdf
about work-based doctorates. You can read
it when you have time. It is interesting”
14
Table 2 Contd.
Statements
Encourage a
climate of mutual
respect and trust
e.g. Engage in
reciprocal
relationships that
involve offering
and taking
support from
others/respecting
the views of
others
Respond
reflectively and
promptly to
messages
Messages of
Participant 1
“Ok can you talk?
It is easier than
typing...:)
Ok thanks
I saw your email.
I also cannot
access webct
Yes, I think there
is problem.
Also, respect is
the key solution
to create an
environment of
common
understanding”
“I am sending to
you in five
minutes through
skype.
Now, I am going
now to class.
Come back 30
minutes later. Is
it okey for you?”
Give feedback
relevant to the
main focus of the
task – avoid
vagueness
Negotiate tasks
with others
“I am going to
send you consent
forms to look at”
“Yes, the same difficulties you had with
your focus groups ...”
15
Table 3
Research Management
Statements
Scholarly reframing
Investigative
reframing
“It is good. It is
theoretical frame about
what I think.
I think the practicality of
critical friendship”
Show evidence of
managing self
Encourage
documentation
Encourage collection
of data
“I will send the paper
from P. Gibbs”
Read scholarly
material
Articulate inquiry
paradigms
Allocate adequate
time to understand
work context
Take initiative when
appropriate
“I will also check
deadline for you, whether
you can start earlier, after
minor revisions.
Okay, when you want
something let me know, if
I can make, it is
appreciated to do for
you”
“Yes, I am drafting chapter 4,
but I want to finish my data
collection before finish it”
“I have some papers to share
with you about the PhD and
DProf. I will send them to you”
“Then I will triangulate the data
with obs, diary and interviews
to strength the validity”
“Have you read the paper I sent
you, about DProf?”
“Hi, I hope you have sent your
file
: Hi I have received your file
yesterday thanks”
Findings from Triangulated Data
In-depth interviews, self-reports and researcher observations confirmed that
participants developed collaboration skills when they developed proposals and
presentations for the approval panel and when they wrote chapters of the workbased project based on negotiations, reflections and discussions. Being critical friends
within a work-based learning programme developed students’ abilities to reflect, use
bounded rationality and critical thinking while writing chapters, search literature
reviews and prepare critical commentary. The findings confirmed that carrying out
16
work-based projects with the support of peers, advisors and programme staff helped
candidates build better projects and enhance their research management skills.
Discussion and Conclusion
As change implies development, project management is key to successful
research practice. Work-based projects recognise and enhance workplace learning.
These projects are, in fact, associated with both social and work-based contexts
(Rhodes, Shiel, 2007). In addition, work-based research encapsulates researchers’
practical and intellectual capabilities (Costley, Armsby 2007; Lester, 2007). There are
six key components of work-based learning, described by Boud and Solomon (2001):
Worked-based learning, first, must involve a partnership between an organisation
and a university, geared toward fostering learning. It must also involve a contractual
relationship between learners and the external organization. The programme
followed must be derived from the needs of the workplace, and the work must be the
curriculum. In addition, learners must recognise their current competencies prior to
entering the programme of study and, at the programme’s end, the university must
assess learning outcomes.
While conducting work-based research projects, the importance of social
interaction among research practitioners engaged in work-based learning needs to be
considered. Critical friendships are based on mutual critiques of participants’
practices and on mutual support. Such friendship enhances collaboration, critical
thinking and research management in the Doctorate of Professional Studies journey
(Gibbs, Angelides, 2008).
This study explored the role of online communication and peer support in workbased learning. The peer support relationship is based on shared experiences, mutual
respect and empathy, providing both emotional and informational support by
enhancing collaboration among friends. In this respect, the role of peer supporter or
supported is significant because it entails enhanced support and guidance, social
benefits, increased academic confidence and improved communication, teamwork,
and collaborative problem solving and interpersonal skills.
In relation to the focus of this research, online communication tools serve a
constructive purpose, regardless of candidates’ geographical locations. It was
demonstrated that being in different professional contexts is not a barrier to
communication, but that, rather, online communication tools provide opportunities
for mutual support, although work-based learning programmes lack social presence
among learners and colleagues. In this study, online communication tools were
revealed to be a way of overcoming lack of social presence and idea exchange. In this
respect, participants developed their collaboration and research management skills
within the programme while managing their research projects and gaining
motivation to think critically.
17
This study contributed to the academic agenda by:

Expanding knowledge of the role of collaboration in the peer support
process

Enhancing understanding of the roles of peer supporters in work-based
learning environments

Exposing the importance of online communication tools to the construction
of
knowledge

Developing deeper insight into constructive criticism, empathy and mutual
understanding

Expanding knowledge of how to practice supporting the professional
development of peer supporters and supported

Critically reflecting on enhancing such generic skills as critical thinking,
collaboration and research management
Future studies could examine the theoretical framework of peer support at the
institutional level, focusing on the roles of institutional and advisor support in
enhancing candidates’ collaboration, critical thinking and research management
skills as candidates implement work-based projects in work-based learning
professional studies doctoral programmes. Qualitative and quantitative methods
could be used together, and sample size could be increased, to improve the density
and richness of data.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank our academic advisors, the DProf programme leader and
the staff of the Institute of Work-based Learning at Middlesex University for their
contributions.
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Wolcott, H. F. (1995). The art of fieldwork. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press.
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preparing for work-based projects. Journal of Workplace Learning, 19(3),
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19
Çevrimiçi Ortamda Paydaş Desteği:
İş Yaşamı Temelli Öğrenim Programında Kazanılan Tecrübeler
(Özet)
Problem Durumu: İş yaşamı temelli öğrenimin giderek yaygınlaştığı günümüzde, iş
yaşamı temelli öğrenim kurumlarda çalışan personelin gelişmesi ve kurumların
iyileştirilmesinde büyük önem taşımaktadır. İş yaşamı temelli öğrenimin yer aldığı
programlar, özellikle Middlesex Üniversitesinin sağladığı iş yaşamı temelli öğrenim
imkanı, kurum çalışanlarının mesleki gelişimlerine katkı sağlamakla ortaya koyduğu
yaşam boyu eğitim felsefesi göz ardı edilememektedir. Middlesex Üniversitesi iş
yaşamı temelliöğrenme sürecini 1993’ten bu yana doktora programlarında
profosyonel anlamda çalışmalar yapan adaylara çeşitli yetenek yelpazaleri sunarak
bu duruma öncülük etmektedir. Bu öğrenme süreci, eğitimde farklı boyutlarda
düşünme, kendi kendini yetiştirme, tecrübelere dayalı yeni bilgileri oluşturma ve
bilgiyi uygulama, uygulamaya dönük faaliyetleri temel alarak kurum ve kurum
çalışanlarının gelişmesini desteklemeyi kapsamaktadır. Böylelikle, hem araştırmacıya
hem de meslektaşlarına katkı sağlayamayı öngören bu süreçte, değişim ve girişimin
kurumun faaliyetlerini iyileştirmesindeki yeri ve önemi tartışılmazdır. Bu öğrenme
döngüsü, proje yönetimi yeteneğini arttırarak iş tecrübeleriyle kazanılan öğrenme
eylemine dayanır. Aynı zamanda, öğrenme döngüsü, araştırmacıya öğrenme
materyalleriyle içiçe olma ve çevrimiçi tartışma gruplarında danışman öğretmenler
ve araştırmacı olarak adlandırılan iş yaşamı temelli öğrenim sürecinde yer alan
adaylar ile birlikte olma imkanı tanıyarak mesleki gelişimine ve kurumun gelişimine
katkı sağlamaktadır. Bu bağlamda, iş yaşamı temelli öğrenim sürecinde adayların
birbirleriyle olan iletişim ve paydaş desteğinin araştırma projesi geliştirme ve
uygulama sürecine katkısı, aynı zamanda eleştirel düşünme, işbirliği ve proje
yöntemi gibi temel becerilerin gelişmesinde paydaş desteğinin yeri, önemi ve etkisi
araştırma boyutu olarak dikkate alınmıştır.
Araştırmanın Amacı: İş yaşamı temelli öğrenme sürecinde, adayların birbirlerine
sağladığı paydaş desteği, danışman desteği ve kurumsal destek kaçınılmazdır. Bu
araştırma, iş yaşamı temelliöğrenme sürecinde
çevrimiçi iletişim araçları
kullanılarak paydaş desteğinin araştırma projesi geliştirme, eleştirel düşünme,
işbirliği, proje yönetimi gibi temel becerilerin gelişmesine katkısnı ortaya koymayı
amaçlamaktadır. Araştırma, paydaş desteğinin katkılarını tartışmakla, adayların
mesleki gelişimlerinde önemli bir role sahip olan bu boyutu vurgulamakla özgün
niteliğe sahiptir.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Araştırma nitel araştırma yapısını yansıtmakta, katılımcıların
tecrübelerine, algılarına yönelik oluşturulmuş anlamlar üzerinde odaklanmıştır. Bu
araştırmada örnek olay araştırma yaklaşımı uygulanmıştır. Araştırma, ikisi aynı
kurum çalışanı olan biri ise farklı kurum ve ülkede yer alan araştırmacıların iş
20
yaşamı temelli öğrenme sürecindeki tecrübe ve deneyimlerini yansıtmaktadır.
Araştırma konusuna bağlı, katılımcıların çevrimiçi iletişim araçlarının kullanılması
ile paydaş desteğinin proje geliştirme, uygulama ve eleştirel düşünme, işbirliği ve
proje yönetimi becerilerinin gelişmesine katkısına ilişkin görüş, tecrübe ve
deneyimlerini ortaya çıkarmak temel alınmıştır. Bu bağlamda, katılımcıların
tecrübelerini daha iyi bir şekilde incelemek için detaylı görüşmeler, kişisel görüş
raporu, araştırmacı gözlemleri veri toplama yöntemleri olarak araştırmada
kullanılmıştır. Araştırmada kullanılan veri toplama yöntemleri, uzman görüşleri göz
önünde bulundurularak hazırlanmış ve uygulamaya geçmeden önce ise pilot
çalışması yapılmıştır. Detaylı görüşmeler kapsamında, bağımsız araştırmacı
tarafından yaklaşık elli dakika süren görüşmeler yapılmış, araştırmada etkin rol alan
iki katılımcının araştırma konusuna bağlı görüş ve düşünce ve deneyimlerini ortaya
çıkarmak temel alınmıştır. Buna paralel olarak, veri toplama yöntemi olarak kişisel
görüş raporları, katılımcıların paydaş desteğini örneklerle açıklamaları ve
tecrübelerini yansıtmaları, eleştirel düşünme, işbirliği ve proje yönetimi becerilerinin
paydaş desteğine bağlı nasıl geliştiğini çevrimiçi ortamda gerçekleşen iletişim
sürecinde yer alan mevcut mesajlarla örneklendirmeleri hedeflenmiş, böylelikle
çevrimiçi iletişim araçları yardımıyla paydaş desteğinin nasıl oluştuğu ve eleştirel
düşünme, işbirliği ve proje yönetimi becerilerinin gelişimine nasıl katkıda
bulunduğunu ortaya çıkarmak amacıyla en uygun veri toplama yöntemi olarak
kullanılması uygun görülmüştür. Araştırmacı gözlem raporları ise bir yıl boyunca
süren araştırmada bağımsız araştırmacının gözlem ve yansıtıcı düşüncelerini
kapsamaktadır. Farklı veri toplama yöntemlerinden elde edilen zengin veriler için
çeşitleme kullanılmış, geçerli ve güvenilir sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde
ise alanyazısına bağlı tespit edilen temalar yoluyla içerik analizi yapılmıştır.
Araştırmanın Bulguları: Bu araştırmada, iş yaşamı temelli öğrenim sürecinde
çevrimiçi iletişim araçları yardımıyla gerçekleşen paydaş desteğinin araştırmacıların
bir başka deyişle katılımcıların araştırma projesi geliştirme ve uygulamalarındaki
katkısı ve aynı zamanda eleştirel düşünme, işbirliği ve proje yönetimi becerilerinin
gelişmesindeki yeri ve önemi ele alınmıştır. Farklı veri toplama yöntemleri olarak
araştırmada kullanılan detaylı görüşmeler, kişisel görüş raporları ve gözlemler
sonucunda ortaya çıkan çeşitlemeye bağlı bulgular, eleştirel arkadaş olma ve paydaş
desteği, iş yaşamı temelli öğrenim sürecinde proje geliştirme ve uygulama esnasında
çok önemli bir yere sahiptir. Özellikle, geliştirilen projeye farklı bakış açıları ile
bakabilmek, paydaş desteği doğrultusunda daha yapıcı bir tavır sergilemek, projenin
çok daha disiplinli ve stratejik hazırlanmasına ve uygulanmasına zemin
hazırlayabilmektedir. Bunun yanısıra, çevrimiçi iletişim araçlarının paydaş desteğini
oluşturmada köprü görevinde bulunduğu da göz ardı edilemeyecek kadar önemli
bir husustur. Çevrimiçi iletişim araçlarının, katılımcıların birbirlerinden uzak
olmasına rağmen paydaş desteğinin sağlıklı gelişmesinde katkıları büyüktür. Bu
bağlamda, katılımcılar arasında ortak algının sağlanmasında çevrimiçi iletişim
araçları çok etkili olmuştur. Buna ek olarak, katılımcılar çevrimiçi iletişim araçları
21
sayesinde hem paydaşlık ve eleştirel arkadaş olma niteliğini kazanmış hem de
eleştirel düşünme, işbirliği ve araştırma yönetimi becerileri geliştirmişlerdir.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: İş yaşamı temelli öğrenme sürecinde paydaş
desteği ve çevrimiçi iletişim araçlarının paydaşlık köprüsü olmada yeri ve önemini
kapsayan bu araştırma, iş yaşamı temelli öğrenme sürecinde araştırmacıların bir
başka deyişle öğrencilerin çevrimiçi iletişim araçlarını kullanarak paydaş olma
yeteneği nasıl geliştirebileceklerini vurgulamakla, iş yaşamı temelli proje geliştirme
ve uygulamada eleştirel arkadaş olmanın ve eleştirel düşünme, işbirliği ve proje
yönetimi becerilerinin önemini uygulamaya dönük çalışma ile yansıtmakla örnek
nitelik taşımaktadır. İleriki araştırmalar, kurum desteği ve danışman desteğinin iş
yaşamı temelliöğrenme sürecinde proje geliştirme ve uygulama aşamasında olan
araştırmacı olarak nitelendirilen öğrencilerin işbirliği, eleştirel düşünme ve proje
yönetimi becerilerine katkıları ele alınabilinir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: İşbirliği, Çevrimiçi iletişim, Paydaş desteği, İş yaşamı temelli
öğrenme
Adaptation of the Wellness Evaluation of
Lifestyle Scale to Turkish
Türkan Doğan
İbrahim Yıldırım
Jane E. Myers
Suggested Citation:
Doğan, T., Yıldırım, İ., & Myers, J. E. (2012). Adaptation of the Wellness Evaluation of
Lifestyle scale to Turkish. Egitim Arastirmaları-Eurasian Journal of Educational
Research, 46, 23-40
Abstract
Problem Statement: Studies show that wellness is closely associated with
individual life style. Thus, any efforts toward improving wellness should
target aspects of a person’s life style. A means of assessing holistic
wellness is needed to design programs that increase individuals’/clients’
health and wellness and to develop psychological counseling approaches.
In other words, a valid and reliable measurement instrument is required.
Recent years have witnessed the development of a great number of
models of wellness and of a variety of measurement instruments. In
Turkey, however, there are few studies on this subject.
Purpose of Study: The purpose of this study was to adapt the Wellness
Evaluation of Lifestyle (WEL) scale to Turkish. The WEL–TJ form of the
scale was applied.
Methods: The study sample consisted of 425 students (232 female; 193
male) from a university in Ankara, aged between 18 and 29 years
( x =21.4; SD = 1.74). We performed explanatory factor analysis, to
examine both the construct validity and factor structure of the WEL.
Principle component analysis (PCA) rotation and concurrent validity tests
were also performed. The reliability of the WEL was also subject to testretest and internal consistency testing.

Part of this study was presented at the Seventh National Psychological Counseling and
Guidance Congress, Malatya, 2003. Data utilized in this study is obtained from the
correspondence author’s dissertation carried out under the supervission of Prof. Dr. İbrahim
Yıldırım.

Corresponding Author, Assis. Prof. Dr., Baskent University Faculty of Education,
[email protected]

Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University Faculty of Education, [email protected]

Prof. Dr., University of North Carolina, [email protected]
23
24
Türkan Doğan, İbrahim Yıldırım,& Jane E. Myers
Findings and Results: Varimax rotation was used to analyze factors and
items, and it was observed that, with the exception of items in the “Work”
subscale, similar items gathered under the same factor. Test-retest
reliability coefficients ranged from .38 to .84 for the WEL subscales. Total
test-retest reliability was .67. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient
for the overall scale was .92.
Conclusions and Recommendations: The findings of this study indicate that
the Turkish version of the WEL scale is suitable for measuring wellness
levels among university students in Turkey; however, we also recommend
that validity and reliability studies be conducted with a larger group of
varied ages.
Keywords: Wellness, the Wheel of Wellness, the Wellness Evaluation of
Lifestyle scale, reliability and validity
Prior to the 1940s, health was viewed as the mere absence of disease. However, in
1947, the World Health Organization (WHO) changed this. Health was defined as
“not only the absence of disease but also the presence of a satisfactory degree of
physical, mental and social wellness” (Witmer & Sweeney, 1992; Fişek, 1985). This
was the first time that the mental and social aspects of human life were incorporated
into the concept of health. The new definition was also important because it made a
connection between health and wellness for the first time.
Dr. Halbert Dunn (1961) pioneered the study of wellness, which was furthered by
others who contributed to the conceptualization of wellness (as cited in Palombi,
1991). Dunn (1961, p.4) defined wellness as “an integrated method of functioning
which is oriented towards maximizing the potential of which the individual is
capable” (as cited in Palombi, 1992). Myers, Sweeney and Witmer (2000, p. 252)
defined wellness in more inclusive terms. They referred to it as “a way of life
oriented toward optimal health and well-being, in which body, mind, and spirit are
integrated by the individual to live more fully within the human and natural
community.” Almost all definitions of wellness in the literature point to desirable
levels of physical, mental, and spiritual functioning.
In the literature, we see the use of the term “well-being,” in addition to wellness.
Well-being is considered to have two dimensions: subjective and psychological.
Subjective well-being relates to an individual’s self-evaluation of her life in terms of
positive and negative emotional and cognitive aspects (Diener, 1994). Psychological
well-being, on the other hand, refers to an individual’s self-awareness of her goals
and potential and the quality of her social relations (Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Together,
the terms “wellness”, “psychological well-being”, and “subjective well-being”
highlight the significance of healthy functioning. However, subjective well-being and
psychological well-being are only related to subjective perceptions of one’s life, while
wellness is related to life style.
A great number of researchers acknowledge that a healthy life style prevents
important medical problems (Bree, Passchier, & Emmen, 1990; Cagle, 2000; Cheng &
25
Lam, 1997). Conversely, unhealthy life styles are associated with such physical and
mental issues as lower self-esteem, anxiety, and headache (Cramer, Nieman, & Lee,
1991; Degges-White, Myers, Adelman, & Pastoor, 2003; Rosenfeld & Richman, 1998).
Studies show that health and wellness are closely associated with individual life
styles. Thus, any efforts toward improving wellness should target aspects of a
person’s life style. The accumulated body of research can also be used to guide
individuals toward greater control over their life styles, with numerous models put
forward by, amongst others, Ardell (1998; 2001); Hettler (1984; as cited in Donaghy,
1995); Travis and Ryan (1988); Sweeney and Witmer (1991); Witmer and Sweeney
(1992); and Myers, Witmer, and Sweeney (2000).
The Wheel of Wellness was the first model prepared by counseling professionals
(Myers, Witmer, & Sweeney, 2000; Sweeney & Witmer, 1991; Witmer & Sweeney,
1992). In developing this holistic model of wellness, Sweeney, Witmer, and Myers
furthered Maslow’s and Adler’s ideas of health. According to the Wheel , wellness is
an optimal state of health that is established by the holistic functioning of the
physical, mental, and spiritual domains of human existence. The model offers a basis
for life-long wellness and is comprised of such life tasks as Spirituality, SelfDirection, Work-Leisure, Friendship, and Love. Self-Direction has the following 12
domains: sense of worth, sense of control, realistic beliefs, emotional awareness and
coping, problem solving and creativity, sense of humor, nutrition, exercise, self-care,
stress management, gender identity, and cultural identity (Myers, Sweeney, &
Witmer, 2000). These areas are viewed as holistic parts of a circle. Changes in one
domain of the Wheel of Wellness induce changes in the other domains. Likewise, this
model holds that there are five domains of life that function in dynamic-interactive
manners: family, society, religion, education, media, and the business world. These
domains are also influenced by events like famine, flood, and war. This model has
benefited from the accumulation of theoretical and empirical knowledge in the fields
of psychology, anthropology, education, and the behavioral and medical sciences
(Sweeney & Witmer, 1991; Witmer & Sweeney, 1992; Myers, Witmer, & Sweeney,
2000).
The design of programs that increase individuals’/clients’ health and wellness
and the development of psychological counseling approaches requires a means of
assessing holistic wellness. In other words, a valid and reliable measurement
instrument is needed. Recent years have witnessed the creation of a great number of
models of wellness and of a variety of instruments based on these models. In Turkey,
several subjective and/or psychological well-being scales have been developed,
including the Subjective Well-Being Scale (Tuzgöl-Dost, 2004) and the Scale of
Psychological Well-Being (Cenkseven, 2004; Akın, 2008). As explained, though
closely related, the concepts of well-being and wellness are different. Therefore, these
scales measure only subjective and/or psychological well-being – not whole
wellness. At the time this study was conducted, we had not encountered a scale that
measured whole wellness, though Güneri-Yerin (2003) had prepared the Wellness
Inventory. In conclusion, there was need for a valid and reliable scale to measure
current wellness. There is still a need for more wellness measuring scales in Turkey.
26
The Wheel of Wellness developed by Witmer and Sweeney in 1990 is the first model
developed according to psychological counseling theories (Sweeney & Witmer, 1991;
Witmer & Sweeney 1992). The strength of the model rests in the fact that it is holistic,
being composed of multiple factors, and in the fact that it offers a means of
measuring the individual impacts of these factors (as cited in Hermon & Hazler,
1999; Granello, 1999). Myers, Sweeney, and Witmer based their Wellness Evaluation
of Lifestyle (WEL) on the Wheel of Wellness (Myers, Sweeney, & Witmer, 2000;
Sweeney & Witmer, 1991; Witmer, & Sweeney, 1992). This study aimed to contribute
to studies on wellness in Turkey. More specifically, its purpose was to adapt the
WEL to Turkish.
Method
Participants
The study sample consisted of 425 students (232 female; 193 male) from a
university in Ankara. Students’ ages ranged from 18 to 29 years ( x =21.4; SD = 1.74).
37% were freshmen (N = 155); 27% were sophomores (N = 116); 19% were juniors (N
= 81); and 17% were seniors (N = 73).
Data Analysis
The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin coefficient and Barlett Sphericity tests confirmed that the
data were fit for factor analysis. Explanatory factor analysis was performed to
examine the construct validity and factor structure of the WEL. Principle component
analysis (PCA) (Kline, 1994) was also performed. Factor loading, percentages of
explained variance, and scree plots were examined. A varimax rotation matrix was
used to facilitate the interpretation of factors. In accordance with Kaiser’s
normalization (Tatsuoka, 1971), factors with eigen values of 1.00 or higher were
included. In addition, concurrent validity was checked. The reliability of the WEL
was examined using test-retest and internal consistency testing. These procedures
were repeated for each subscale.
Research Instruments
The Wellness Evaluation of Lifestyle (WEL) scale. The WEL consists of five subscales,
each measuring one of five fundamental life tasks: Spirituality, Work-Leisure,
Friendship, Love, and Self-Direction. The Self-Direction subscale is composed of 12
domains (sense of worth, sense of control, realistic beliefs, emotional awareness and
coping, problem solving and creativity, sense of humor, nutrition, exercise, self-care,
stress management, gender identity, and cultural identity). The five subscales are
scored separately. The sum of the subscale scores provides a total wellness score.
Moreover, the sub-domains of Self-Direction are scored separately. Higher scores
indicate higher degrees of wellness.
The WEL-TJ form of the WEL scale was used in this study. The WEL-TJ is a fourpoint Likert scale, with responses ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly
disagree”. The WEL-TJ consists of 83 items. The number of items within each subscale varies from 3 to 6. The leisure subscale has 6 items; the Spirituality, Realistic
27
Beliefs, Nutrition, and Exercise subscales each have 5 items; Cultural Identity has 3
items; and all the rest have 4 items.
Translation
Permission was obtained to adapt the WEL by contacting its authors via
electronic mail. Correspondence was conducted with Dr. Jane Myers. With her and
her colleagues’ permission, translation to Turkish was initiated. The initial
translation was carried out by the author of this study and two counselors with
doctoral degrees and advanced knowledge in both languages. The Turkish
translation was then given to 10 counseling/psychology experts for revision. These
experts had previously undertaken their graduate studies in the English language
and thus possessed advanced knowledge of it. Necessary changes were made,
according to common recommendations and criticisms.
Back-translation was also employed to help develop the Turkish version of the
WEL. The Turkish translation was then given to three counseling experts with
advanced proficiency in English. They retranslated the scale to English. Afterwards,
the two translations were given to 10 counseling/psychology experts for revision.
These experts had received their graduate degrees in English.
Myers and Sweeney, who developed the original form of the WEL, also
participated in the translation. They worked with a Turkish academic to check the
compatibility of the Turkish translation. Based on their feedback, necessary changes
were made, and the translation phase was completed.
A pilot study was conducted to check the practicality of the scale. The test was
given to 60 students. The responses of this sample confirmed the practicality of the
measure.
Findings Results
Validity and Reliability Studies
Validity
Validity testing of the whole WEL. Factor analysis was performed to test the
construct validity of the WEL. Both the KMO coefficient (.898) and the results of
Bartlett’s test were significant. Communalities of the factors for each variable ranged
from .412 to .770. Twenty-one of the factors had eigen values of higher than 1. These
factors accounted for 58.95% of total variance. Loading for the first factor ranged
between .21 and .68. The multifactorial structure of the scale was confirmed by a
rapid decline in the graph, shared variance values, and factor load values.
A varimax rotation matrix was generated for the 21 factors obtained from the
PCA, in order to test independence, significance, and ease of interpretation. Since
the number of factors in the original scale was 17, the same number of factors was
used in varimax rotation. The results showed that with the exception of items in the
Work subscale, similar items gathered under the same factor, and subscale items
clustered under the same factors. Hence, the results did not support the Work life
28
task as an independent factor. Items in the Work subscale were revised and
administered again. Subsequent factor analysis also did not show life task as an
independent factor. Factor analysis also revealed that the Problem Solving and
Creativity, as well as Sense of Control, dimensions of the Self-Direction subscale
clustered under the same factor. Likewise, the Emotional Awareness and Coping
and Sense of Worth dimensions of the Self–Direction subscale also gathered under
one factor.
Validity Testing for the Subscales
The Spirituality subscale. Communalities of the factors for each variable ranged
from .434 to .691. One factor had an eigen value of higher than 1. This factor
explained 54.417% of total variance. The factor loads of items (component matrix)
ranged from .658 to .831.
The Self-Direction subscale. The original scale had 12 domains. Factor analysis
showed that 14 factors had eigen values of higher than 1. Communalities of the
factors for each variable ranged from .394 to .752. The first of these factors accounted
for 6.460% of total variance, while the second accounted for 6.346%, the third for
5.870%, the fourth for 5.035%, the fifth for 4.898%, the sixth 4.774%, the seventh for
3.796%, the eighth for 3.534%, the ninth for 3.300%, the tenth for 3.262%, the eleventh
for 2.791%, the twelfth for 2.745%, the thirteenth for 2.617%, and the fourteenth for
2.422%, with the 14 factors together accounting for 57.850% of variance. Factor loads
(component matrix) ranged from .25 to .582.
Varimax rotation showed that the Problem Solving and Creativity and the Sense
of Control dimensions, which were separate factors in the original scale, clustered
under a single factor (Table 1). As with the original scale, the second factor was
Nutrition, the third Stress Management, the fourth Sense of Humor, and the fifth
Exercising. In addition, the results showed that the sixth factor was comprised of
five items. As with the original scale, four of the items of which this factor consisted
belonged to the Sense of Worth factor. On the other hand, one of the items that fell
under the Emotional Awareness and Coping factor in the original scale was also
included in this factor. Considering the original scale and the contents of the items,
the seventh factor was identified as “Sexual Identity”, the eighth as “Emotional
Awareness and Coping”, the ninth as “Self-Care”, and the tenth as “Cultural
Identity.” Unlike the original scale, the revised scale included Cultural Identity items
and one of the items from the Realistic Beliefs subscale. This study showed that
again, unlike the original scale, Realistic Beliefs subscale items were clustered under
two different factors (eleventh and thirteenth). Likewise, one item from each of the
Sexual Identity and Self-Care subscales gathered under a different dimension.
Table 1
Varimax Rotation of The Self-Direction Subscale
Item
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
13
14
15
16
18
19
20
21
22
27
28
30
31
32
33
36
38
39
40
42
43
44
45
46
48
50
53
54
56
57
59
60
62
63
64
66
67
68
71
72
Shared Variance
.655
.744
.666
.666
.651
.507
.555
.695
.558
.552
.638
.752
.522
.516
.743
.577
.525
.541
.622
.509
.524
.438
.628
.535
.517
.624
.491
.439
.632
.700
.475
.589
.472
.568
.443
.712
.716
.659
.572
.394
.435
.660
.700
.438
.498
.561
.661
.608
.566
.473
Item
44
10
33
48
60
32
50
67
18
40
30
13
20
36
54
71
59
21
7
16
38
27
43
14
3
68
5
63
2
42
4
53
9
72
62
6
22
57
56
8
64
15
19
31
12
45
28
66
46
39
Component Matrix
.643
.596
.587
.582
.581
.562
.540
.535
.526
.501
.500
.497
.497
.467
.465
.439
.431
.429
.398
.397
.395
.394
.340
.373
.386
.388
.377
.292
.477
.407
.337
.438
.375
.378
.327
.347
.390
.250
--.203
-.220
.277
.199
.235
.292
.298
---
29
30
Item
7
27
30
59
20
48
32
43
3
14
5
68
63
18
50
2
67
42
4
54
21
53
9
62
72
33
36
60
44
66
10
6
22
57
13
40
38
8
64
15
16
12
31
71
46
56
45
39
28
19
1
2
3
4
.633
.625
.583
.535
.530
.519
.488
.394
.840
.840
.789
.722
.564
.816
.783
.758
.754
5
6
7
After Rotation
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
.794
.785
.745
.381
.807
.791
.787
.464
.396
.725
.707
.460
.400
.397
.778
.735
.462
718
699
413
732
606
483
611
559
553
541
724
687
614
600
561
627
The Work subscale. Communalities of the factors for each variable ranged from
.261 to .513. Factor analysis showed that one factor had an eigen value of higher than
31
1. This factor explained 40.212% of total variance. Factor loads (component matrix)
The Leisure subscale. Communalities of the factors for each variable ranged from
.206 to .639. Factor analysis showed that one factor had an eigen value of higher than
1. This item explained 49.533% of total variance. Factor loads (component matrix)
The Friendship subscale. Communalities of the factors for each variable ranged
from .237 to .513. Factor analysis showed that one factor had an eigen value of
higher than 1. This factor explained 54.074% of total variance. Factor loads
(component matrix) ranged from .400 to .674.
The Love subscale. Communalities of the factors for each variable ranged from .673
to .800. Factor analysis showed that two factors had an eigen value higher than 1.
The first factor accounted for 50.147% and the second factor for 25.719% of total
variance, and the two of these for 75.866% of total variance. After varimax rotation,
the first factor had two items (26, 52), and the second factor had two items (47, 73).
Given the contents of these factors, the first was associated with Social Relations and
the second with Social Support. Prior to rotation, the first factor had a high load and
accounted for 50% of total variance. There was a rapid decline after the first factor
(on the graph), such that the Love subscale can be said to have a general factor.
Concurrent Validity
The Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), adapted to Turkish culture by Şahin and
Durak (1994), was used to establish the concurrent validity of the WEL. Increases in
total scores on the BSI, which was prepared to examine a variety of psychological
symptoms, show the frequency of these symptoms. In other words, a high score, on
the one hand, indicates the frequency of psychological symptoms and, on the other
hand, shows that wellness is low. The two scales were administered to 254 students.
The total scores from both were used to calculate the correlation coefficients. There
was a medium significant negative relationship between the two measures (r   .42;
p  0.01). It can be concluded that when wellness scores increase, number of
psychological symptoms decreases.
Reliability
The scale was administered to 80 students within an interval of 3 weeks. As
shown in Table 2, test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from .38 to .84 and
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients from .41 to 92 (first administration). The lowest
Cronbach’s alpha was for Realistic Beliefs, whereas the highest was for Stress
Management.
32
Table 2
Reliability and Internal Consistency
Spirituality
Self-Direction
Sense of Worth
Sense of Control
Realistic Beliefs
Emotional Aw. and
Coping
Problem Solving –
Creativity
Sense of Humor
Nutrition
Exercising
Self-Care
Stress Management
Sexual Identity
Cultural Identity
Work
Leisure
Friendship
Love
Total Scale
* First administration
Test-retest
Correlation
.64
.71
.67
.55
.71
.46
.38
.75
.84
.78
.64
.64
.56
.66
.64
.72
.51
.53
.67
Cronbach-Alpha
coefficients *
.72
.86
.78
.61
.41
.62
.55
.69
.80
.74
.53
.86
.57
.49
.55
.78
.69
.65
.92
Cronbach-Alpha
coefficients **
.76
.87
.71
.64
.53
.55
.59
.72
.82
.70
.46
.84
.69
.57
.47
.75
.71
.64
.92
** Second administration
The correlations between subscale scores and total test scores are illustrated in
Table 3. As seen here, there were significant correlations between all the subscale and
the total test scores, with the exception of the Realistic Beliefs subscale. The
correlation coefficients of all the item-subscales were higher than .25, with the
exception of three items in the Realistic Beliefs subscale (12, 28, 39); one item in the
Problem Solving and Creativity subscale (32); and one item each in the Self-Care (19),
Cultural Identity (31), and Leisure (55) subscales.
33
Table 3
Total Test and Subscale Scores for the WEL
Subscales
Spirituality
Sense of Worth
Sense of Control
Realistic Beliefs
Emotional Aw. and Coping
Problem Solving – Creativity
Sense of Humor
Nutrition
Exercising
Self-Care
Stress Management
Sexual Identity
Cultural Identity
Work
Leisure
Friendship
Love
Correlations of
item-total test scores
.3209
.6384
.6561
-.0951
.5825
.5895
.2791
.3731
.4580
.2451
.9692
.4149
.5103
.5923
.4612
.5795
.3065
Cronbach’s alpha
after item deleted
.8309
.8123
.8139
.8473
.8165
.8172
.8327
.8294
.8228
.8390
.8104
.8251
.8199
.8169
.8225
.8170
.8316
Since the reliability of some subscales and some item-subscale correlation
coefficients was low, the translations of some items were revised by two experts: one
in the field of Turkish Language and Literature and the other in American Culture
and Literature. Items in the Work, Sexual Identity, Cultural Identity, Realistic Beliefs,
Problem Solving and Creativity, Sense of Humor, and Friendship subscales were
altered. Subsequently, the scale was administered to 410 students, and the new
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from .46 to 92 (Table 2, second application).
Cronbach’s alpha increased for subscales whose items were altered. Conversely, the
coefficient for the Work subscale decreased. On the other hand, while there was an
increase in the Cronbach’s alphas of some of the subscales whose items were not
altered, there was a decrease in the coefficients of other subscales. There was no
change in the internal consistency coefficients of the total Self-Direction and the total
Wellness scales. After alteration, the correlation coefficients of item-subscales
correlation coefficients were higher than .25 for all the items, with the exception of
two in Realistic Beliefs (12, 28), one in Self-Care (19), and one in Work (29). In fact,
three of these four coefficients were higher than .20. The item-total correlations
ranged from 0.17 to 0.75.
Factor analysis of the entire scale showed that items with similar content
clustered under the same factor. The only exception was the Work subscale, which
did not emerge as an independent life task. This could be attributed to cultural
differences. In other words, the results of studies with Turkish samples may reveal
34
findings that are dissimilar to those in the existing international literature. Similarly,
this difference could be due to the identity of this study’s sample. The participants
were students, the great majority (88.67%) of whom had no work experience.
Factor analyses of the whole scale and the Self-Direction subscale showed that the
Problem Solving and Creativity and Self-Control subscales were clustered under the
same factor. Hattie, Myers, and Sweeney (2004) found similar results. Yet, they
treated Problem Solving and Creativity as different from Self-Control. The authors
concluded that further investigation was needed, before any firm decisions could be
made about these subscales. The results of this study are in accordance with the
findings of Hattie, Myers, and Sweeney (2004).
Factor analysis of the entire scale showed that Emotional Awareness and
Coping, as well as Sense of Worth, which were subdomains of the Self Direction
subscale, were indeed one factor. This result was not surprising, given that the
contents of these two subscales were closely related. Again, factor analysis of the
Self-Direction subscale showed that one item in the original Emotional Awareness
and Coping subscale was included in the Sense of Worth subscale. Considering the
content of this item (I am able to experience a full range of human emotions, both positive
and negative), it could be proposed that experiencing emotions as they are felt could
be interpreted as an indication of self-worth. Put more clearly, emotions are not
clearly expressed in Turkish society, and it is therefore thought that the expression of
feelings is associated with Sense of Worth. Factor analysis of the Self-Direction
subscale showed that its tenth factor, unlike that of the original scale, included
Cultural Identity items and one Realistic Beliefs item. The fact that this item (I am
responsible for keeping other people happy) was included in the Cultural Identity
dimension could be attributed to the collective nature of Turkish culture.
Varimax rotation revealed that the Love subscale consisted of two factors.
Considering the contents of these factors, the first was designated Social Relations
and the second Social Support. Parallel to this finding, Myers, Sweeney, and Witmer
(2000) have asserted that the Love subscale involves dimensions of social interest,
relations, and support.
The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for the full scale was .92. Coefficients
for the subscales ranged from .41 to .86. The subscale with the lowest coefficient was
Realistic Beliefs, while the subscale with the highest coefficient was Stress
Management. Following the second administration of the WEL, and after altering
some items in those subscales with low reliability coefficients and low item-subscale
correlations, the Cronbach’s alpha for the WEL was found to be .92, and those of the
subscales was found to range from .47 to .84. The Work subscale had the lowest
coefficient, whereas the Stress Management subscale had the highest. The coefficient
of the Work subscale decreased. As mentioned, the sample comprised university
students, most of whom had no work experience. This could be the reason for the
low coefficients obtained with the first administration of the scale. Hence, “workrelated statements” that were originally given in parentheses were replaced with
“school-related statements” before the second administration. Alternating these
statements may have confused participants. To prevent such confusion, the change
35
was reversed after this study was concluded. On the other hand, the internal
consistency coefficients of the total scale and that of the Self-Direction dimension
remained the same. The changes observed in the alpha coefficients of the subscales
could also be attributed to possible differences in the ways the samples were
administered.
For all but four of the item-subscales, correlation coefficients were higher than
.25. Three of these four items had coefficients higher than .20. Item-subscale
correlation coefficients ranged from .17 to .75. Negative correlations are not
preferable, since they affect summation. Item-total correlation coefficients higher
than zero and .25 are favorable. Items with coefficients lower than .20 are often
eliminated from scales. However, this is not a clear-cut rule. Özdamar (1999)
recommends that in deciding whether to eliminate such an item, one should consider
the change in the alpha coefficient and the mean of the scale that would result from
the item being eliminated. Since the item-total coefficients that were lower than .25
did not have negative values, they were not eliminated. It is safe to conclude that the
range of internal validity coefficients was satisfactory.
However, it was observed that the test-retest reliability coefficients and
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of the subdomains Sense of Control, Problem Solving
and Creativity, and Emotional Awareness and Coping were low. These are the
subdomains of the Self-Direction subscale, which is one of the five fundamental life
tasks. As discussed in the Methods section, scores for each of these subdomains was
obtained separately and then added to scores for the others, to obtain the total SelfDirection subscale score. The test-retest reliability coefficients and Cronbach’s alpha
coefficients for the Self-Direction subscale were .71 and .87 respectively. This
suggested that there should be a total Self-Direction score, instead of individual
measurements for each subdomain.
Despite these shortcomings, this study indicates that the WEL (Turkish version)
is a reliable scale for measuring the wellness of university students. At the same time,
the following recommendations should be made: The Work life task of the WEL does
not seem to be a separate factor. This could be due to the nature of this study’s
sample. Thus, further studies are needed with samples of individuals with work
experience. The participants in this study were students at a private university.
Further research is needed to test the generalizability of the results. In addition, the
findings of this study suggest that validity and reliability studies should be
conducted with a larger group of varied ages.
36
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38
İyilik Hali Ölçeği’ni Türkçe'ye Uyarlama Çalışması
(Özet)
Problem Durumu
İlgili alan yazında, genel olarak iyilik hali kavramının bireyin bedensel, zihinsel ve
ruhsal boyutlarda işlerliğinin geliştirilmesinin amaçlandığı bir yaşam biçimi olarak
tanımlandığı görülmektedir. Araştırmalar sağlıklı tutumlar içeren bir yaşam tarzının,
birçok sağlık problemini önlediğini gösterirken; sağlıksız yaşam tarzının çok sayıdaki
fiziksel ve psikolojik bozuklukla ilişkili olduğunu göstermektedir. Bireylerin yaşam
tarzlarında yapılacak değişikliklerle sağlık ve iyilik hallerini artırmanın olanaklı
olduğu düşüncesinden hareketle, çeşitli iyilik hali modelleri geliştirilmiştir.
Psikolojik danışma teorilerine dayanan ilk model Myers, Sweeney ve Witmer
tarafından geliştirilen İyilik Hali Çemberi’dir (The Wheel of Wellness). Model yaşam
boyu sağlıklı davranışlar için bir temel oluşturmaktadır. Danışanların, sağlık ve
refahını arttıracak program ve psikolojik danışma yaklaşımları geliştirebilmek için
öncelikle, onların bütüncül iyilik halinin değerlendirilmesi gereklidir. Diğer bir
deyişle, bu konudaki mevcut durumu saptamayı sağlayacak geçerli ve güvenilir bir
ölçme araçlarına ihtiyaç vardır. Yurt dışında son yıllarda iyilik hali modelleri ve bu
modellere dayanan çeşitli ölçekler geliştirilmesine karşın Türkiye’de bu konudaki
çalışmalar daha sınırlıdır.
Araştırmanın Amacı
Çalışmanın amacı, Ülkemizde bu alandaki boşluğu gidermek amacıyla, Myers,
Sweeney ve Witmer tarafından geliştirilen İyilik Hali Ölçeği (İHÖ) “The Wellness
Evaluation of Lifestyle (WEL)” isimli ölçme aracının uyarlama çalışmasının
yapılmasıdır.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi
Araştırma grubunu, 232’si kız, 193’ü erkek 425 üniversite öğrencisi oluşturmaktadır.
Öğrencilerin yaşları 18 ile 29 arasında değişmekte olup, yaş ortalaması 21.4’dir (SS =
1.74). Araştırmaya katılanların % 37’si birinci, % 27’si ikinci, % 19’u üçüncü ve %
17’si ise dördüncü sınıfta okumaktadırlar.
Çalışmada, WEL’in TJ formunun uyarlama çalışması yapılmıştır. 83 maddeden
oluşan ölçek; Maneviyat, Çalışma-Serbest Zaman, Arkadaşlık, Sevgi ve Kendini
Yönetme olmak üzere beş alt ölçekten oluşmaktadır. Beş alt ölçekten biri olan
Kendini Yönetmenin 12 alt alanı bulunmaktadır. Bireyin beş alt ölçekten aldığı
puanların toplamı, toplam iyilik hali puanını vermektedir. Bununla birlikte beş alt
ölçek ayrı ayrı da puanlanmaktadır. Ayrıca, Kendini Yönetme alt ölçeğinin alt
alanları da ayrı puan vermektedir. Puanın yüksekliği yüksek iyilik hali düzeyine
işaret etmektedir. Ölçek dörtlü likert tipidir.
İHÖ’ nün uyarlama çalışmaları çerçevesinde, kapsam geçerliliği için İngilizce’den
Türkçe’ye çevirisi ve geri çevirisi yapılmış ve uzman görüşü alınmıştır. WEL’in yapı
geçerliğini ve faktör yapısını incelemek amacıyla açımlayıcı (exploratory) faktör
analizi kullanılmıştır. Faktörleştirme tekniği olarak da temel bileşenler analizi
39
(principle compenent analysis, PCA) ve varimax eksen döndürme (rotation) tekniği
seçilmiştir. Ayrıca Benzer ölçekler geçerliliği yapılmıştır. İHÖ’ nün güvenirliği, biri
test-tekrar test, diğeri iç tutarlılık olmak üzere iki yolla hesaplanmıştır. Bu işlemler
tüm alt ölçekler için de yapılmıştır.
Araştırmanın Bulguları
İHÖ’ nün tümüne ilişkin varimax eksen döndürme (rotation) yapılmıştır.Analiz
sonucunda faktörler ve maddeler incelenmiş, Çalışma alt ölçeği maddeleri hariç,
benzer maddelerin aynı faktörde ve alt ölçek maddelerinin de aynı faktörde
toplandığı gözlenmiştir. Çalışma alt ölçeği ayrı bir faktör olarak ortaya çıkmamıştır.
İHÖ’ nün alt ölçeklerine ilişkin geçerlilik çalışmaları sonucunda, Maneviyat,
Çalışma- Serbest Zaman ve Arkadaşlık alt ölçeklerinin öz değeri 1’den büyük olan
tek faktörden oluştuğu saptanmıştır. Bu faktörlerin, söz konusu ölçeklere ilişkin
toplam varyansı açıklama oranları, sırasıyla, %54.41, % 40.21, % 49.53 ve %54.07’dir.
Kendini Yönetme alt ölçeğine ilişkin faktör analizi sonuçları, ölçeğin öz değeri 1’den
büyük olan 14 faktörden oluştuğunu göstermiştir. 14 faktör birlikte toplam varyansın
%57,850’sini açıklamaktadır. Varimaks eksen döndürme sonuçları, birinci faktörde
orijinal ölçekte iki ayrı alt ölçek olan Problem Çözme ve Yaratıcılık boyutu ile
Kontrol Duygusu boyutlarının aynı faktörde ortaya çıktığını göstermiştir. Orijinal
ölçekle paralel olarak ikinci faktörün Beslenme, üçüncü faktörün Stres Yönetimi,
dördüncü faktörün Mizah Duygusu, beşinci faktörün Egzersiz Yapmak alt ölçek
maddeleriyle ilişkili olduğunu göstermiştir. Altıncı faktörün beş maddeden oluştuğu
izlenmiştir. Bu faktördeki dört madde orijinal ölçekle tutarlı olarak Değerli Olma
Duygusu alt ölçeğinde yer alan maddelerdir, ancak orijinal ölçekte Duygusal
Farkındalık ve Başa Çıkma alt ölçeğinde yer alan maddelerden bir tanesinin de bu
boyutta yer aldığı gözlenmiştir. Orijinal ölçek ve madde içerikleri dikkate alınarak
yedinci faktörün Cinsel Kimlik, sekizinci faktörün Duygusal Farkındalık ve Başa
Çıkma, dokuzuncu faktörün Kendine Bakma, onuncu faktörün ise Kültürel Kimlik
alt ölçekleriyle ilişkili maddelerden oluştuğu belirlenmiştir. Onuncu faktörde orijinal
ölçekten farklı olarak Kültürel Kimlik maddeleriyle birlikte bir tane de Gerçekçi
İnançlar maddesinin yer aldığı gözlenmiştir. Gerçekçi İnançlar alt ölçeği
maddelerinin, orijinal ölçekten farklı olarak bu çalışmada iki ayrı faktörde yer aldığı
izlenmiştir. Ayrıca, orijinal ölçekten farklı olarak Cinsel Kimlik ve Kendine Bakma alt
ölçeklerine ait birer madden tek başlarına ayrı bir boyutta yer almıştır. Sevgi alt
ölçeğine ilişkin faktör analizi sonuçları ise bu alt ölçeğin iki faktörlü olduğunu
göstermiştir. İki faktör birlikte toplam varyansın %75,86’sını açıklamaktadır. Bununla
birlikte, bulgular, “Sevgi” alt ölçeğinin genel bir faktöre de sahip olduğunu
göstermektedir.
İHÖ’nün benzer ölçek geçerliliği için Kısa Semptom Envanteri (KSE) kullanılmıştır.
İHÖ ile KSE toplam puanları arasında orta düzeyde ve negatif yönde istatistiksel
olarak anlamlı bir ilişki saptanmıştır (r   .42; p  0.01). Ölçeğin, test-tekrar test
güvenirlik katsayıları alt ölçekler için .38 ile .84 arasında, İHÖ’ nün tümüne ilişkin ise
.67 olarak belirlenmiştir. İHÖ’ nün Cronbach alfa güvenirlik katsayısı ölçeğin
bütününe ilişkin .92, alt ölçekler için ise .47 ile .84 arasında değişmektedir.
40
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri
İHÖ, bireylerin iyilik halinin belirlenmesi ve yaşam kalitelerinin güçlendirmesine
yardım sağlayacak geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçme aracı olarak kullanılabilir nitelikte
görünmektedir. Bununla birlikte, çalışmanın bulgularına dayanılarak şu önerilerde
bulunulabilir. Ölçeğin tümüne ilişkin olarak yapılan faktör analizi sonucu, “Çalışma”
alt ölçeği ayrı bir faktör olarak ortaya çıkmamıştır. Kültürler arası ölçek uyarlama
çalışmalarında evrensel davranışların farklı olabileceği beklentisinin yanısıra
araştırma örnekleminde yer alan bireylerin henüz öğrenci olmaları ve büyük bir
çoğunluğunun (%88.67) iş yaşamına katılmamış olması bu alanın farklı bir faktör
olarak ortaya çıkmasına engel olmuş olabilir. Bu nedenle çalışan bireylerle bu alt
ölçek üzerinde çalışılabilir. Bununla birlikte, Kontrol Duygusu, Problem Çözme ve
Yaratıcılık ve Duygusal Bilinçlilik ve Başa Çıkma alt ölçeklerin test tekrar test
güvenirlik katsayıları ve croanbach-alfa değerlerinin düşük olduğu görülmüştür.
Sözü edilen bu alt ölçekler beş temel yaşam görevlerinden biri olan Kendini Yönetme
alt ölçeğinin alt alanlarıdır. Yöntem bölümünde de bahsedildiği gibi bu alt alanlar
ayrı ayrı puanlandığı gibi Kendini Yönetme alt ölçeği olarak toplam puan da
vermektedir. Kendini Yönetme alt ölçeğinin test tekrar test güvenirlik katsayısı .71 ve
cronbach’s alfa değeri .87’dir. Bu nedenle bu alt alanların ayrı ayrı puanlanması
yerine toplam puan olarak kullanılması önerilmektedir. Ayrıca, bu çalışma Ankara
da bir vakıf üniversitesinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Türkiye’nin farklı bölgelerindeki
üniversitelerde yapılacak çalışmalar, bu çalışmanın bulgularının karşılaştırılabilmesi
olanağını sağlayabilir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: İyilik Hali, İyilik Hali Çemberi, İyilik Hali ölçeği, güvenirlik and
geçerlilik
An Evaluation of Environmental Responsibility and
Its Associated Factors:
Reflections from PISA 2006
Ayhan Kürşat Erbaş 
Gaye Tuncer Teksoz 
Ceren Tekkaya 
Suggested Citation:
Erbas, A. K., Tuncer Teksoz, G., & Tekkaya, C. (2012). An evaluation of
environmental responsibility and its associated factors: Reflections from
PISA 2006. Egitim Arastirmaları-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 46,
41-62
Abstract
Problem statement: Contemporary global environmental problems have
highlighted the importance of acting responsibly towards natural
resources and the environment. The role of science education in shaping
how people interact with the environment, therefore, has gained
importance. The science education community has responded to this
challenge by helping citizens develop responsibility for environmental
issues. Accordingly, “scientific literacy and the environment” was one of
the research areas in the Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2006. We attempted to examine patterns in Turkish students’
environmental responsibility and to expose relationships between student
responsibility for environmental issues and socio-demographic variables.
We did this by assessing scientific literacy and evaluating an
environmental database for Turkey in the context of PISA 2006.
Specifically, the current study examined the extent to which Turkish
students’ economic, social, and cultural status; school activities; parents’
sense of responsibility and optimism regarding environmental issues and
gender predicted their perceived responsibility towards the environment.

Corresponding Author:Assoc. Prof. Dr. Middle East Technical University, Faculty of
Education, [email protected]
**Assoc. Prof. Dr., Middle East Technical University, Faculty of Education, [email protected]
*** Prof. Dr., Middle East Technical University, Faculty of Education, [email protected]
41
42
Ayhan Kürşat Erbaş, Gaye Tuncer Teksöz; & Ceren Tekkaya
Purpose of Study: This study evaluated students’ responsibility towards the
environment and the relationship between perceived responsibility and
several background variables, utilizing Turkish data obtained from the
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2006.
Methods: Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) was used to examine the
association between dependent and independent variables.
Findings and Results: The findings suggested that 15-year-old Turkish
students’ responsibility towards the environment varied with respect to
such socio-demographic variables as gender; economic, social and cultural
status; availability of school activities related to environmental topics and
parental sense of responsibility for and optimism about environmental
issues. Among these, although the association was negative, parental level
of optimism regarding environmental issues explained the greatest
amount of variation in student responsibility towards the environment.
This was followed by parental sense of responsibility for environmental
issues.
Conclusions and Recommendations: The overall picture disclosed by this
study is one in which economic, social and cultural status (ESCS) is the
primary feature shaping awareness and responsibility toward the
environment. It is important to note that this result was obtained by
sampling 15-year-old students in Turkey, where there is no strategy for
environmental education. That is to say, if we were to gather background
data on environmental awareness and responsibility in Turkey (although
these would be below the OECD average), and if we were to identify how
this awareness and responsibility have shaped the country’s economic,
social and cultural status, which differs by region, then we might be able
to make plans to develop a tendency toward environmental
consciousness. Such change would be important for the developing
world. Being pessimistic about low ESCS coincides with low
environmental awareness and responsibility, but alternative means to
ameliorating this situation can be found by addressing national and even
regional factors.
Keywords: Environmental awareness, environmental responsibility,
environmental sustainability, Programme for International Student
Assessment, socio-demographic variables
Evidence that science education shapes how people interact with the
environment comes at a time when global environmental challenges, such as climate
change and biodiversity, have never been greater. Research in the field has been
oriented toward integrating environmental issues into school curricula since
environmental education was accepted as a tool for environmental protection in the
1970s (Brundtland, 1987; United Nations [UN], 1992; United Nations Environment
Program [UNEP], 1972). Efforts towards this end have helped educators recognize
43
that personal and social awareness, as well as concern regarding the quality of the
natural environment, is at the heart of environmental protection (Shen & Saijo, 2008).
Within this context, researchers from a variety of cultures have paid significant
attention to the identification of socio-demographic variables that are associated with
student attitudes towards environmental issues (e.g., Dietz, Kalof, & Stern, 2002;
Eisler, Eisler, & Yoshida, 2003; Negev, Sagy, Garb, Salzberg, & Tal, 2008; Olli,
Grendstad, & Wollebaek, 2001; Schultz & Zelezny, 1999; Shen & Saijo, 2008; Stern,
Dietz, & Kalof, 1993; Zelezny, Chua, & Aldrich, 2000). Available studies, however,
reveal inconsistent results. For example, examining the effect of parental occupation
and education on sixth grade students’ environmental knowledge, concern and
behavior in Australia, Holdsworth and Boldero (1996) found that parental education
level was related to student environmental concern. They reported that the effect of
parental education level was stronger on boys than on girls. Furthermore, a study of
Lebanese high school students by Makki, Abd-El-Khalick, and BouJaoude (2003)
revealed that students had favorable attitudes towards the environment and yet
lacked knowledge bases for environmental issues. They found that student
environmental knowledge was positively correlated with parental education level, as
well as student attitudes towards the environment, affect, beliefs and behavioral
commitments. In a recent study, Chu et al. (2007) investigated the variables that
influence Korean students’ environmental literacy and found that these students
tended to have higher levels of environmental literacy if their parents had university
degrees. The authors concluded that children’s levels of environmental literacy and
associated variables were related to characteristics of Korean culture, society and
school curricula. In regard to the effects of socio-economic status on student
environmental concern, Worsley and Skrzypiec (1998) reported that students of
lower socio-economic status were likely to be more supportive of environmental
exploitation and scientific solutions to environmental problems than were other
students. Negev et al. (2008) assessed 6th- and 12th-grade Israeli students’
environmental literacy and found no relationship between knowledge and behavior.
Ethnicity and socioeconomic status, however, were found to be moderately related to
environmental literacy, while the presence of an adult who mediated a child’s
relation to nature was strongly associated with environmental attitudes and behavior
and weakly linked to knowledge. Negev et al. showed that ethnic and socioeconomic
characteristics were moderately related to Israeli students’ environmental literacy
and claimed that the intended goal of environmental education in Israel had not been
achieved. Evans, Brauchle, Haq, Stecker, Wong, and Shapiro (2007), on the other
hand, found that although adults’ educational levels and political values were
associated with their environmental attitudes and behaviours, parental attitudes and
behaviours were not related to children’s attitudes and behaviours.
The studies cited above focused mainly on the socio-demographic factors
affecting environmental concern and the attitudes of individuals in developed
countries. These studies tell us that cultural differences and differences in socioeconomic structures have a major impact on students’ environmental responsibility.
Little work, however, has been done on the relationships between various sociodemographic characteristics and environmental concern in the developing world.
44
Moreover, although environmental issues have been of considerable interest to
Turkish researchers in recent years (e.g., Alp, Ertepinar, Tekkaya, & Yilmaz, 2008;
Taskin, 2009; Tuncer, Ertepinar, Tekkaya, & Sungur, 2005; Tuncer et al., 2009; Yilmaz,
Boone, & Andersen, 2004), no study has been conducted to reveal the current status
of Turkish students’ responsibility towards the environment, using a sample
representative of the whole country. The present study, therefore, aims to fill this gap
and extend the findings of previous studies by utilizing a large data set obtained
from PISA 2006. As a developing nation with a growing economy, great political and
geographical importance and valuable natural resources, Turkey must construct a
sustainable future. Therefore, we expect our study to contribute to research covering
general problems in environmental education, as well as specific issues related to
student environmental awareness, optimism, sense of responsibility for
environmental issues and sustainable development. Our findings may also
contribute to understandings of how people in different cultures and of different
genders handle environmental problems. Thus, the following question guided this
study: How well do Turkish students’ economic, social, and cultural statuses; school
activities; gender and parents’ sense of responsibility and optimism regarding
environmental issues predict their perceived responsibility towards the environment,
as measured by PISA 2006?
Method
Participants
The Turkish data in PISA 2006 were collected from 4,942 fifteen-year-old students
(2,290 girls and 2,652 boys) in 160 schools that included 7th (n = 23), 8th (n = 93), 9th (n
= 2007), 10th (n = 2671) and 11th (n = 148) grade classes across 51 cities in 7
geographical regions.
Instruments
The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a comprehensive
and rigorous international programme that assesses student performance and
collects data on student, family and institutional factors that can help explain
variations in performance, included aspects of environmental science and geoscience.
Along with assessing literacy in certain subject areas, PISA 2006 collected contextual
data through three questionnaires: A student questionnaire (StQ), a parent
questionnaire (PaQ) and a school questionnaire (ScQ). A 30-minute questionnaire
(i.e., StQ) covering the following aspects was administered to participating students:
Student characteristics, family background, student views on science, student views
on the environment, student views of science-related careers and student selfreported views on classroom time, teaching and the learning of science. The school
questionnaire (i.e., ScQ) was filled out by school principals and covered the
following: Structure and organization of schools, staffing and management, school
resources, accountability and admission practices, teaching and environmental issues
and career guidance. Furthermore, a 10-minute mandatory questionnaire (i.e., PaQ)
was administered to one or both of the parents or other primary caregiver(s) of the
students tested. It covered the following: Parental reports on school and science
learning, parental views on the environment, annual spending on children’s
45
education and parental background. While PISA was not designed specifically to
assess environmental science and geoscience, out of the 108 questions used in the
PISA 2006 science assessment, 24 were related to environmental science (of these, 14
focused on geoscience). This study, which focuses on how students performed when
answering PISA science questions that were related to environmental science and
geoscience, therefore, used Turkish students’ responses on the environmental science
and geosciences section of PISA 2006 to assess their environmental responsibility and
associated factors. The environmental science questions on PISA 2006 spanned most
of the criteria identified in the PISA 2006 framework for assessing “scientific literacy
and environment”. Of these 24 questions, 6 were related to natural resources, 10 were
related to the environment, 5 were related to hazardous waste and 3 were related to
the frontiers of science and technology. Furthermore, 11 questions (46%) were
related to social context, 13 (54%) to global context, 10 (67%) to explaining
phenomena scientifically and 8 (33%) to giving scientific references. The seven
constructs (with related PISA 2006 indexes and sources of related data) considered
under the PISA 2006 “scientific literacy and environment” theme were as follows
(OECD, 2009a, p. 56):
i. Student awareness of environmental issues—ENVAWARE (StQ),
ii. Student sense of responsibility for environmental issues—ENVPERC (StQ),
iii. Student environmental optimism—ENVOPT (StQ),
iv. Responsibility for sustainable development—RESPDEV (StQ),
v. School activities to promote environmental learning—ENVLEARN (ScQ),
vi. Parental sense of responsibility for environmental issues—PQENPERC
(PaQ),
vii. Parental environmental optimism—PQENVOPT (PaQ).
Measures and variables
Two sets of data were utilized in this study (see Table 1). The first, the
responsibility towards the environment set, included measures of pupils’ scientific
literacy, environmental awareness, level of concern and optimism about
environmental issues and personal feelings of responsibility. The second set, the
background set, included variables that were thought to possibly affect the variables
in the first set. Details of these indices are given below and in Table 1.
Awareness of environmental issues: Pupils’ beliefs regarding their own levels of
knowledge about environmental issues (Table 1) constituted the index of students’
awareness of environmental issues (ENVAWARE) (OECD, 2007, pp. 340).
Level of concern for environmental issues: Pupils’ levels of concern about
environmental issues, presented in Table 1, constituted the index of students’ level of
concern about environmental issues (ENVPERC) (OECD, 2007, pp. 340).
Optimism regarding environmental issues: The index of students’ optimism about
environmental issues (ENVOPT) was created using pupils’ responses about their
46
optimism regarding the development, over the next 20 years, of the problems
associated with environmental issues (Table 1) (OECD, 2007, pp. 340).
Responsibility for sustainable development: The index of students’ responsibility for
sustainable development (RESPDEV) was created by combining pupils’ levels of
agreement with the statements presented in Table 1 (OECD, 2007, pp. 340-41).
Economic, social and cultural status: As noted by the OECD (2007, p. 333), the
economic, social and cultural statuses or socio-economic backgrounds of students
have been described by the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS),
which was constructed to represent broad aspects of students’ family and home
backgrounds, as well as parents’ occupational status. Principal component analysis
was carried out to derive factor scores, as the student scores on the ESCS index are
standardized, so that the OECD mean for the ESCS index is 0 and the standard
deviation is 1. The reliability of the ESCS index was reported to range from 0.52 to
0.80 across participating countries (OECD, 2007, p. 333).
Parents’ level of concern for environmental issues: The index of parents’ level of concern
for environmental issues (PQENPERC) was created using parents’ (of 15-year-old
pupils) levels of concern about the environmental issues presented in Table 1 (OECD,
2007, p. 346):
Parents’ optimism regarding environmental issues: The index of parents’ optimism
regarding environmental issues (PQENVOPT) was created using the optimism shown
by the parents of 15-year-old pupils regarding the development, over the next 20
years, of the problems associated with the environmental issues presented in Table 1
(OECD, 2007, p. 347).
School activities for learning environmental topics: The index of school activities for
learning environmental topics (ENVLEARN) was created by combining school
principals’ responses as to whether their schools had organised any of the following
activities, to provide opportunities to students in the 8th and 9th grades (i.e., Turkish
modal grades for 15-year-olds) to learn about the environmental topics presented in
Table 1 (OECD, 2007, p. 344).
Table 1
“Scientific Literacy and Environment” Theme - PISA 2006
Index
Measuring items in the surveys
Responsibility towards environment set
Student
awareness
of
i)
the increase of greenhouse gases in the
environmental
issues—
atmosphere
ENVAWARE
ii) the use of geneticallymodified organisms
iii) acid rain
iv) nuclear waste
v)
the consequences of clearing forests for
other land use
Student
sense
of
i)
air pollution
responsibility
for
ii)
energy shortages
environmental issues—
iii) extinction of plants and animals
ENVPERC
iv) clearing of forests for other land use
v)
water shortages
vi) nuclear waste
Student
environmental
i)
air pollution
optimism—ENVOPT
ii)
energy shortages
iii)
extinction of plants and animals
iv)
clearing of forests for other land use
v)
water shortages
vi)
nuclear waste
Responsibility
for
i)
i) it is important to carry out regular
sustainable
checks of car emissions as a condition of car use
development—RESPDEV
ii) it disturbs me when energy is wasted through
the unnecessary use of electrical appliances
iii) I am in favor of having laws that regulate
factory emissions, even if this would increase the
price of certain products
iv) to reduce waste, the use of plastic packaging
should be kept to a minimum
v) industries should be required to prove that
they safely dispose of dangerous waste materials
vi) I am in favor of having laws that protect the
habitats of endangered species
vii) electricity should be produced from renewable
sources as much as possible, even if this increases
cost
Background set
Economic, social and
ESCS was derived from three PISA indices: the
highest
international
socioeconomic
index
of
cultural status (ESCS)
occupational status (HISCEI) of the father or mother;
the index of highest educational level of parents
(HISCED) converted into years of schooling (for the
conversion of levels of education into years of
schooling); and the index of home possessions
(HOMEPOS)
School
activities
that
i)
outdoor education/trips
promote environmental
ii)
trips to museums
learning—ENVLEARN
iii)
trips to science and/or technology
centers
iv)
extracurricular environmental projects
(including research)
v) lectures and/or seminars (e.g., guest speakers)
Cronbach’s
alpha
0.72
0.85
0.87
0.84
0.72
0.62
47
48
Table 1 Contnd.
Index
Measuring items in the surveys
Parental
sense
of
responsibility
for
environmental issues—
PQENPERC (PaQ)
Parental environmental
optimism—PQENVOPT
(PaQ)
iv)
v)
vi)
i)
air pollution
ii)
energy shortages
iii)
extinction of plants and
animals
iv)
clearing of forests for other
land use
v)
water shortages
vi)
nuclear waste
i)
air pollution
ii)
energy shortages
iii)
extinction of plants and
animals
clearing of forests for other land use
water shortages
nuclear waste
Cronbach’s
alpha
0.77
0.83
Data analysis
In this study, canonical correlation analysis (CCA) was performed to examine
patterns in the relationships between two sets of variables. Presented in Table 1
under the title Responsibility towards the environment set, the first set of variables is
considered the dependent variables. The second set of variables is considered the
independent variables and consists of the variables presented in Table 1 under the
titles Background set and gender.
Since our interest was not in examining a single dependent variable and the
factors affecting it, but in determining the nature of the independent relationships
between two sets of multiple dependent and multiple independent variables, CCA
analysis was preferred over simple regression analysis, as suggested by Tabachnick
and Fidell (2007). Before using SPSS CONCORR to perform CCA, assumptions were
checked. Examined for normality, we observed variables distributed with positive
and negative skewness and positive kurtosis. However, because those variables were
part of the PISA 2006 data set and were normalized for participating countries, no
variables were deleted or transformed to improve linearity and normality.
Furthermore, weighting data for analysis guaranteed that distributions were
representative of the population projected (i.e., 15-year-olds). No within-set
multivariate outliers were identified at p < 0.001, although 210 cases were found to be
missing and were deleted listwise, leaving n = 4732. Pearson's product-moment
correlations were calculated to test for the existence of multicollinearity. No
correlations exceeded 0.4 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007) for the responsibility towards
the environment variables or the background variables. Last, all inferential analyses
were conducted by weighing the data using the PISA 2006 final student weight
(W_FSTUWT), in accordance with the recommendation that analyses with PISA data
should always be weighted, to ensure that population estimates are unbiased
(OECD, 2009a, 2009b).
49
Results
Table 2 shows the distribution of students and mean values for the background
data set. The percentages in this table were calculated by using the PISA 2006 final
student weight to weight the data. They are, thus, reliable estimates for the 15-yearold student population in Turkey. Although the scope of our research does not take
into account differences in geographical regions while evaluating student
responsibility towards the environment, and by presenting this data, we intended to
display the sample structure to be used for the sake of making a sound discussion of
the results of the current research. The differences between geographical regions is a
major issue for future studies (Teksoz, Tekkaya, & Erbas, 2009). Thus, as seen from
the table, about half of the Turkish sample consisted of students from the Marmara
and Central Anatolian regions. The percentages of students in these regions reflected
actual regional differences in population density in Turkey. That is to say, Marmara
is the region with the highest population density, whereas East Anatolia is the region
with the least. According to Table 2, although the economic, social and cultural
statuses (ESCS) of students all over Turkey was below the OECD mean, students in
the Aegean region had the highest ESCS, and students in the South EasternAnatolian region had the lowest. Furthermore, school activities to promote
environmental learning (ENVLEARN) were most numerous in Central Anatolia and
scarcest in Eastern Anatolia. Moreover, while parental sense of responsibility for
environmental issues (PQENPERC) was highest in the Mediterranean region, it was
lowest in the Eastern-Anatolian region. Consistently, parental optimism regarding
environmental issues (PQENVOPT) was lowest in the Mediterranean region and
highest in the Eastern Anatolian region, compared to other regions. Thus, summary
statistics for the sample in this study revealed that students living in the eastern part
of Turkey had the lowest percentages for all parameters, with the exception of
parental environmental optimism.
Table 2
Summary Statistics for the Sample and Estimated Population Characteristics*
Measures
Geographical Provinces
Marmara
Central
Anatolia
Aegean
Mediterranean
Black
Sea
Eastern
Anatolia
Southeastern
Anatolia
Distribution of students: %
Girls
Boys
48.5
51.5
45.4
54.6
47.2
52.8
51.3
48.7
35.7
64.3
46.5
53.5
32.5
67.5
Total
29.3
-1.20
0.27
17.7
-1.20
0.44
12.3
-1.03
0.23
13.8
-1.10
0.26
11.9
-1.39
0.05
7.6
-1.77
-0.65
7.5
-1.83
-0.57
0.31
0.28
0.29
0.34
0.20
0.11
0.12
0.16
0.18
0.14
0.00
0.11
0.33
0.28
ESCS**
ENVLEARN**
PQENPERC**
PQENVOPT**
The means and percentages in this table were calculated by using the PISA 2006
final student weight (W_FSTUWT) to weight the data and, thus, are reliable
estimates for the population (i.e., 15-year-olds) to which this study is relevant in
Turkey.
** Values for these measures are means for each region.
*
50
Correlations, standardized canonical coefficients, canonical correlations, percents
of variance and redundancies between the responsibility towards the environment
variables and the background variables are presented in Table 3, according to their
corresponding canonical variates.
Table 3
Results of Canonical Analysis
Responsibility
Towards
Resources and Environment
Set
Awareness
and
understanding
of
environmental
issues
(ENVAWARE)
Sense of responsibility
for environmental issues
(ENVPERC)
Optimism
regarding
environmental
issues
(ENVOPT)
Responsibility
for
sustainable development
(RESPDEV)
Percent of variance
First Canonical
Variate
Correlat
Coefficie
ion
nt
Second Canonical
Variate
Correlat
Coefficie
ion
nt
Third Canonical
Variate
Correlat
Coefficie
ion
nt
.31
.1
.03
-.02
.95
1.01
.38
.18
.92
.96
-.47
-.11
-.97
-.91
.22
.40
.11
.29
.26
.09
.36
.11
.15
.03
.31
.25
.23
Redundancy
.1
.04
.01
Background Set
Correlat
ion
.33
Coefficie
nt
.17
Correlat
ion
.02
Coefficie
nt
-.12
Correlat
ion
.90
Total =
.79
Total
=.15
Coefficie
nt
.9
.21
.09
.21
.18
.41
.19
.38
.18
.87
.91
-.11
-.21
-.94
-.88
.25
.42
.22
.31
-.23
.25
-.16
-.31
.19
-.22
-.18
.21
-.16
Total
=.65
Total
=.12
Economic, social and
cultural status (ESCS)
School
activities
to
promote environmental
learning (ENVLEARN)
Parents’
sense
of
responsibility
for
environmental
issues
(PQENPERC)
Parents’
optimism
regarding environmental
issues (PQENVOPT)
Gender
Percent of variance
Redundancy
.08
.03
.01
Canonical Correlation
.56
.37
.20
51
The first canonical correlation was .56 (with 32% variance), the second was .37
(with 14% variance) and the third was .20 (with 4% variance). The remaining
canonical correlation was effectively zero (.03 with 0.1% variance). 2 test results
revealed the following values: With all four canonical correlations included, 2 (20) =
2583.21, p < 0.001; with the first canonical correlation removed, 2 (12) = 804.37, p < 0
.001 and with the first two canonical correlations removed, 2 (6) = 172.667, p < 0.001.
Subsequent 2 tests were not statistically significant. The first three pairs of canonical
variates, thus, accounted for the significant relationship between the two sets of
variables. Canonical correlation, total percent of variance and total redundancy
indicated that the first two pairs of canonical variates were moderately related, but
the third pair was only minimally related. Thus, interpretation of the third canonical
variate is questionable, even though it is statistically significant, and results related to
the third pair should be interpreted with caution. The three canonical variates
together explained 79% of variance in the responsibility towards the environment set
and 65% of variance in the background set.
With a cut-off correlation of .30 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007), the variables in the
responsibility towards the environment set that were correlated with the first
canonical variate were student awareness of environmental issues, student sense of
responsibility for environmental issues and student optimism regarding
environmental issues. Among the background variables, economic, social and
cultural status, parental sense of responsibility for environmental issues and parental
optimism regarding environmental issues correlated with the first canonical variate
(see Table 3). The percent of variance values revealed that the first canonical variate
pair accounted for 31% of variance in the responsibility towards the environment
variables and 25% of variance in the background variables. The redundancy value
showed that the background variables accounted for 10% of variance in the
responsibility towards the environment variables.
Therefore, the first pair of canonical variates indicated that greater student
awareness of environmental issues (.31), greater student sense of responsibility for
environmental issues (.38) and less student optimism regarding environmental issues
(-.97) were associated with higher economic, social and cultural status (.33), higher
parental sense of responsibility for environmental issues (.38) and less parental
optimism regarding the environment (-.94).
That is, students who had higher
economic, social and cultural statuses and parents with greater senses of
responsibility and lower levels of optimism regarding environmental issues were
likely to have higher levels of awareness and senses of responsibility and lower
optimism regarding environmental issues.
The second canonical variate in the responsibility towards the environment set
was composed of student sense of responsibility for environmental issues and
student responsibility for sustainable development, and the corresponding canonical
variate from the background set was composed of parental sense of responsibility for
environmental issues and gender. Taken as a pair, these variates suggest that a
combination of higher student sense of responsibility for environmental issues (.92)
and higher student sense of responsibility for sustainable development (.36) were
52
associated with a combination of higher parental sense of responsibility for
environmental issues (.87) and being female (-.31). That is, females and students
having parents with a strong sense of responsibility towards environmental issues
were likely to exhibit a greater sense of responsibility for environmental issues and
sustainable development than were others.
On the other hand, the percent of variance reported in Table 3 revealed that the
second canonical variate pair accounted for 25% of variance in the responsibility
towards the environment variables and 19% of the variance in the background
variables. The redundancy value showed that the background variable accounted for
4% of the variance in the responsibility towards the environment variables.
Collectively, these two canonical variates explained 56% of variance in the
responsibility towards the environment set and 44% of variance in the background
variables set.
The third canonical variate in the responsibility towards the environment set was
composed of student awareness of environmental issues and student sense of
responsibility for environmental issues, and the corresponding canonical variate
from the background variables set was composed of economic, social and cultural
status and school activities about environmental topics. Taken as a pair, these
variates suggest that a combination of student awareness of environmental issues
(.95) and less sense of responsibility for environmental issues (-.47) were associated
with a combination of higher economic, social and cultural status and higher levels of
participation in school activities about environmental topics. The percent of variance
values revealed that the third canonical variate pair accounted for 23% of variance in
the responsibility towards the environment variables and 21% of variance in the
background variables. On the other hand, the redundancy values in Table 3 showed
that the student background variables accounted for only 1% of variance in the
responsibility towards the environment variables. Thus, while the effect of school
activities about environmental topics was significant, it explained little of the
variance in student responsibility toward the environment.
Discussions and Conclusion
The findings of the present study suggested that 15-year-old Turkish students’
responsibility towards the environment varied with respect to such sociodemographic variables as gender; economic, social and cultural status; school
activities about environmental topics and parental sense of responsibility for and
optimism about environmental issues. Among these, although the association was
negative, parental level of optimism regarding environmental issues explained the
greatest variation in student responsibility towards the environment, followed by
parental sense of responsibility for environmental issues. In other words, parents’
sense of responsibility for and optimism about environmental issues had a relatively
strong impact on children’s sense of responsibility for, level of awareness of and
optimism regarding environmental issues. Likewise, students with less optimistic
parents appeared to be less optimistic about the future and, at the same time, to have
larger senses of responsibility for and awareness of environmental problems. This
53
outcome may be explained by the fact that environmentally-concerned parents have
a tendency to pass their concerns on to their children, as well as to model appropriate
behaviors (Holdsworth & Boldero, 1996; Musser & Diamond, 1999). The results of the
current study also provide some evidence that, although it is weaker than the effect
of parental factors (i.e., parental sense of responsibility for and optimism regarding
environmental issues), economic, social and cultural status also plays an influential
role in clarifying variation in student responsibility towards the environment.
Students from more advantaged economic, social and cultural statuses tended to
express both higher levels of awareness and responsibility regarding environmental
issues like air pollution, energy shortages, the extinction of plants and animals, the
clearing of forests for other land use, water shortages and nuclear waste. Besides,
they seemed to be less optimistic about the state of environmental problems over the
next 20 years. These findings may be explained by the idea, also reported by Carlisle
(2007), that such students are provided with a wide range of social and civic
advantages and opportunities; they live in better neighborhoods, attend better
schools and are exposed to newspapers, books and discussions. Therefore, they
display high levels of awareness of and responsibility for environmental problems.
According to Morrison, Homback, and Warner (as cited in Carlisle, 2007), people
from the lower classes tend to live and work in places with poorer physical
conditions and environmental hazards. As they grow up, they get used to their
environments, and they are less aware of the fact that they live in polluted and
overcrowded conditions. The middle and upper classes, however, tend to live and
work in pleasant environments and, thus, are concerned about environmental
deterioration. Hence, it is reasonable to assume that children living in such
circumstances are more likely to be aware of and responsible for environmental
problems and to become pessimistic about their future. In line with Bourdieu’s
(1976) notion of variations in educational habits, proposed many decades ago, Lee
and Bowen (2006) reported that “parents with diverse racial/ethnic, educational, and
economic backgrounds are involved in their children’s education regardless of
whether they are formally involved in their children’s school life,” even though there
might be group differences in levels of parent involvement (p. 210). The relationship
between social class and environmental concern has also been explained by Maslow’s
(1970) hierarchy of needs theory, which was based on the assumption that “concern
for environmental quality is something of a luxury which can be indulged only after
more basic material needs (adequate food, shelter, and economic security) are met”
(Van Liere & Dunlap, 1980, p. 183). Such a result, along with the supporting theories
mentioned above, tell us that while trying to help children develop positive attitudes
toward the environment, it is necessary to increase parental involvement in
environmental conservation activities, so as to increase parents’ and children’s sense
of responsibility. But, as mentioned in discussions of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
and as is also suggested by Agenda 21 (UNCED, 1992), meeting basic material needs
and increasing living standards are the first steps toward establishing environmental
responsibility, especially in the developing world. What is more, serious differences
in environmental perceptions and related socioeconomic factors exist between
regions within developing countries, as was the case in this study (see Table 2),
54
making the situation more complicated. Making environmental consciousness a
reality, on the other hand, is an issue of first implementing sustainable development
concepts via national development plans, then reshaping curricula so that they are in
line with environmental education targets at national and local levels.
Like economic, social and cultural status and parental sense of responsibility and
optimism regarding environmental issues, gender was found to play an important
role in shaping students’ responsibility towards the environment, even though the
association was not as strong as that between the other three variables. That girls
were more likely to have a greater sense of responsibility for environmental issues
and sustainable development than their counterparts can be attributed to the
different socialization of boys and girls. In general, girls are socialized to be more
altruistic, cooperative, nurturing, and interdependent, while males are socialized to
be more independent and competitive (Zelezny et al., 2000). Tikka, Kuitunen, and
Tynys (2000) reported that whereas boys were more likely to emphasize mastering
nature and benefiting from resources, girls obtained more emotional attitudes
toward nature. Bord and O’Connor (1997), however, argued that gender differences
in environmental surveys resulted from differences in perceived vulnerability to risk
from the environment, not necessarily differences in ecological sensibility. These
authors stated that in most of the research on “risk-related environmental issues”,
females expressed higher levels of concern about such topics as nuclear power,
irradiated food, chemical and radioactive waste and food preservatives. Bord and
O’Connor (1997) concluded that for females, once risk to health and personal
wellbeing become associated with environmental issues, their levels of concern tend
to surpass those of males. A similar finding was also reported by Riechard and
Peterson (1998) and Eisler et al. (2003). For example, Eisler et al. (2003), reported that
girls had more “goal-oriented contemporary worldviews and were more inclined to
think about new ways of solving the environmental problems and had more
responsible attitudes than males towards the protection of nature and the
environment” (p. 98). Research conducted in Turkey, on the other hand, consistently
shows that girls exhibit more favorable attitudes towards the environment than boys
(e.g., Alp et al., 2006; 2008; Berberoglu & Tosunoglu, 1995; Ozden, 2008; Taskin, 2009;
Tuncer et al., 2005; 2009; Yilmaz et al., 2004). Our findings also support this trend.
Thus, there is an urgent need to support and strengthen boys’ sense of responsibility
for environmental issues both at school and at home. To this end, at school, for
example, science teachers should consider boys’ attitudes in more detail and find
ways to stimulate their interest, responsibility, motivation and participation in
environmental issues. In fact, among others, our results clearly indicated the
existence of a gender gap in the Turkish sample. To eliminate or at least reduce the
gap, science teachers should be informed first of its presence. As mentioned by
Gambro and Switzky (1999), we can also state that the majority of Turkish science
teachers may be unaware of the existence of this gap and may unconsciously
promote gender inequity by treating girls and boys differently. Another possible way
of overcoming the gender gap might be to encourage equal participation. During
units on the natural environment, science teachers should create learning
environments where girls and boys have equal opportunity to practice with
55
materials, engage in discussions and interact with their peers. Cooperative learning,
for example, can be used to allow each gender to participate equally both in and out
of class activities. Another way of narrowing the gender gap might be to re-examine
the presentation of environmental topics in science textbooks in terms of possible
gender biases. To be brief, the orientation of environmental education in Turkey
should seriously consider the gender-related difference in environmental issues.
Although it explains little variance, the current study pointed out the positive
impact of school activities on the development of responsibility towards
environmental issues. More specifically, students who experienced high levels of
school activities related to environmental topics (e.g., trips to museums and science
and technology centers, extracurricular environmental projects) tended to express
higher degrees of awareness and less sense of responsibility for environmental issues
than did others. This finding is not surprising, as far as student awareness is
concerned. It is probable that these kinds of school activities, which involve direct
contact with different learning environments and make students familiar with
current environmental problems, appear to increase student awareness of
environmental issues. Traditional environmental education in schools, however, is
generally based on indirect experience, with a major emphasis on theory and fact,
and does not influence student environmental attitudes (Kollmuss & Agyeman,
2002). As stated by Musser and Diamond (1999), in accordance with social learning
theory, children learn from direct experience and from observations of others
(Bussey & Bandura, 1999), which is in line with the way in which parents teach their
children. However, finding a negative correlation between school activities for
learning environmental topics and level of responsibility for environmental issues
was unexpected. As mentioned previously, there is currently no formal
environmental education in Turkey, and we are at the stage of “just beginning”.
Environmental education, therefore, has been infused into already existing science
curricula, to raise environmentally-informed individuals who are actively involved
in solving environmental problems.
Our findings agree well with the results of earlier studies (e.g., Barraza &
Walford, 2002; Chu et al., 2007; Palmerg & Kuru, 2000; Worsley & Skrzypiec, 1998).
For example, Barraza and Walford (2002) highlighted the importance of school ethos
and reported that schools with environmental policies might enhance student
appreciation of the environmental crisis and improve student attitudes toward the
environment. In a similar vein, Palmerg and Kuru (2000) claimed that outdoor
activities not only offered opportunities for the development of strong empathic
associations with nature, but also improved social behavior and moral judgment.
The overall picture disclosed by this research presents economic, social and
cultural status (ESCS) as the feature most responsible for shaping awareness of and
responsibility toward the environment. It is important to remember that this result
was obtained with a sample of 15-year-old Turkish students living in Turkey, where
there is no strategy for environmental education. That is to say, if we were to gather
background data on environmental awareness and responsibility (although these
would be below the OECD average), and if we were to identify how this awareness
56
and responsibility has shaped and been shaped by the country’s regional features,
then we might make future plans to develop an environmental ethos accordingly.
Such change would be important for the developing world. Being pessimistic about
low ESCS coincides with low environmental awareness and responsibility, but
alternative means to ameliorating this situation can be found by addressing national
and even regional factors. Hence, education about the environment and sustainable
development would do better to focus on regional, even local, features, making use,
for instance, of real cases, local stories and global issues. Awareness of global
warming, for example, may follow from explanations of the reasons for global
warming within a global context and the consequences of warming, especially within
a regional context. Water shortages in Central Anatolia, changes in agricultural
products in the Black Sea, water level increases in the Mediterranean and migration
in East Anatolia regions are all examples of discussion prompts that could enhance
awareness.
In conclusion, we offer three suggestions for future research that aims to explain
the socioeconomic bases of environmental responsibility, especially in developing
nations, and to produce more research relevant to environmental policymaking.
First, given the widespread distribution of concern about a variety of environmental
issues, we believe it more feasible to concentrate on specific environmental issues,
such as air and water pollution, sustainability, population increase and public policy,
because somehow, it is becoming unclear whether people are equally or more
concerned about one of these issues than others. Second, the results of some studies
(e.g., Bodur & Sarigollu, 2005; Van Liere & Dunlap, 1980) suggest that consumer
variables such as taxes, economic growth, private property and demographics should
be considered possibly correlated with environmental concern.
Overall, the current study is unique, for presenting a comprehensive picture of
the state of 15-year-old Turkish students’ responsibility towards the environment
and for detecting the factors associated with attitudinal changes throughout the
country. In this study, we chose economic, social and cultural status; school activities
about environmental topics; parental sense of responsibility for environmental
issues; parental optimism regarding environmental issues and gender as
independent variables. Future research should examine the relationship between
student responsibility towards the environment and other variables such as
enjoyment of science, science-related activities, general interest in science and general
perceptions of the value of science, as measured in PISA 2006. Later studies should
also examine regional differences, as knowledge of these could lead to the exposure
of more interesting interconnections.
57
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Çevre Sorumluluğu ve İlintili Faktörlerin Bir Değerlendirmesi:
PISA 2006 Bulguları
Özet
Küresel çevre problemlerinin günümüzde ulaştığı nokta, bireylerin doğal kaynaklar
ve çevre sorunları ile ilgili sorumluluk taşımasının önemine dikkat çekmektedir. Bu
bağlamda, fen eğitiminin insanın çevre ile etkileşimimi biçimleyen yönü daha da öne
çıkmış; fen eğitimcilerinin, insanların çevre ile ilgili sorumluluklarının geliştirilmesi
yönünde çalışarak katkılar sağlamaları çok daha önemli olmuştur. Bu çalışmada,
PISA 2006 içeriğinde yer alan “fen okuryazarlığı ve çevre” başlığı araştırma alanı
çerçevesinde Türkiye örnekleminden elde edilen veri setinin kullanılarak
Türkiye’deki 15 yaş grubundaki öğrencilerin çevre ile ilgili sorumluluklarının
çerçevesinin belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Daha açık bir ifade ile bu çalışma, PISA
2006 veri setini kullanarak Türkiye’deki öğrencilerin çevre ile ilgili sorumluluk
profillerini ve bu profile etki edebilecek ekonomik, sosyal, kültürel parametreleri
araştırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Çalışmanın veri seti iki bölümden oluşmaktadır. Birinci
bölüm, çevre sorumluluk bölümü, fen okuryazarlığı ile ilgili ölçümler ve çocukların
çevre sorunları ile ilgili farkındalık, sorumluluk, iyimserlik durumlarını, sorumluluk
duyguları ile bağlantılı ölçümleri içermektedir. İkinci bölüm, altyapı bölümü, birinci
bölümdeki değişkenleri etkileyebilecek sosyal, ekonomik ve kültürel faktörleri
içermektedir. Söz konusu birinci ve ikinci gruptaki parametreler şunlardır:
1. Çevre sorumluluk bölümü: Çevre konuları ile ilgili farkındalık, sorumluluk,
iyimserlik, sürdürülebilir kalkınma ile ilgili sorumluluk.
2.
Altyapı bölümü: Ekonomik, sosyali kültürel durum, anne-babanın çevre ile
ilgili sorumluluk durumu, anne-babanın çevre ile ilgili iyimserlik durumu,
çevre ile ilgili okul etkinlikleri.
Bağımlı ve bağımsız değişkenlerin oluşturduğu ilişkilerin açıklanması amacı ile
çalışmada “Kanonik Korelasyon Analizi” (CCA) kullanılmıştır. Türkiye’nin 7 coğrafi
bölgesinde yaşayan öğrencilerin tanımlanan parametreler bağlamında çevresel
sorumluluklarının belirlenmesi, bu çalışmanın alanının dışında olsa bile, çalışmanın
sonuçlarının daha geniş bir çerçevede değerlendirilebilmesi için, ilk olarak veri
setinde yer alan sosyo-ekonomik parametreler bölgeler bazında değerlendirilmiştir.
Buna göre, PISA 2006 veri setindeki Türkiye örneğinin yaklaşık yarısı Marmara ve
Orta Anadolu Bölgelerindendir. Her bölgeden katılan öğrenci sayısı, aslında, o
bölgenin nüfus yoğunluğunu da yansıtmaktadır. Örneğin, Marmara en yüksek ve
Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi ise en düşük nüfus yoğunluğuna sahip bölgelerdir.
Çalışmada hesaplanan ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel indeks değerleri
karşılaştırıldığında, tümü OECD ortalamasının altında olmasına rağmen, Ege
Bölgesi’ndeki öğrencilerin en yüksek, Güney-Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi’ndeki
öğrencilerin ise en düşük ortalamaya sahip oldukları görülmektedir. Buna karşın,
62
çevre ile ilgili okul aktiviteleri konusunda en yüksek ortalamaya sahip öğrenciler
Orta Anadolu’da; en düşük ortalamaya sahip olanlar ise Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi’nde
yaşayanlardır. Anne-babaların çevre ile ilgili sorumluluk durumları ise, Akdeniz
Bölgesi’nde en yüksek, Doğu Anadolu Bölgesinde en düşük orandadır. Buna bağlı
olarak, anne-babanın çevre sorunları ile ilgili iyimserlik durumları, Akdeniz
Bölgesinde en düşük; Doğu Anadolu Bölgesinde ise en yüksek orandadır. Kısaca,
örneklem ile ilgili istatistikler, Türkiye’nin Doğu Bölgesinde yaşayan öğrencilerin
diğer bölgelere oranla, anne-babanın çevre ile ilgili iyimserlikleri dışında, en düşük
ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel parametre ortalamalarına sahip olduklarını
göstermektedir. Kanonik analiz sonuçları 3 aşamada gerçekleştirilmiştir. Birinci
kanonik korelasyon 0,56 (varyans; %32), ikincisi 0,37 (varyans; %14) ve üçüncüsü
0,20 (varyans; %4) olarak belirlenmiştir. Diğer kanonik korelasyonlar tamamen ihmal
edilebilir düzeydedir (0,03 ve %0,1 varyans). Ki-kare (2) testi sonucunda ise
aşağıdaki değerler bulunmuştur:
Bütün kanonik korelasyonlar dahil edildiğinde, 2 (20) = 2583,21 (p < 0,001);
İlk kanonik korelasyon çıkarıldığında, 2 (12) = 804,37 (p < 0,001);
İlk 2 kanonik korelasyon çıkarıldığında,2 (6) = 172,667 (p < 0,001).
İstatistiksel değerlendirmeler sonucunda, ilk 3 çift kanonik bileşenin veri setleri
arasındaki ilişkiyi açıkladığına karar verilmiştir: kanonik bileşenler birinci bölüm
veri setinin (çevre ile ilgili sorumluluklar) %79’unu, ikinci bölümün ise %65’ini
açıklamaktadır. Buna göre, birinci set/çift kanonik bileşene göre, öğrencilerin çevre
ile ilgili yüksek farkındalığı, yüksek orandaki sorumluluk duygusu ve düşük
orandaki iyimserliği, yüksek ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel özellikleri, annebabalarının yüksek sorumluluk duyguları ve düşük iyimserlikleri ile ilintilidir. Bir
başka deyişle, yüksek ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel özelliklere sahip ve annebabasının çevre ile ilgili sorumluluk düzeyi yüksek ama iyimserlik düzeyi düşük
olan öğrencilerin çevre ile ilgili farkındalık ve sorumluluklarının güçlü,
iyimserliklerinin düşük olma olasılığı yüksektir. İkinci kanonik analiz sonuçlarına
göre ise, öğrencilerin çevre ve sürdürülebilir kalkınma ile ilgili güçlü sorumluluk
duyguları, anne-babalarının çevre ile ilgili güçlü sorumluluk duyguları ve
cinsiyetlerinin kız olmaları ile ilintilidir. Son kanonik analiz sonuçlarına göre ise,
öğrencilerin çevre ile ilgili zayıf sorumluluk duyguları, yüksek ekonomik, sosyal ve
kültürel düzey ve okuldaki çevre aktivitelerine yüksek katılım ile ilintilidir. Ancak,
okul aktiviteleri öğrencilerin çevre ile ilgili sorumluluk duyguları varyansının çok
küçük bir bölümünü açıklamaktadır. Sonuç olarak, çalışmanın sonuçları 15 yaşındaki
Türk öğrencilerin çevre ile ilgili sorumluluklarının sosyo-demografik değişkenlere
bağlı olarak değiştiğini göstermiştir. Bu değişkenler arasında, anne ve babanın çevre
ile ilgili konularla ilgili iyimser yaklaşımının, öğrencilerinin sorumlulukları açısından
en önemli parametrelerden biri olduğu görülmüştür.
Language and Narrative Skills in Young Children
with Special Health Care Needs
Cevriye Ergül
Suggested Citation:
Ergül, C. (2012). Language and narrative skills in young children with special health
care needs. Egitim Arastirmaları-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 46,
63-80.
Abstract
Problem Statement: Previous studies showed that children with special
health care needs are at increased risk for future linguistic problems and
deficits in narrative abilities. Despite this evidence of increased risk, there
has been limited research on the impact of young children’s health
problems on specific aspects of linguistic development.
Purpose of Study: This study examined the relationship between the
complexity of health care needs and language and narrative skills in
young children with special health care needs.
Method: Ninety-nine children, ages 4 to 6 years, were classified using a
rating system in which the number of organ systems affected and severity
of complications determined the complexity of
health care needs. Children were stratified by rating complexity, which
resulted in three groups. While Group 1 included healthy children, Group
2 included children with less complex health care needs, and Group 3
included children with more complex health care needs. The Wechsler
Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence - Revised (WPPSI-R) and the
Test of Early Language Development (TELD-III) were administered to
each child in the study. Children also completed a story generation task
and produced personal narratives in response to three conversation
prompts. Children’s narratives were evaluated on two dimensions:
productivity (total number of words and C-units) and quality (where
performance was rated in accordance
with nine indicators of quality).
Results: Groups with different levels of complexity of health care needs
were compared on language and narrative measures, using gender and

Asst. Prof., Ankara University, Faculty of Educational Sciences, [email protected]
63
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Cevriye Ergül
WPPSI-R scores as covariates. The results showed that children with more
complex health care needs demonstrated greater weaknesses on
expressive language and narrative tasks than children with less complex
health care needs and those who were healthy.
Conclusions: The findings support the contention that health issues are
related to children’s language status. The complexity of health care needs
may hinder the development of language and narrative skills. The results
of this study suggest that professionals in health care, speech and
language, and education should be alerted to the potential connection
between health and language. Yet efforts to identify language and
narrative deficits early in this special population should lead to earlier
interventions for children who are at risk for the development of later
learning difficulties.
Keywords: Special health care needs, complexity of needs, early childhood,
language skills, narrative skills
The process of language acquisition and the development of early language
delays and deficits in children have become a focus for research in recent years.
Several studies have shown that early deficits in language are predictive of
subsequent problems in school performance, social skills, and literacy development
(Law & Harris, 2000; Scarborough, 2001). Language deficits are often developmental,
and the majority of young children with language delays catch up to their agematched peers on language development measures by the age of five (Girolametto,
Wiigs, Smyth, Weitzman, & Pearce, 2001; Paul & Hernandez, 1996). However, they
do continue to have weaknesses in a number of higher-level language skills,
including the ability to produce narratives (Girolametto et al., 2001; Hemphill,
Uccelli, Winner, Chang, & Bellinger, 2002).
The ability to produce narratives has been described as “the ability to describe
and characterize actors, objects, and events, identify and order the sequence of
events, and comprehend the relations among actors, actions, and consequences of
actions” (Harkins, Koch, & Michel, 1994). The narrative is a basic type of discourse
that underlies most forms of communication (Shiro, 1995). Peterson, Jesso, and
McCabe (1999) identified the link between narratives and decontextualized language.
According to these authors, narratives foster decontextualized language skills by
describing the there-and-then, rather than the here-and-now. For this reason, they are
common in the daily activities of early childhood education settings, such as
storytelling, show and tell, and sharing time. Although such activities provide
opportunities to practice and to acquire narrative skills, children are expected to
already have acquired some narrative skills when they enter school (Peterson, Jesso,
& McCabe, 1999). However, some children from disadvantaged backgrounds enter
school with not enough pre-existing knowledge of narrative structures and,
therefore, have greater difficulty meeting the requirements of school life and are
more likely to be identified as having learning disabilities (Girolametto et al., 2001;
Paul & Hernandez, 1996; Scarborough, 2001).
65
Although the causes of early language deficits are largely unknown, the study
reported here is based on the hypothesis that language deficits may be related to
health problems. About 18.5% of children under 18 years of age were reported to
have one or more chronic health condition (Tu & Cunningham, 2005). Children with
special health care needs were defined as those “who have or are at increased risk for
a chronic physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional condition and who also
require health and related services of a type or amount beyond that required by
children generally” (McPherson et al., 1998). Among children with chronic
conditions, 70% were reported to have a single condition, 21% had two conditions,
and 9% had multiple conditions that had a severe impact on their daily living (Tu &
Cunningham, 2005).
Children with special health care needs not only face the same developmental
tasks and challenges as healthy children; they also cope with the stress of conditions
that may significantly affect their physical, mental, and social functioning. There are
a number of different ways in which children’s health care needs may affect their
development. Children’s special health care needs may directly affect their biological
capacity to learn, the medications they are taking may alter their learning
capabilities, hospitalizations and time in bed may limit their opportunities for
learning, or their health care needs may alter their relationships with their primary
caregivers (Bramlett, Read, Bethell, & Blumberg, 2009). Although, with treatment,
some consequences of health conditions may be ameliorated or prevented, chronic
diseases cannot be cured (Boekaerts & Roder, 1998). At this point, it seems reasonable
to hypothesize that disease symptoms, medications and other forms of treatment,
frequent hospitalizations, restriction of daily life activities, or alterations in family
relationships (Bramlett et al., 2009; Garrison & McQuiston, 1989) may affect the
language acquisition and academic success of these children. A few studies provide
support for this hypothesis. Bryan, Burstein, Chao, and Ergul (2006) assessed young
children with chronic health conditions that historically were not associated with
cognitive deficits or severe emotional and behavioral problems. They found that
health issues were strongly related to children’s intellectual and language status.
Their findings supported the hypothesis that even mild health problems may be
precursors to, or comorbid with, language and behavior problems in young children.
Hemphill and colleagues (2002) assessed the personal narratives of four-year-old
children who were at risk of brain injury due to early corrective heart surgery. Their
narratives were compared with those produced by typically-developing four-yearolds for narrative components, evaluative devices, and information adequacy.
Children with early corrective heart surgery produced narratives that were
significantly shorter, containing fewer words and fewer narrative clauses than the
comparison group’s narratives.
Children with histories of brain injury have also been found to show slower
development of narrative skills than typical children. For example, children with
histories of early focal brain injury produced shorter stories and fewer narrative
components during a storytelling task than children without histories of injury
(Reilly, Bates, & Marchman, 1998). In another study, although children with early-
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Cevriye Ergül
onset hydrocephalus of average verbal IQ produced the same amount of story
content as controls, they still had difficulty making inferences and recalling
information from a story previously told. Also, their interpretations of novel
figurative expressions were less accurate than those of controls (Barnes & Dennis,
1998). Finally, Chapman et al. (2001) examined the long-term recovery of narrative
abilities in children with traumatic brain injury at four intervals. The findings
suggested a relationship between injury severity and performance on such narrative
measures as amount of language used, amount of information included, organization
of information, and global semantic interpretation. Although the group with severe
traumatic brain injury continued to show improvements, they scored significantly
worse than the mild/moderate group on all measures of the narrative task.
In sum, previous studies showed that children with special health care needs are
at increased risk for future linguistic problems and deficits in narrative abilities.
Despite this evidence of increased risk, there has been limited research on the impact
of young children’s health problems on specific aspects of linguistic development.
Moreover, children with special health care needs are a heterogeneous group. The
level of complexity of health care needs may vary significantly within this group,
even among children with the same diagnoses. A chronic health condition involves a
spectrum of complications that manifest along a continuum of severity that may alter
the level and types of functional limitations and need for specific types of health
services (Bramlett et al., 2009). Some children may experience more severe
symptoms, need to receive medications, treatment, and health care services more
frequently, be more restricted in their daily life activities, and place greater demands
on their families than others with the same condition. It is also common for children
with different chronic health conditions to experience similar symptoms and need
similar health care services. Therefore, a non-categorical approach that depends on
the level of complexity of health care needs, rather than a diagnosis, has been
recommended when examining the impact of chronic health conditions on children’s
development (Bramlett et al., 2009; Stein, Westbrook, & Bauman, 1997). Although
few attempts have been made to differentiate subgroups of children with chronic
health conditions by the complexity of needs, there is limited research that has
investigated children’s language and narrative skills based on the varying levels of
complexity of special health care needs. Thus, the primary purpose of the present
study was to examine the relationship between the level of complexity of health care
needs and young children’s language and narrative skills. The hypothesis was that
young children with more complex health care needs would perform less adequately
than children with less complex health care needs, who, in turn, would perform less
adequately than healthy children on measures of language and narrative skills.
Method
Participants
Participants were recruited from a large pediatric practice in a southwestern
metropolitan area in the US that maintains a computerized index of patients. A nurse
practitioner located a potential sample of four- to six-year-old children. Letters were
67
sent to parents of 241 randomly-selected children, inviting them to participate in the
study. One hundred nine families returned post cards with their names and phone
numbers, indicating their willingness to be contacted to participate in the study.
Children with special health care needs were categorized by complexity
(independent of diagnosis), using a set of questions that included number of organ
systems affected, severity of complications, frequency of doctor and emergency room
visits, and hospital care as described by Bramlett et al. (2009) and used in the 2001
National Survey of Children with Special Health Care Needs. Complexity categories
were established by two participating pediatricians who reviewed the children’s
health records.
Children were rated 0 when they were healthy and had no special heath care
needs. Children were rated 1 when they had one affected organ system (e.g.,
controlled asthma or diabetes) but were medically stable, had no functional
limitations, and needed a minimal level of health care services. Children were rated 2
when they had one organ system affected, with moderate complications (e.g., asthma
with complications of steroid treatment). Children in this group experienced some
disruption as a result of their health conditions and, therefore, had some limitations
in their daily life activities, visited their primary care doctors more frequently, and
needed some health care services. Children were rated 3 when they had one or two
organ systems affected, with severe complications (e.g., cerebral palsy or epilepsy
accompanied by mental retardation), significant functional limitations, and more
frequent visits to the doctor or the emergency room, which sometimes led to hospital
admission. Children were rated 4 when they had multiple organ systems affected,
with multiple severe complications and functional limitations (e.g.,
bronchopulmonary dysplasia, tracheostomy, ventilator dependent, and cerebral
palsy). Children rated 3 and 4 (N = 10) were not included, because their medical
conditions were so pervasive that they were precluded from experiencing the normal
patterns of language, cognition, and behavior development under study. Also,
participants identified as having developmental or cognitive delays were not
included.
Cohen’s kappa statistic (Bakeman & Gottman, 1997), which corrects for chance
agreement between raters, was used to calculate interrater agreement for the ratings.
Cohen’s kappa for the health status ratings was .81, indicating substantial agreement
between raters. Disagreements were resolved by discussion amongst raters.
Because the focus of this study was the relationship between complexity of health
care needs and language, children were stratified by the ratings, to form three
groups. Group 1 included 37 children who were rated 0. Group 2 consisted of 33
children who were rated 1. Group 3 included 29 children who were rated 2.
Available information on children’s age, gender, ethnicity, family income, and
mother’s education by group is summarized in Table 1.
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Table 1.
Means and Standard Deviations for Age in Months and Frequencies for Gender, Ethnicity,
Family Income, and Mother’s Education by Group
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
(N = 37)
(N = 33)
(N = 29)
M
Age in Months
56.49
56.88
57.18
SD
7.23
8.21
8.89
Girls
18
15
12
Gender
Boys
19
18
17
Anglo
29
29
24
Ethnicity
Latino
3
2
3
African American
5
2
2
Under $10,000
1
0
0
$10,000 - $25,000
1
3
2
Family Income
$26,000-$50,000
6
4
7
$51,000-$100,000
27
23
19
More than $100,000
2
3
1
High School or
12
13
8
GED
Mother’s Education
Some College
14
11
12
Bachelor’s Degree
11
9
9
Measures
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Revised (WPPSI-R) (Wechsler,
1991). The WPPSI-R is a measure of cognitive ability in children ages 3 to 7 years. It
contains 12 subtests, 6 within the Verbal Scale and 6 within the Performance Scale.
The Verbal Scale measures expressive language, comprehension, listening, and
verbal problem solving. The Performance Scale assesses perceptual skills, speed,
visual-motor proficiency, and nonverbal problem solving. Verbal and performance
scores are combined to yield a full-scale IQ score with a mean score of 100 and
standard deviation of 15 points. Studies of its psychometric properties indicate high
reliability coefficients, ranging from .90 to .97 for the three subscales. Validity studies
indicate high concurrent and construct validity, ranging from .83 to .92.
Test of Early Language Development (TELD-3) (Hresko, Reid, & Hammill, 1999). The
TELD-3 is a standardized measure for assessing receptive, expressive, and overall
spoken language in children aged 2-7 years old. It has two forms, each of which
contains 76 semantic and syntax questions. The TELD-3 produces scores with a mean
of 100 and standard deviation of 15 for each subtest and the overall composite score.
The reliability of the TELD-3 is reported to be: internal consistency (.80 - .97),
alternate form (.79 - .94), test–retest (.80 - .94), and inter-rater (.99).
69
Narrative Measures
Story Generation Task. Children’s narrative abilities were assessed using a story
generation task. A wordless picture book, Good Dog Carl (Day, 1997) was used. The
book included 22 pictures that told the story of a dog who takes care of a baby when
her mother is away. Narratives were collected with individual children in a quiet
room at the university. Before the task began, each child played with toys for five
minutes. The examiner interacted with the child during play to establish rapport.
Then, the child was given a copy of the book and instructed to look through the
pictures. When the child finished looking at the book, the examiner asked him or her
to tell the story with as much detail as possible. The child used the pictures as
prompts. The examiner provided neutral feedback to the child during the task (e.g.,
“uh-huh”, “yes”, and nods of the head). If the child was unable to generate
information, the examiner prompted him or her by saying “look here (at the picture)
and tell me what is happening”.
Personal Narratives. Following the story generation task, conversational elicitation
strategies developed by McCabe and Rollin (1994) were used to ask children to
produce narratives of their personal experiences . The examiner used three
conversation prompts: had the child ever been frightened by something, had a
quarrel with somebody, and spilled something. During the child’s narration, the
examiner provided neutral prompts, such as “uh-huh” or “and then”, or repeated the
child’s last utterance with a rising intonation and made nonspecific requests for more
information, such as “tell me more” or “then what happened?” The longest personal
narrative the child produced - presumably the most complex - was chosen for
analysis (McCabe & Rollin, 1994).
Children’s narratives were evaluated on two dimensions:
Productivity. The total number of words and the total number of communication
units (C-units) in each narrative were analyzed. Narratives were divided into Cunits. As defined by Hunt (1965), a C-unit is the shortest allowable independent
clause and any related dependent clauses (e.g., “Baby is dancing” or “My brother hit
me when I was little”). Productivity scores included only the relevant pieces of
information a child included in a story. Filled pauses, internal corrections, and
repetitions were excluded from word counts.
Quality. Children’s performances were rated using the following questions
(Schoenbrodt, Kerins, & Gesell, 2003): (1) Are the sentences grammatical? (2) Is
narrative cohesion present? (3) Is sufficient information given? (4) Does the listener
understand without clarification questions? (6) Is the narrative fluent? (7) Do all
statements pertain to the topic? (8) Is precise vocabulary used? (9) Are facial and
bodily expressions appropriate to the story? Ratings were on a 0-3 scale (0 = never, 1
= sometimes, 2 = often, 3 = always). Children’s scores on this rating could range from
0-27.
Reliability. Story generation and personal narratives were videotaped, transcribed,
and analyzed by two research assistants who received extensive training on the
productivity and quality elements of narratives and were blind to children’s health
70
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status. A third research assistant transcribed and coded 20% of the narratives
independently. Inter-rater reliability was 96% for the transcriptions and 97% for the
total number of C-units. Point-to-point agreement for the quality ratings was 79%,
indicating substantial agreement between raters.
Results
Initial analyses were conducted to determine whether groups differed
significantly in age, gender, mother’s education, family income, and ethnicity. A oneway analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that groups were not significantly
different with respect to age. Chi-square tests revealed that although groups did not
differ on mother’s education, family income, and ethnicity, gender was unequally
distributed across groups (X2(1, N = 99) = 11.49, p < .01). The number of girls in
Group 3 (N = 12) was much lower than the number of girls in Group 1 (N = 18).
Therefore, gender was used as a covariate when comparing groups on measures of
language and narrative skills.
In addition, ANOVA was conducted to determine whether groups of varying
complexity levels of health care needs differed in cognitive ability, as assessed by the
WPPSI-R. One child in Group 2 and two children in Group 3 did not complete the
WPPSI-R. These children were eliminated from the WPPSI-R analysis. The results of
ANOVA indicated that there were statistically significant differences between groups
on the Verbal and Full Scales of the WPPSI-R. Children in Group 1 obtained
significantly higher scores than their peers in Groups 2 and 3. Groups did not differ
on the Performance Scale. Table 2 summarizes means, standard deviations, and
results of analyses (F and effect size values) by group. As the table shows, mean
scores fell within one standard deviation of the reported population norms.
However, large standard deviations indicated large heterogeneity in cognitive ability
within each group. Given the fact that any differences in groups’ language and
narrative abilities may have resulted from underlying differences in cognitive ability,
children’s WPPSI-R scores were used as covariates when comparing groups on
measures of language and narrative skills.
Between-group Comparisons
To determine whether groups with different levels of complexity of health care
needs differed on language and narrative measures (productivity and quality), a
series of analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) were computed, using gender and
WPPSI-R scores as covariates.
TELD-III. The results of ANCOVA indicated significant group differences on the
TELD Expressive Quotient and TELD Spoken Language Quotient (see Table 2).
Pairwise comparisons indicated that the children with more complex health care
needs in Group 3 obtained significantly lower scores on the TELD Expressive
Quotient than children in Groups 1 and 2. Children in Group 3 also obtained
significantly lower scores on the TELD Spoken Language Quotient than children in
71
Group 1. Although children in Group 1 had higher scores on the TELD Spoken
Language Quotient than those in Group 2, the difference was not significant. No
significant differences were observed between groups with respect to the TELD
Receptive Quotient.
Measures of Narrative Ability
Productivity. Total numbers of words and C-units were used as productivity
measures of narrative ability. Analyses of these measures for the story generation
indicated significant differences between groups. Pairwise comparisons showed that
the stories generated by children in Group 3 contained significantly fewer words and
C-units than those of children in Groups 1 and 2. The total number of words and Cunits did not significantly differ between children in Group 1 and Group 2. The
stories generated by children in Group 1 ranged from 47 to 258 words and 11 to 43 Cunits, while the personal narratives of children in Group 2 ranged from 29 to 247
Table 2.
Means, Standard Deviations, F, and Effect Size Values for the WPPSI-R, TELD-III, and Measures of Narrative Ability by Group
Measures
M
Group 1
N
SD
Complexity
Group 2
M
N
SD
M
Group 3
N
SD
F
Partial
η2
WPPSI-R Performance IQ
99.93
37
17.23
100.15
32
19.42
93.77
27
14.68
1.27
.02
WPPSI-R Verbal IQ
103.29
37
13.54
98.43
32
20.23
91.28
27
21.11
9.87*
.05
WPPSI-R Full Scale IQ
104.73
37
16.39
97.22
32
19.57
92.98
27
21.09
9.03*
.04
TELD-III Receptive Quotient
102.53
37
17.26
98.76
33
17.33
98.09
29
16.97
2.59
.03
TELD-III Expressive Quotient
96.29
37
14.92
91.73
33
17.43
83.29
29
14.28
9.11*
.08
TELD-III Spoken Language Quotient
98.85
37
15.78
94.62
33
23.47
87.61
29
18.55
14.67*
.11
Story Generation - Number of Words
177.62
37
35.54
163.48
33
42.81
99.74
29
63.52
19.69*
.15
Story Generation - Number of C-units
23.31
37
6.72
21.76
33
6.91
16.65
29
11.48
13.13*
.12
Story Generation - Quality
20.11
37
4.73
18.72
33
5.02
13.49
29
7.51
11.92*
.14
Personal Narratives-Number of Words
142.08
37
28.66
103.28
33
35.62
69.18
29
42.22
35.38*
.29
Personal Narratives-Number of C-units
21.61
37
5.98
19.85
33
4.36
15.33
29
7.73
7.90*
.07
Personal Narratives – Quality
22.37
37
4.85
17.58
33
8.24
9.71
29
8.08
29.57*
.19
*p < .01
72
words and 12 to 39 C-units. Children in Group 3 generated stories ranging from
11 to 233 words and 3 to 39 C-units. Greater standard deviations reported for Group
3 on both measures indicated diverse abilities within the group.
Similarly, groups showed significant differences on both measures of
productivity when asked to produce personal narratives. Pairwise comparisons
indicated that children in Group 3 produced personal narratives with significantly
fewer words and C-units than their peers in Groups 2 and 3. Also, children in Group
2 produced personal narratives with significantly fewer words than their peers in
Group 1, but their narratives contained similar numbers of C-units. This finding
indicated that their C-units were shorter than those of Group 1. The personal
narratives generated by children in Group 1 ranged from 27 to 198 words and 7 to 25
C-units, while the personal narratives of children in Group 2 ranged from 16 to 189
words and 4 to 26 C-units. Children in Group 3 tended to generate shorter narratives,
ranging from 6 to 119 words and 2 to 21 C-units.
Considering that the conventional cutoffs for small, medium, and large values for
partial η2 are .01, .06, and .14, respectively (Green & Salkind, 2005), the strength of the
relationship between number of words and group was very strong, particularly for
the personal narratives. The group factor, established based on the complexity of
health care needs, accounted for 29% of the variance of productivity skills, holding
constant the effects of cognitive ability and gender.
Quality. As Table 2 shows, the means of quality ratings of generated stories were
20.11, 18.72, and 13.49 for Groups 1, 2, and 3, respectively. As with productivity, the
quality of stories generated by children in Group 3 was rated significantly lower than
that of stories produced by children in Groups 1 and 2. No significant differences
were observed between the ratings of stories produced by Groups 1 and 2. When the
quality indicators were examined individually, the stories generated by Group 3
contained more grammatical errors and unrelated information, with frequent
repetitions and pauses that made them difficult to follow.
Slightly different from the performance measures for the story generation task,
the mean quality score for the personal narratives produced by children in Group 3
was significantly lower than the mean for Group 2, which in turn was significantly
lower than the mean for Group 1. The mean scores were reported as 22.37, 17.58, and
9.71 for Groups 1, 2, and 3, respectively. In particular, children in Group 3 left out
crucial information about who, when, where, and why and included contradictory or
unrelated information more frequently when narrating, which made it difficult for
the examiner to fully understand their stories.
Large effect sizes reported for the quality of both story generation and personal
narratives indicated a strong relationship between the quality of narratives and the
group factor. Group accounted for 14% of the variance in story generation and 19%
of the variance in personal narratives, holding constant the effects of cognitive ability
and gender.
73
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Discussion
The purpose of the study was to examine the impact of complexity of health care
needs on the language and narrative skills of children with special health care needs.
On eight of nine measures of language and narrative skills, children with more
complex health care needs demonstrated significantly greater weaknesses relative to
their peers who had less complex health care needs or who were healthy. As they
performed more poorly on measures of expressive and spoken language, their
narratives included fewer words and C-units and were not as well-developed, as
assessed by quality measures. The personal narratives produced by these children
were relatively unclear, due to the frequent inclusion of contradictory or unrelated
information and repetitions. Essential information about what, who, where, when,
and why was often omitted. Without asking for clarification, it was difficult to
understand what happened. These children’s narratives were also characterized by
fewer grammatically-correct sentences, less-sufficient information, less-fluent
narratives, and less-precise vocabulary.
It is important to note that there was considerable variability in the performance
of children with more complex health care needs, particularly in narrative ability, as
shown by the large standard deviations. For example, while the average number of
words in these children’s stories was 99, the standard deviation for this variable was
67. While the average quality score for personal narratives was 9.71, the standard
deviation was 8.08. This finding is consistent with those of Hemphill and colleagues
(2002), who reported an average of 72 words and a standard deviation of 63 words
for 4-year-old children with early corrective heart surgery.
The performance scores achieved by children with less complex health care needs
were in-between those of children who were healthy and children who had more
complex health careneeds. Their performance was comparable to their healthy peers,
in terms of generating stories from a wordless picture book and measures of
language development. This finding did not support the hypothesis, which
presumed less adequate performance by these children on all tasks than by children
who were healthy. However, the results lend substantial support to the hypothesis
by indicating that children with less complex health care needs generated personal
narratives with significantly less information and of significantly lower quality than
their healthy peers. Although children in all three groups generated fewer words in
response to the conversation prompts than to the wordless picture book, the most
dramatic decrease was evident for children with less complex health care needs in
Group 2. They generated 163 words for the story generation task but only 103 words
for the personal narratives. Such a dramatic decrease was not evident in the number
of C-units. This finding indicated that these children’s C-units were shorter and
included less information. Furthermore, we found that children with less complex
health care needs produced personal narratives that were significantly less welldeveloped than those of their healthy peers. Given that producing narratives in
response to conversation prompts is a more cognitively demanding task that requires
greater incorporation of context, memory, and problem solving skills, compared to a
story generation task (providing visual prompts via wordless picture books), these
75
findings confirm and extend previous research (e.g., Fiestas & Pena, 2004; Kaderavek
& Justice, 2005).
The findings of this study are consistent with prior research (e.g., Barnes &
Dennis, 1998; Chapman et al., 2001; Hemphill et al., 2002; Reilly et al., 1998). The
complexity of health care needs accounted for a substantial portion of variance in
language and narrative performance, even after controlling for the effects of
cognitive ability. The pattern established by the performance of children in this study
suggests that there is a continuum of impact. Increased complexity of health care
needs may hinder the development of language and narrative skills. Children may
develop language and narrative skills comparable to those of their healthy peers but
may also show some deficits in higher level language skills, such as the ability to
produce personal narratives. At this point, the data suggest that increased
complexity of health care needs may result in diminished language and narrative
skills.
As indicated by previous studies, weak language and narrative skills may be
considered predictors of poor subsequent school performance and social
development. Young children with language difficulties are at increased risk for
academic and social failure and may require special education services. Therefore, it
is important to screen young children with special health care needs and include
narratives as part of the assessment process (Hemphill et al., 2002; Justice et al., 2006;
Schoenbrodt et al., 2003). Early identification of language and narrative difficulties
and intervention to improve these skills should also be given more attention.
Otherwise, beginning school with language deficits and health limitations may make
catching up with peers more difficult (Griffin, Hemphill, Camp, & Wolf, 2004;
Scarborough, 2001).
Interpretation of the results is subject to several limitations. First, the small
sample size and large within-group variability make it difficult to generalize the
results to the entire population of children with special health care needs. Although
this study provides evidence that supports the notion that health issues are related to
children’s language status, the pattern established by the performance of children in
this study should be further examined with a larger population. Also, given the
substantial variability in children’s health care needs, which may contribute to
language-learning difficulties, it is important that further research identify individual
factors that affect the development of language and narrative skills in this population
(Hemphill et al., 2002).
Second, there were two measures of narrative ability, productivity and quality,
and the scoring of these measures was limited to number of words and C-units and
to ratings of children’s narratives based on nine indicators of quality. It is apparent
that the narrative measures used in this study do not reflect all aspects of
productivity or the quality of narratives produced by children with special health
care needs. Paul and Hernandez (1996) claimed that different measures can result in
differing profiles of the same child's narrative ability. Thus, future studies should
take several aspects of narrative ability into consideration when investigating
narratives.
76
Cevriye Ergül
Third, it is not clear how language and narrative difficulties in these children will
affect school achievement and social development in later years. Due to the complex
interrelationship of health limitations and cognitive, social, and language
development, these children may respond differently than peers with no health care
needs to the increased linguistic and academic demands of school. Therefore, the
need for systematic investigation of longer-term effects and growth trajectories as
children progress into higher grades remains.
Despite these limitations, the study presented here contributes to our
understanding of how special health care needs affect language development. The
results of this study suggest that professionals in health care, speech and language,
and education should be alerted to the potential connection between health and
language and that even mild health problems might have a significant impact on
early performance. At this point, there is little crossover between these fields. Yet
efforts to identify language and narrative deficits early in this special population
should lead to earlier interventions for children who are at risk for the development
of later learning difficulties.
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Kronik Hastalığı Olan Küçük Yaştaki Çocukların Dil Ve Öyküleme
Becerileri
(Özet)
Problem Durum
Alanyazın incelendiğinde birçok araştırma sonucu göstermiştir ki, kronik hastalığı
olan çocuklar dil bozuklukları ve öyküleme becerilerinde yetersizlik için yüksek risk
taşımaktadırlar. Buna karşın, çocuklardaki sağlık problemlerinin dil gelişimini hangi
yönde ve nasıl etkilediğini araştıran yeterli sayıda çalışma yoktur. Ayrıca sağlık
problemi olan çocuklar kendi aralarında büyük farklılıklar gösterirler. Aynı tanıya
sahip çocuklar değişen şiddette komplikasyonlar gösterebilir ve bu onların günlük
yaşam aktivitelerinde farklı düzeylerde ve türlerde sınırlılıklara yol açabilir;
dolayısıyla farklı sağlık hizmetlerine gereksinim duyabilirler. Farklı sağlık
sorunlarına sahip çocuklar da benzer sınırlılıklar yaşayabilir ve benzer sağlık
hizmetlerine gereksinim duyabilirler. Bu yüzden tanıdan bağımsız olarak ve
hastalığa bağlı olarak ortaya çıkan komplikasyonların şiddetine ve dolayısıyla sağlık
hizmetlerine duyulan gereksinim düzeyine göre yapılacak bir gruplama ile
çocukların sağlık problemlerinin gelişimsel özelliklerine etkilerinin incelenmesi
önerilmiştir. Ancak bu bağlamda yapılmış herhangi bir çalışmaya rastlanmamıştır.
Bu çalışmada kronik hastalığı olan küçük yaştaki çocukların sağlık hizmetlerine olan
gereksinimlerinin düzeyi ile çocuğun dil ve öyküleme becerileri arasındaki ilişkinin
incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır.
Dört ile altı yaşları arasındaki 99 çocuk çalışmada yer almıştır. Çocuklar, içerisinde
kronik hastalıktan etkilenen organ sayısının ve hastalıktan dolayı ortaya çıkan
79
komplikasyonların şiddetinin sağlık hizmetlerine olan gereksinim düzeyini
belirlediği bir derecelendirme sistemi kullanılarak gruplandırılmıştır. Üç grup elde
edilmiştir. Grup 1 sağlıklı çocukları içerirken, Grup 2 sağlık hizmetlerine az düzeyde
gereksinim duyan çocukları ve Grup 3 ise orta düzeyde gereksinim duyan çocukları
içermiştir. Sağlık hizmetlerine ileri düzeyde gereksinim duyan çocuklar ise sağlık
problemleri normal dil, bilişsel ve davranış gelişimini çok yaygın düzeyde etkilediği
için çalışma kapsamı dışında bırakılmışlardır. Çalışmada yer alan her çocuğa
Wechsler Okul Öncesi Çocuklar İçin Zeka Ölçeği’nin gözden geçirilmiş formu
(WPPSI-R) ve Erken Dil Gelişimi Testi (TELD-III) uygulanmıştır. Katılımcılardan
ayrıca yazı içermeyen resimli bir kitaba bakarak bir öykü üretmeleri ve üç farklı
konuda sorulan açık-uçlu sorulara karşılık kendi deneyimlerini öykülemeleri
istenmiştir. Çocuklar tarafından üretilen öyküler iki boyutta değerlendirilmiştir.
Birincisi toplam kelime ve tümce sayısı ile değerlendirilen öykü üretme becerileridir.
İkincisi ise oluşturulan cümlelerin gramer kurallarına uygunluğu, öyküde bir
bütünlük olup olmadığı, yeterli bilginin verilip verilmediği, anlaşılabilirliği, akıcılığı,
konuya bağlı kalınması, uygun kelimelerin kullanılması ve uygun jest ve mimiklerin
kullanılması şeklinde sıralan göstergeler temelinde değerlendirilen öykü niteliğidir.
Sağlık hizmetlerine gereksinim düzeyleri temelinde gruplandırılan üç grup, cinsiyet
ve WPPSI-R zeka testi skorları kovaryant olarak kullanılarak karşılaştırılmıştır.
Sonuçlar, sağlık hizmetlerine orta düzeyde gereksinim duyan grubun hizmetlere
daha az düzeyde gereksinim duyan çocuklardan ve sağlıklı çocuklardan oluşan diğer
iki gruba göre ifade edici dil ve öyküleme becerilerinde anlamlı olarak daha geride
olduğunu göstermiştir. TELD-III’ün alıcı dil alt testinde gruplar arasında herhangi
bir fark gözlenmezken ifade edici dile dayalı alt testlerde, Grup 3 diğer gruplara göre
anlamlı olarak daha düşük bir performans göstermiştir. Grup 3’de yer alan çocuklar
akranlarına göre öykülerinde daha az sayıda kelime ve tümce üretmişlerdir.
Özellikle kişisel öykülerde kelime ve tümce sayısındaki grup farklılıklarının
%29’unun grup faktörü ile açıklandığı bulunmuştur. Ürettikleri öykülerin niteliğinin
de diğer gruplara göre anlamlı olarak daha düşük olduğu gözlenmiştir. Öyküleri
daha fazla sayıda gramer hataları, ilgisiz bilgi, tekrarlar ve duraksamalar içermiştir.
Kişisel öykülerde ise kim, nerede, ne zaman ve niçin gibi önemli bilgileri sıklıkla
atladıkları ve çelişen bilgiler verdikleri, böylece öykünün anlaşılabilirliğinin önemli
ölçüde azaldığı görülmüştür. Buna karşın, sağlık hizmetlerine daha az düzeyde
gereksinim duyan çocuklar sağlıklı olan akranlarından daha düşük skorlar elde
etmelerine rağmen anlamlılık düzeyinde farklılaşmamışlardır. Farklı oldukları tek
alan kişisel öyküleri olmuştur. Kişisel öykülerinde hem kelime ve tümce sayısı hem
de nitelik açısından anlamlı olarak daha düşük bir performans göstermişlerdir.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Öneriler
Elde edilen bulgular sağlık problemlerinin çocukların dil gelişimleri olumsuz
etkileyebileceği hipotezini desteklemektedir ve daha önceki bulgularla tutarlıdır.
Sağlık hizmetlerine olan gereksinim düzeyi dil ve öyküleme becerilerindeki
varyansın önemli bir bölümünü açıklamıştır. Gereksinim düzeyi arttıkça dil ve
öyküleme becerilerindeki gelişim olumsuz etkilenmiştir.
Önceki çalışmaların sonuçlarının da desteklediği gibi, dil ve öyküleme
becerilerindeki yetersizlikler gelecekteki okul başarısının ve öğrenme problemlerinin
80
Cevriye Ergül
yordayıcıları olarak değerlendirilebilir. Dil problemleri olan çocuklar akademik
başarısızlık ve özel eğitim için yüksek risk grubunda değerlendirilirler. Bu yüzden
kronik sağlık problemleri olan çocukların, dil gelişimindeki olası gecikmeler ve
problemler açısından erken dönemde taranması ve öyküleme becerilerinin de bu
tarama sürecinin bir parçası haline getirilmesi önemlidir. Belirlenen problemlerin
erken dönemde iyileştirilmesi amacıyla müdahale programlarının oluşturulması
daha çok üzerinde durulması gereken bir konudur. Aksi takdirde hem dil hem de
sağlık problemleri ile okula başlayan çocukların akademik anlamda akranlarını
yakalamaları daha zor olacaktır. Ayrıca dil ve konuşma, sağlık ve eğitim
alanlarındaki uzmanlar sağlık ve dil gelişimi arasındaki olası ilişki konusunda
bilgilendirilmeli ve hafif ve orta şiddette seyreden sağlık problemlerinin dahi
çocuğun gelişimi üzerinde önemli etkilerinin olabileceği konusunda uyarılmalıdırlar.
Bu bağlamda sözü geçen uzmanlar arasındaki işbirliğinin de artırılması da son
derece önemlidir. Sonuç olarak, kronik sağlık sorunları olan çocukların ileride
yaşayabilecekleri öğrenme problemlerini azaltabilmek ve akademik başarı şansları
artırılabilmek için dil ve öyküleme becerilerindeki problemlerin çocuklarda erken
dönemde belirlenmesi ve erken müdahele programları uygulayarak iyileştirilmesi
araştırmadan elde edilen bulgular temelinde önemle önerilmektedir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Kronik hastalığı olan çocuklar, sağlık hizmetlerine gereksinim,
erken çocukluk, dil becerileri, öyküleme becerileri.
Views of Teacher Performance: To What Extent Do
Multiple Observers Converge?
Bahar Gün*
Suggested Citation:
Gün, B. (2012). Views of teacher performance: To what extent do multiple observers
converge? Egitim Arastirmaları-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 46, 81100.
Abstract
Problem Statement: The vast majority of empirical work on second/foreign
language teacher education continues to emphasize the notions of
‘reflective practice’, ‘exploratory teaching’, and the like based on the
premise that teachers develop by studying their own practice. To do so,
teachers need to collect data and use reflective processes. Classroom
observations are one of the most common ways to develop these reflective
processes in the teaching profession. In a classroom observation, there are
four important possible sources of feedback on teacher performance:
peers, learners, teacher trainers, and self. The main question this study
seeks to answer is how views of teacher performance vary when multiple
observers (in this case, the teachers themselves, learners, peers, and
trainers) are invited to watch the same lesson and perform the same
observation tasks.
Purpose of the Study: It is recognized that classroom teaching is an
extremely complex phenomenon, and observing the act of teaching can
lead to substantial amount of learning on the part of teachers. Considering
this fact, the present study aims to compare different observers’ views on
the same lessons, and to draw out implications for how ‘complex
meanings’ can be interpreted in order to give direction to teachers’
professional development.
Method: The structured observations conducted in this study focused on
different aspects of classroom teaching. Prior to each observation, the
specifically designed observation task, outlined on a task sheet, was
explained to all observers. All classes were video recorded, and the
observed teachers were given the videos of their classes. The teacher was
asked to do the observation task while viewing his/her recorded lesson.
*
Asst.Prof.Dr.,İzmir
[email protected]
University
of
Economics,
81
School
of
Foreign
Languages,
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Bahar Gün
Finally, the written feedback from the trainer, colleague, and learner was
also shared with the teacher. The sets of four completed observation task
sheets (from teachers themselves, learners, colleagues and trainers)
constitute the data for the study.
Findings: A content analysis of the written feedback on the completed task
sheets indicates that there is a noticeable overall difference between the
four participant observers. The results suggest that while there may be
some extent of agreement among the views, each observer seems to have a
different interpretation of the lessons observed.
Conclusion and Recommendations: One of the implications that can be drawn
from the study is the necessity of training learners in teacher evaluation, as
well as peer teachers. Such observers must be made more aware of the
need for sensitivity in the observation process in general, and the act of
giving feedback in particular. The study concludes that while diverse
views on feedback may be contradictory to some extent, these views may
prove beneficial in that they help teachers understand the complexity of
teaching, therefore leading to teacher learning.
Key Words: teacher development, reflective observations, feedback
In recent years, teacher education has emerged as a vibrant subfield due to its
unique theme of educating and informing teachers both at the pre-service and inservice levels (Lazaraton & Ishihara, 2005); classroom observations have always been
important components of this education. The development of ELT teachers’ teaching
practices has usually included classroom observations as one of the most common
components of teacher education programs designed to develop reflective processes
in the teaching profession. However, observing teachers has always been a
controversial issue, as while some teachers welcome the idea of being observed,
some others “…accept it with varying shades of enthusiasm and reluctance”
(Washer, 2006, p.6), because they find the observation process threatening and timeconsuming. Therefore, a distinction should be made between classroom observations
carried out to evaluate teachers and those aimed at helping teachers reflect on and
foster their own teaching practice. This study focuses on the latter, and the key words
in this case are ‘reflection’ and ‘reflective observation’. Reflective observation,, that is,
observation “that is linked to critical reflection, is one strategy that can be used to
help teachers develop a deeper understanding of themselves as teachers and so be
better prepared to make decisions about their own teaching” (Richards, 1997, p.3).
According to Wildman and Niles (1987), teachers need to look at classroom events in
order to reflect, and reflection requires that teachers be emotionally detached from
classroom events in order to identify the positive and negative aspects of their
practice. In order for teachers to learn by examining their own practice, they need to
collect feedback about different aspects of their teaching.
83
Sources of Feedback
There are four possible sources of feedback on teacher performance:
1-
Peers: Peer observations support teachers’ learning about their own
teaching “by providing suggestions for change and mutual reassurance”
(Pressick-Kilborn & Te Riele 2008, p.61). As noted by Hammersley-Fletcher
and Orsmond (2005), peer observations are a means of making the focus
and purpose of reflection more explicit and effective; as a result of such
observations, teachers may seek out and engage in relevant developmental
processes.
2-
Learners: As pointed out by Kurtoglu Eken (1999, p.241), “learners are also
observers in their own right, and there is a lot we can learn from them about
teaching and about learning”; therefore, they should be considered as a
potential source of feedback.
3-
Teacher
trainers:
In
many
institutions
there
are
teacher
training/development units that cater to the developmental needs of the
teaching staff. These units consist of trainers who usually have a substantial
amount of experience in observing teachers’ classes, and examining
procedures of classroom teaching, and who, therefore, constitute an
important source of feedback.
4-
Self: According to Armstrong & Frith and Koizol & Burns (in Richards &
Farell, 2005, p.34), “self-monitoring or self-observation refers to a systematic
approach to the observation, evaluation and management of one’s own
behaviour in order to achieve a better understanding and control over the
behaviour”. Ideally, this type of self-evaluation should be in the form of
‘critical reflection’, where teachers reflect on practice as a way of reaching a
level of self-awareness regarding their actions and the reasons behind them
(Bailey, 1997).
Metaphorically speaking, these four sources could be considered as the four
points of a compass rose, and they might serve to give direction to a teacher’s
professional development.
Study
Aim
It is recognized that classroom teaching is an extremely complex phenomenon,
and the focus on the complex meanings underlying the observable acts of teaching
creates the potential for a substantial amount of learning (Richard, op cit).
Considering this fact, the present study aims to compare the views of different
observers on the same lessons, and to draw out implications as to how ‘complex
meanings’ can be interpreted to give direction to teachers’ professional development.
84
Bahar Gün
Institutional Context and Participants
The School of Foreign Languages, where the study was conducted, has
approximately 1600 students and 140 teachers in its English language teaching
programs, namely, the English Preparatory Program and the undergraduate
Freshman English Program. The school recognizes the importance of providing the
teaching staff with professional development opportunities, and therefore, provides
in-service support and development. Operating on the premise that teachers who
continue to learn are more effective, a Teacher Development Unit consisting of five
trainers offers a range of activities in the school. One of these is the Reflective
Teaching and Learning Program (RTL), in which the participants of the study were
involved when the data was collected. The program aims to:
a)
help teachers see themselves teach and learn to exploit their strengths and
work on their weaknesses;
b)
develop confidence not only for the teachers but also for the benefit of their
learners;
c)
allow teachers to share their experience of teaching and enrich this
experience with perspectives from their workmates, trainers, focused
discussions, and further readings;
d)
and explore different ways of developing and becoming more autonomous
teachers.
As for the profile of the participants, there were four main groups of people who
provided feedback as a result of the classroom observations conducted:
1.
The teachers themselves: Three teachers (two native English speakers, and
one non-native, all of different nationalities and degrees of experience) were
involved in the RTL Program on a voluntary basis.
2.
The trainers: Five trainers, including the author, from the Teacher
Development Unit in the institution where the study was conducted were
involved in providing the input sessions and the classroom observations
within the scope of the RTL program.
3.
The learners: One learner from each participant teacher’s class was included
in the process, taking on the role of observer and provider of feedback.
These observers were chosen by their classroom teachers, and joined as
participants on a voluntary basis after being informed of the aim and
procedures of the study. In order to familiarize the learners with classroom
observation procedures, they were given a training session consisting of an
observation task using a previously video-recorded lesson. They were also
shown observation task samples similar to the ones used in the study.
4.
The colleagues: One of the important guidelines for peer observation is that
participants select their own partners to collaborate with (Richards and
Lockhart, in Richards op cit). Keeping this principle in mind, the participant
teachers were allowed to choose colleagues to observe their classes and
perform the observation tasks.
85
Data Collection
The structured observations conducted in the study focused on several aspects of
classroom teaching: 1) general teaching and learning, 2) teacher talking time (TTT), 3)
instructions, and 4) feedback. Observation tasks for each of these areas were
designed by the researcher to be used by all the observers.
The students’ behaviour during the observations conducted in their classes can be
viewed as positive for two reasons:
1.
prior to their class sessions the students were informed that the observations
would be carried out as part of a research project on teacher education, and
that they would not affect them in any way; and
2.
students were already familiar with having observers in their classes
because classroom observations – by peer teachers and/or teacher trainers –
are routinely conducted within the school.
The data was collected following the steps below:
1.
Prior to each observation, the specifically designed observation task was
explained a) to the trainer, b) to the colleague, and c) to the learner (in the
learner’s L1 to avoid any possible misunderstandings). The observed
teachers themselves were given no prior knowledge of the task at this stage.
This allowed the teachers to present their lessons without amending their
original lesson plans. Not knowing the foci of observations helped them act
naturally during observations.
2.
All classes were video recorded and the observed teachers were given the
videos of their classes.
3.
The teacher was asked to do the observation task while viewing his/her
recorded lesson.
4.
Finally, the written feedback from the trainer, colleague, and learner was
also shared with the teacher. Thus, at the end of each observation, the
teacher had a set of feedback consisting of the self-, trainer-, colleague- and
learner-completed observation tasks. All observers completed the same task
for each observation. These changed each week. The observation task forms
collected from the four observers on four different aspects of teaching over
the period of four weeks constituted the data for the study. See the
Appendix for the task sheets.
Data Analyses
The data in the study was analyzed quantitatively, by determining percentages,
and qualitatively, by conducting content analysis. The quantitative analysis of the
data was carried out by identifying the number of similar and different comments
made by the observers (teachers, learners, colleagues, trainers) on the task sheets. The
percentages of similarity were determined based on these identified numbers in
86
Bahar Gün
order to have a clearer idea of the agreement between the observers; and they can be
viewed in the results section.
The content analysis conducted on the comments aimed to identify similar and
different words and phrases the observers used when they responded to the
questions on the task sheets. These phrases are displayed in the content analysis
tables presented in the results section that follows.
Results
The main question the present study sought to answer was the extent to which
the views of different observers converged when they were asked to watch the same
lesson using a given observation focus. The set of data analyzed consists of the
observation task sheets completed by four different observers, namely, the classroom
teachers themselves, learners, teacher trainers, and colleagues.
As can be seen in Appendix A, each observation task sheet consisted of different
numbers of questions:
General teaching and learning task: 5 questions
Feedback task: 2 questions
TTT task: 2 questions
Instructions task: 4 questions
Although the number of questions for each task totaled 13, only the 5 questions
most relevant to the foci of the tasks were chosen from each task sheet. Fifteen
responses from each class of observer were used, with the belief that this would be
sufficient to allow comparisons of the observers’ views. These were chosen at
random from the questions determined to be the focus of the task. These 15
randomly selected responses were analyzed and compared with corresponding
comments from each of the other groups of observers, and classified as broadly
similar and broadly different. The results of the study are displayed in two ways:
first, the overall percentages are given, and then the results of the content analysis
are presented.
87
1. Percentages of Similarities and Differences Between the Observers
The level of agreement for each group of observers is given in Table 1, where
comments that are similar are shown as a percentage.
Table 1
Similarities Between Observers
Number of Comments = 15
Observer
Similar
Different
Percent Similar
Learner
3
12
20.0%
Self
6
9
40.0%
Colleague
8
7
53.3%
Trainer
9
6
60.0%
As can be seen from the table above, there is a clear difference between the four
observers overall. The learners’ views seem to deviate most dramatically from the
other participants, with only 20% agreement, followed by the teachers’ views of
themselves (40%). Views of trainers (60%) and colleagues (53.3%), on the other hand,
seem to have more agreement with other observers. It can be concluded from the
figures in the table that each observer seems to have a different interpretation of the
lessons observed.
2. Content Analysis Tables
The tables that follow present the key words and phrases the observers used in
responding to the questions chosen and included for analysis. To view the full
observer quotes see Appendix B.
2.a. Question from the Feedback Task: The question chosen to be included in the
analysis was:
Do you think the feedback given in the lesson promoted any kind of ‘change’ (i.e.
learning) for your students? Can you give one example?
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Bahar Gün
Table 2
Similarity Between Views on Question 2.a
2.a
Similar
Self
Learner
No ... not much feedback...
Yes ... thanks to our teacher’s
feedback...
To some extent … Referring
them to the tapescripts helped
students...
Trainer
Colleague
Different
Yes ... by providing the students
with lots of examples...
This table above is particularly interesting because it reflects the diverse views of
the observers. Despite the limited agreement between the learner and the colleague,
it can be seen that observers had differing perspectives on the effect of feedback
given in class.
2. b.1. Question from the Feedback General Teaching and Learning Task: The first
question chosen to be included in the analysis was:
What did you think was the most successful part of the lesson?
Table 3
Similarity Between Views on Question 2.b.1
2.b.1
Similar
… students working together and
answering
the
questions
correctly...
Self
Learner
… reviewing the previously
covered subjects...
… to relate the topics and
structures to themselves...
Trainer
Colleague
Different
… review part...
89
As can be seen in the table above, the learner and the colleague show a degree of
agreement on the most successful part of the lesson; however, other observers appear
to have different interpretations of the “most successful part of the lesson”.
2.b.2. Question from the Feedback General Teaching and Learning Task: The second
question from the same task sheet was:
Was there anything in the lesson that was not very successful?
Table 4
Similarity Between Views on Question 2.b.2
2.b.2
Self
Similar
Learner
Trainer
Different
… staging...
… don’t think there was any
problems…
… first exercise...
… link between the two main
activities...
Colleague
This is a perfect example of the totally different opinions that all four observers
held about a particular aspect of classroom teaching, namely, a less successful part of
the lesson.
2.c. Question from the TTT Task: The question chosen to be included in the analysis
was:
How much do you think the teacher talked in this lesson? Do you think this is
good or bad? Why/Why not?
Table 5
Similarity Between Views on Question 2.c
2.c
Similar
Self
… more than necessary … bad...
…talked a lot … absolutely very
good...
Learner
Trainer
Colleague
Different
… more than necessary...
..a lot … tiring for the teacher...
In this particular question, all observers remarked on the amount of TTT.
However, the learner’s interpretation of this was completely different from the other
observers.
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Bahar Gün
2.d Question from the Instruction Task: The question chosen to be included in the
analysis was:
Do you think, overall, the teacher’s instructions were clear?
Table 6
Similarity Between Views on Question 2.d
2.d
Self
Learner
Trainer
Colleague
Similar
Different
… always have a problem…
… clear…
… clear...
... clear in general … some
confusions…
The table above indicates a discrepancy between the class teacher’s view on his
instructions and the views of the other three observers. A careful analysis of all
quotes from the four parties reveals the following:
1.
The observed teachers tend to judge and comment on the success of the
lessons from the point of view of their students’ performance in the given
lesson (see ‘Self’ in parts 2.b.1 and 2.c). This may lead to a different
perspective from the others.
2.
In most cases there is an apparent mismatch between how learners perceive
the lessons compared to the other observers (see ‘Learner’ in parts 2.b.2 and
2.c regarding the TTT task). This seems to confirm both Allwright's
observation (in Richards, op cit) that learners' interpretations of lessons are
often greatly different from teachers, and also Block's (in Richards, op cit)
hypothesis of "the existence of a gap between the way teachers and learners
'see' the classroom and all that occurs within it" (p.3).
3.
In almost all the instances, students’ reactions to the task questions are
positive, that is, they approve of the teachers’ actions and timing. Even with
parts of the lesson they considered less successful, they tended to assume
responsibility for the weaknesses (see ‘Learner’ in part 2.d).
4.
There is usually a somewhat clear correspondence between the observations
of the trainers and colleagues (see ‘Trainers’ and ‘Colleagues’ in parts 2.c
and 2.d).
5.
The colleagues’ feedback can be ‘harsh’. Although they were selected by the
teacher for the observation, and therefore may have been expected to be
sympathetic, their comments were sometimes hurtful (see ‘Colleague’ in
part 2.b.2).
91
Conclusion and Recommendations
Several interesting insights emerge from this study, confirming the fact that
observing teaching is a more complex activity than it seems. One can question the
objectivity of the learner evaluations. Unlike Kutoğlu Eken (op cit), Washer (op cit)
believes that learners may not have the necessary skills to evaluate the teaching they
receive, and therefore, should not be considered an appropriate or effective source of
teacher evaluation. This seems to be supported to some extent by the learner
responses, which, overall, appear to be more ‘emotional’ than objective. One possible
reason may be the very positive rapport established between the participating
teachers and learners in the study. One implication is the desirability of training
learners in teacher evaluation by raising awareness of what constitutes good
teaching, as well as the importance of emotional detachment in giving feedback.
In addition, learners and teachers, as observers, may require further training to
maximize the learning potential of the observation process. They can be made more
aware of the need for sensitivity in the observation process in general, and giving
feedback in particular. Several instances of excessively critical feedback from
colleagues confirm that such sensitivity may be necessary in order to increase the
effectiveness of the process for the reflecting teacher.
The most useful outcome of the “compass rose” observations, which included
views of four observers in this study, was that they enabled the teachers to view their
teaching from different perspectives, as asserted by the participant teachers when
they responded to the feedback form given at the end of the study. They stated that
they appreciated the feedback from colleagues, trainers and learners; that they
learned a lot from them. As the results of the study conducted with prospective
teachers in Egypt (Abou Baker El-Dib, 2006) indicate, teachers may be unaware of the
multiple reasons for the problems that might occur in their classes, and also the
consequences of their choice of actions. Although the results in the present study
indicate a significantly large mismatch among the four observers, which could be
potentially ‘confusing’ for the teachers, rather than being seen as a negative factor,
the diversity of the observers’ interpretations may also be positively viewed as
awareness raising tools serving to enrich the teachers’ reflections on teaching. If
handled sensitively and structured with care, a system of ‘compass rose’
observations of teaching and feedback could be a valuable addition to any teacher
education program, giving direction to teachers in their development and helping
them to increase their self-confidence and improve their teaching skills.
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References
Abou Baker El-Dib, M. (2006). Levels of reflection in action research. An overview
and anassessment tool. Teaching and Teacher Education 23/1, 24-35.
Bailey, K. M. (1997). Reflective teaching: Situating our stories. Asian Journal of English
Language Teaching 7, 1-19.
Hammersley-Fletcher, L. and Orsmond, P. (2005). Reflecting on reflective processes
within peer observation. Studies in Higher Education 30/2, 213-224
Kurtoğlu Eken, D. (1999). Through the eyes of the learner: Learner observations of
teaching and learning. ELT Journal 53/4, 240-248.
Lazaraton, A. and Ishihara, N. (2005). Understanding second language teaching
practiceusing micro-analysis and self-reflection: A collaborative case study.
Modern Language Journal 89/4, 529-542.
Pressick-Kilborn, K. and Te Riele, K. (2008). Learning from reciprocal peer
observation: Acollaborative self study. Studying Teacher Education 4/1, 61-75
Richards, J. C. (1997). Three approaches to observation. The Language Teacher
Online JALT Publications, 1-3
Richards, J.C. and Farrell, T.S.C. (2005). Professional Development for Language Teachers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Richards, J., Platt, J. and Platt, H. (1992).Dictionary of language Teaching and Applied
Linguistics. Longman
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in Education 14/3, 243-250
Wildman, T. and Niles, J. (1987). Reflective teachers: Tensions between abstractions
and realities. Journal of Teacher Education 3, 25-31
Appendix A
OBSERVATION TASK 1: GENERAL TEACHING AND LEARNING
Think back on the lesson you taught and answer the following questions:
1)
What were the main goals of the lesson?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2)
What is the most important thing the students learned from the lesson?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4)
93
Was there anything about the lesson that was not very successful?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5)
How did you feel about the lesson as a whole?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Richards, J.C. (1997). Three approaches to observation. The Language Teacher.
http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/files/97/sep/richards.html
OBSERVATION TASK 2: FEEDBACK
The focus of this observation is feedback. For this lesson feedback means
‘comments or information learners receive on the success of a learning task, either from the
teacher or from other learners’. (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992)
Please answer the following questions.
1) How much feedback was there during the lesson in the following patterns?
 enough
 some
 not enough
b) Teacher-Students  enough
 some
 not enough
 enough
 some
 not enough
a) Teacher-Student
c) Student-Student
2) Do you think the feedback given in the lesson promoted any kind of “change”
(i.e. learning) for your students?
 yes
 to some extent
 no
Can you give one example?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Comments: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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OBSERVATION TASK 3: TEACHER TALKING TIME
Tallies
Total
Notes
Teacher asks a question.
Teacher explains a grammatical
point.
Teacher explains meaning of a
word.
Teacher gives instructions.
Teacher praises.
Teacher criticizes.
Learner asks a question.
Learner answers a question.
Learner talks to another learner.
Teacher-whole class discussion.
Other
Now please answer the following questions.
1.
A. How much do you think the teacher talked in this lesson?
a) more than necessary
b) a lot c) sometimes d) little
B. Do you think this is good or bad? Why/Why not? (Please write in the space
below)
2.
A. How much do you think the student talked in this lesson?
B. Do you think this is good or bad? Why/Why not? (Please write in the space
below).
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OBSERVATION TASK 4: INSTRUCTIONS
Please check the appropriate column for each instruction given.
Instructions
Checked
Not
checked
Clear
Not
clear
Notes
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
Now please answer the questions given below.
1)
2)
How did the teacher give the instructions?
a.
Teacher read the instructions from the book.
b.
Teacher asked a student to read the instruction.
c.
Teacher gave the instruction herself/himself, explained it and
modeled the activity/task.
d.
Other: (please specify) ----------------------------------------------
Were the instructions checked? Yes / No (Please circle) If yes, how?
a)
Teacher asked a student to repeat the instruction.
b)
Teacher asked the whole class to repeat the instruction.
c)
Teacher asked short yes/no questions to check the instruction.
d)
Teacher asked students “Did you understand?”
e)
Other: (please specify) -------------------------------------------
3)
Were longer instructions, if any, given in “chunks”? Yes / No (Please circle)
4)
Do you think, overall, the teacher’s instructions were clear? Why/why not?
APPENDIX B
2.a. Question from the Feedback Task: The question chosen to be included in the
analysis was:
Do you think the feedback given in the lesson promoted any kind of ‘change’ (i.e.
learning) for your students? Can you give one example?
Self: “No- There was not a lot of oral feedback during the lesson. They did give some
vocabulary words in the beginning and some words to fill in the blanks later on, but not
much feedback saying right or wrong on asking questions”.
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Learner: “Yes- Thanks to our teacher’s feedback we understood what the arrows in
the fill-in-the blanks part in the book meant”.
Trainer: “To some extent- Constantly referring them to the tapescript in their
books helped students do the “fill-in-the blanks” task, which was quite difficult”.
Colleague: “Yes- Expressions “lead to” and “cause” were defined by providing the
students with lots of examples, which were written on the board. The only thing was that
some students were confused and they didn’t know what was expected of them”.
2.b.1. Question from the Feedback General Teaching and Learning Task: The first
question chosen to be included in the analysis was:
Self: “Students working together and answering the questions correctly was the
most successful. More emphasis on what they could do. One of my weaker students read a
paragraph excellently. She was confident and I was proud”.
Learner: “Reviewing the previously covered subjects was very helpful. The visuals
our teacher used helped us understand the topic (movies) better”.
Trainer: “When the students were able to “relate” the topics and structures to
themselves, that was the most successful (e.g. one student describing his girlfriend). I think
students’ producing the language using their own sentences is the best evidence of learning.
That did not happen throughout the lesson, though”.
Colleague: “Students obviously enjoyed the lesson and felt confident about answering
questions. Review part from the book was probably more successful as students had more
time to think and spot their own mistakes”.
2.b.2. Question from the Feedback General Teaching and Learning Task: The second
question from the same task sheet was:
Was there anything in the lesson that was not very successful?
Self: “I was not happy about the staging. Although I planned the steps of the lesson very
carefully and made them clear on the paper, I couldn’t follow them in the right order.
Moreover, I failed in some of my instructions”.
Learner: “I don’t think there was any problem with the lesson. It was an extremely
productive, student-centered, active and fun class”.
Trainer: “First exercise done in the book. Too much time spent eliciting vocabulary, but
still some students could not do the exercise successfully”.
Colleague: “I did not really understand the link between the first two main
activities in the lesson (the crossword and the jumbled dialogue).I don’t want to sound too
negative about this lesson because I feel that there were some positives to take from it, but the
thing I found most grating as the lesson wore on was the teachers almost universal corruption
of his own language and his desire to repeat words or phrases ad infinitum as though this
would somehow lead to a major breakthrough on the students part and somehow improve
their understanding”.
2.c. Question from the TTT Task: The question chosen to be included in the analysis
was:
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How much do you think the teacher talked in this lesson? Do you think this is
good or bad? Why/Why not?
Self: “More than necessary- I know this is bad but I couldn’t help it because the
students were not in a good mood today. Most of them seemed to be listening, but they were
not eager to participate. Even when they were asked to discuss the inventions in pairs, they
did not want to do it. When teachers talk more than students, lessons get boring and students
don’t have much chance to produce the language”.
Learner: “The teacher talked a lot, and this is absolutely very good. Since she is
constantly asking questions, students cannot fall asleep in the lesson. In addition, her asking
questions so frequently gets us to think and express ourselves, which helps us improve our
language skills”.
Trainer: “You talked ‘more than necessary’. I do understand why you felt the need to
talk so much. You were not happy about students’ participation today. This caused the
following:
a)
You, many times, completed students’ answers.
b)
You answered your own questions.
c)
You repeated every single answer the students gave.
d)
You asked the same question sometimes in three different ways one after anotherparaphrasing. All these increased your TTT”.
Colleague: “A lot-Because it is a low- level class (Beginner) who are not confident
enough to speak in class, TTT is high. Teacher asks questions; then usually repeats the
questions when students don’t answer immediately. It is good when teacher is explaining a
word/grammar point but maybe students need more time to think about their answers. Too
much TTT is tiring for the teacher”.
2.d Question from the Instruction Task: The question chosen to be included in the
analysis was:
Do you think, overall, the teacher’s instructions were clear?
Self: “I always have a problem giving instructions! I think that this is one of the
hardest areas for me”.
Learner: “His instructions were clear but we had difficulty in understanding some of
them. The reason was us. It was the last lesson of the day and today was quiz day”.
Trainer: “I think his instructions were clear because almost each time after he gave
instructions to the whole group, he walked around to clarify the instructions for individual
students and/or groups. Since this is a beginner level class, students have difficulty in
understanding instructions”.
Colleague: “Teachers instructions were clear in general, but some students were not
focused, so they asked the teacher to repeat the instructions. Most of the time, teacher
preferred to ask questions rather than giving instructions, which I believed caused some
confusion”.
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Öğretmen Performansı İle İlgili Görüşler: Farklı Gözlemcilerin
Görüşleri Ne Kadar Benzeşir?
Özet
Problem Durumu
Yabancı dil öğretmen eğitimi alanında yapılan çalışmaların büyük çoğunluğu
‘yansıtmalı uygulamalar’ ya da ‘keşfe dayalı öğretim’ gibi kavramları ön plana
çıkarmakta ve öğretmenlerin kendi sınıf içi uygulamalarını inceleyerek
gelişebilecekleri esasına dayanmaktadır. Mesleki gelişim gösterebilmek için
öğretmenlerin kendi performansları ile ilgili bilgi toplamaları gerekir. Böylelikle
öğretmenler kendi performanslarını eleştirel gözle yansıtma yaparak inceleme ve
güçlü ve zayıf yönlerini tespit etme olanağı elde ederler. Bir öğretmenin performansı
ile ilgili veri toplamasında kullanılan en yaygın yöntemlerden biri yapılandırılmış
sınıf içi gözlemlerdir. Burada hemen, öğretmeni değerlendirmek amacı ile yapılan
gözlemlerle, onların mesleki gelişimlerine katkıda bulunma amaçlı gözlemlerin
ayrımının yapılması gerekir. Sunulan bu çalışma tamamıyla ikinci amaca yönelik
ders gözlemlerine odaklıdır; yani, amaç öğretmen öğrenmesine katkı sağlayacak
türde gözlemlerin yapılması ve geribildirimlerin bu doğrultuda öğretmenle
paylaşılmasıdır. Sınıf içi gözlemlerde öğretmene geribildirim dört olası gözlemciden
sağlanabilir: meslektaşlar, öğrenciler, öğretmen eğitmenleri ve öğretmenin kendisi.
Bu çalışmanın yanıtlamaya çalıştığı soru aynı dersi izleyen ve aynı gözlem formlarını
dolduran birden fazla gözlemcinin ders ve öğretmen ile ilgili görüşlerinin ne derece
benzerlik ve farklılıklar gösterdiğidir.
Bilindiği gibi sınıf içi eğitim son derece karmaşık bir olaydır ve bir öğretmenin
performansının yakından incelenmesi o öğretmenin kendini geliştirmesi adına
küçümsenmeyecek miktarda öğrenmesinin gerçekleşmesi anlamına gelebilir. Bu
gerçeği göz önünde bulundurarak yapılan bu çalışma, aynı dersi izleyen farklı
gözlemcilerin görüşlerini karşılaştırarak öğretmenlere mesleki açıdan kendilerini
geliştirmelerinde yardımcı olmayı hedeflemektedir. Çalışmanın nihai amacı
çalışmada kullanılan yapılandırılmış ders gözlemi ve geribildirim verme
yöntemlerinin öğretmen eğitimi programları için önerilmesidir.
Çalışma, Türkiye’de İngilizce eğitim veren bir özel üniversitede görev yapan
İngilizce okutmanları üzerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışmaya gönüllü olarak katılan
üç öğretmenden biri Türk vatandaşı, biri İngiliz, biri Amerikalıdır. Çalışmanın
verileri kurumda çalışan İngilizce okutmanları için uygulanan hizmet içi eğitim
programının bir parçası olan yapılandırılmış ders gözlemleri yoluyla toplanmıştır.
Yapılan gözlemler derslerin farklı yönlerine odaklanmıştır: genel öğrenme-öğretme
ile ilgili görüşler, öğretmen-konuşması miktarı, öğretmenin derste verdiği yönergeler
ve geribildirimler. Çalışmanın verileri aşağıdaki adımlar izlenerek elde edilmiştir: 1.
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Her gözlemden önce araştırmacı tarafından özel olarak geliştirilmiş gözlem formu
tüm gözlemcilere (meslektaş, öğrenci ve öğretmen eğitmeni) açıklanmıştır. 2. İzlenen
dersler videoya kaydedilmiş ve hazırlanan CD’ler ders öğretmenleri tarafından
izlenmiştir. 3. Dersi veren öğretmenler, diğer gözlemcilerin doldurduğu gözlem
formunun aynısını kendi derslerinin videolarını izlerken doldurmuşlardır. 4. Son
olarak, dersi veren öğretmenlere diğer gözlemcilerin doldurduğu gözlem formları
verilmiş, böylece öğretmenin elinde birisi kendisinin olmak üzere dört farklı
geribildirim formu olmuştur. Her bir gözlem için, dört farklı odağa yönelik, dört
gözlemciden gelen yazılı olarak tamamlanmış gözlem formu setleri çalışmanın
verilerini oluşturmuştur. Bu veriler daha sonra araştırmacı tarafından incelenerek,
gözlemcilerin görüş benzerlik ve farklılıkları esas alınarak gruplanmış ve benzer ve
farklı görüş oranları sayısal olarak belirlenerek yüzdelik olarak sunulmuştur. Veriler
aynı zamanda niteliksel olarak da içerik analizi uygulanarak incelenmiş ve gözlemci
geribildirimlerinde kullanılan anahtar kelime ve cümlecikler içerik analizi
tablolarında sunulmuştur. Bu benzerlik tablolarına dayalı olarak çeşitli saptamalarda
bulunularak çalışmanın sonuçları elde edilmiştir.
Dersin dört farklı boyutu ile ilgili üç öğretmenden toplanan dört gözlemcinin
görüşleri benzerlikleri ve farklılıkları açısından incelenmiş; sonuçlar hem sayısal
olarak, hem de gözlem formlarından doğrudan alınan gözlemci görüşleri aktarılarak
sunulmuştur. Öğrenci görüşlerinin diğer gözlemcilerle sadece %20 oranında
benzeştiği, öğretmenlerin
%40, meslektaşların görüşlerinin %53.3, öğretmen
eğitmenlerinin görüşlerinin ise %60 oranında diğer görüşlerle örtüştüğü ortaya
çıkmıştır. İçerik analizi tabloları ile de desteklenen çalışmanın bulguları, dört
gözlemcinin görüşleri arasında bazı benzerlikler olmasına rağmen, genel itibariyle
dikkate değer farklılıklar olduğu, yani her gözlemcinin izlenen dersleri değişik
açılardan yorumladıkları yönündedir.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri
Çalışmanın sonuçları öğrencilerin ders değerlendirme ve öğretmenlerine
geribildirim vermede duygusal davranabildiklerini ortaya koymuştur. Bu durumda,
öğretmen için en önemli geribildirim kaynaklarından biri olan öğrencilerin ‘iyi bir
ders nasıl olmalıdır’ konusunda eğitilip, bilinçlendirilmeleri ve daha objektif olarak
dersi ve öğretmeni değerlendirebilmelerinin sağlanması önerilebilir. Ayrıca,
çalışmanın verileri bazı meslektaş görüşlerinin de çok katı ve kırıcı olabildiğini
göstermiş, onlar içinde ders gözlemlerinin ve geribildirim vermenin daha duyarlı bir
şekilde gerçekleştirilebilmesi için bir eğitim almaları gereğini gözler önüne sermiştir.
Çalışmada öne çıkan nokta aynı ders ile ilgili farklı gözlemcilerden gelen görüşlerin
bazen birbirinden farklı, hatta birbiriyle çelişiyor görünmesine rağmen,
öğretmenlerin kendi öğretmenlik performanslarını değerlendirmeleri açısından
oldukça faydalı olabileceğinin ortaya çıkmasıdır. Nitekim, çalışmanın sonunda
dersleri izlenen öğretmenlerle yapılan görüşmelerde, üç öğretmen de her bir
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gözlemciden gelen geribildirimlerin eşit derecede değerli olduğunu, tümünden
mutlaka bir şey öğrendiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. Çalışmada kullanılan yöntemle
yapılan sınıf içi gözlemler, dikkatli bir şekilde ele alınır, iyi yapılandırılır ve en
önemlisi potansiyel faydaları öğretmenlere doğru bir şekilde aktarılabilirse, tüm
öğretmen eğitimi programlarında yerini alabilir ve öğretmenlerin kendine güvenini
arttırma ve öğretmenlik becerilerini geliştirmede çok önemli bir rol oynayabilir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Sınıf içi gözlemler, geribildirim, öğretmen gelişimi
Teachers’ and Students’ Perceptions of Effective
Physics Teacher Characteristics
Fikret Korur*
Ali Eryılmaz**
Suggested Citation:
Korur, F., & Eryılmaz, A. (2012). Teachers’ and students’ perceptions of effective
physics teacher characteristics. Eğitim Araştırmaları-Eurasian Journal of
Educational Research, 46, 101-120.
Abstract
Problem Statement: What do teachers and students in Turkey perceive as
the common characteristics of effective physics teachers?
Purpose of Study: The first aim was to investigate the common
characteristics of effective physics teachers by asking students and
teachers about the effects of teacher characteristics on student physics
achievement and motivation. The second aim was to explore whether the
effects of these characteristics were significantly associated with the
geographical region, grade level, and gender of students, as well as with
the region, gender, and year of teaching of teachers.
Methods: The data were gathered via a questionnaire that was
administered to 2,177 high school students and 214 physics teachers in 9
cities from 3 geographical regions in Turkey. A mean score table was
prepared, to compare effective physics teacher characteristics. Factor
analysis was used to categorize these characteristics. After conducting
missing data analysis and identifying descriptive statistics, MANOVA was
used to test the null hypothesis.
Findings and Results: Teachers perceived teacher characteristics as having a
greater effect on student motivation and achievement than did students.
The eight main categories of effective physics teacher characteristics each
had a strong effect on student motivation and achievement. These
characteristics affected student achievement more than student
motivation, according to teachers. Female students declared more than
male students that physics teacher characteristics affected their motivation
and achievement. Mediterranean-region students declared more than
students from other regions that these characteristics significantly affected
Corresponding Author: Asst. Prof. Dr., Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Faculty of Education,
Burdur, TURKEY, [email protected]
*
Asst. Prof. Dr., Middle East Technical University Faculty of Education, Ankara, TURKEY,
[email protected]
**
101
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Fikret Korur & Ali Eryılmaz
their motivation and achievement. Eleventh grade students declared more
than tenth and ninth grade students that these characteristics affected their
motivation and achievement.
Conclusions and Recommendations: The findings suggested that both
students and teachers perceived physics teacher characteristics as affecting
student achievement and motivation. The category that included the most
effective characteristics was ‘Pedagogical and Subject Matter Knowledge’.
Physics teachers should be aware of their characteristics, and the
characteristics of teachers should be taken into account in the process of
selecting and assigning teachers.
Keywords: Effective teacher characteristics, teachers’ perceptions, students’
perceptions, physics teacher characteristics, student achievement, student
motivation.
Effective teacher characteristics, including teacher actions and behaviors from the
beginning till the end of a lesson, are paramount in terms of student learning. If
teachers give suitable feedback to students and students share their ideas in
classroom discussions, then student achievement, as well as motivation, will increase
(Gylnn & Koballa, 2006). Teacher effectiveness is usually considered to be related to
student learning outcomes, including student motivation and achievement (Fives,
2003). Effective teaching should involve “reflection on oneself, on classroom practice,
on the students and their learning” (Opdenakker & Damme, 2006, p.15). The issues
most related to effective teaching are the personal effectiveness of teachers and
teachers’ pre-service and in-service professional development activities (Haussler &
Hoffmann, 2000).
Wayne and Youngs (2003) conducted a review study of 21 studies including
meta-analyses and individual studies and declared that student learning depends on
such teacher characteristics as testing skill, subject knowledge, and positive
relationships with students. Survey studies designed by Duruhan, Akdağ and
Güven (1990), and Ergün and Duman (1998) both implied that ‘contacting students to
understand the reasons for failure’, ‘ensuring active participation in class’ and
‘having a friendly attitude and demeanors’ were perceived by students as effective
teacher characteristics.
Student perceptions of teacher characteristics were analyzed by Korur (2001) and
the teachers’ perceptions were analyzed by Korur (2008). These studies yielded
insight into the physics teacher characteristics that affect student achievement,
motivation, and attitude. Such characteristics within the categories as pedagogical
knowledge, preparation for lessons, and personal characteristics had an effect on
student motivation. The teacher characteristics that affected student motivation in
physics classes also affected their achievement (Korur, 2001; 2008).
Lederman, Ges-Newsome, and Latz (1994) stated that pedagogical knowledge is
considered work toward the assessment of student understanding, whereas subject
matter knowledge involves having the flexibility to present content in different
103
manners. Eryılmaz and İlaslan (1999) stated that physics teachers’ characteristics are
noteworthy and that pre-service physics teachers should be informed of the
characteristics of effective teachers. Furthermore, subject matter knowledge and
pedagogical knowledge were also considered effective physics teacher characteristics
by Sperandeo-Mineo, Fazio and Tarantino (2006).
Brekelmans, Wubbels, and Creton (1990) implied a strong relationship between
interactional behavior and student outcome in physics. Witcher et al. (2003) carried
out a similar study to examine pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the characteristics
of effective college teachers. The results indicated that college students did not
perceive teachers’ personal characteristics, classroom management behaviors, and
instructional techniques as relevant to characteristics of effective college teachers
(Witcher et al., 2003). However, these findings differed from those of Wubbels,
Tartwijk and Brekelmans (1995), who declared that teachers’ classroom management
behaviors and attitudes toward discipline are important characteristics to student
learning. Witcher et al. (2003) showed that application of student-centered methods
in the class, possession of subject matter knowledge, enthusiasm for teaching, and
fair-mindedness and respectfulness were perceived by college students as
characteristics of effective teachers. In addition, Alkhayyatt (2000) indicated that
preparedness for lessons, use of examples, and use of experiments are the teacher
characteristics that most greatly influence student motivation to learn.
Students should learn how to construct scientific knowledge in physics courses,
and teachers should promote student learning through a variety activities, such as
experiments (Aiello-Nicosia & Sperandeo-Mineo, 2000; Sperandeo-Mineo et al.,
2006). Taylor and Dana (2003) found that students’ scientific understanding was
related to both teachers’ use of meaningful learning activities, such as laboratory
work, and teachers’ subject matter knowledge. Kelly and Staver (2005) emphasized
science teachers’ professional development activities and classroom methods as the
characteristics having the most affect on student self-conceptualization and
motivation. Student motivation in physical science lessons has also been shown to be
related to student achievement and learning outcomes (Tuan, Chin & Tsai, 2003).
In regard to effective teacher characteristics, neither effective physics teachers’
characteristics nor the effects of physics teachers’ characteristics on student
motivation and achievement have been analyzed in the literature. This study
attempted to reveal students’ and teachers’ shared perceptions of effective physics
teacher characteristics by surveying a large number of students and teachers to
define a better tendency about effective characteristics. The research questions were
as follows;
1.
What do students and physics teachers perceive as the teacher
characteristics that most affect student achievement and motivation?
2.
Which teacher characteristics do physics teachers and students both
perceive as affecting student achievement and motivation the most?
3.
Are there mean differences in students’ scores of the physics teachers’
characteristics affecting students’ motivation (SMOT) and students’ scores
104
of physics teachers’ characteristics affecting students’ achievement (SACH),
with regard to geographical region and to student gender and grade level?
4.
Are there mean differences in teachers’ scores of physics teachers’
characteristics affecting students’ motivation (TMOT) and teachers’ scores of
physics teachers’ characteristics affecting students’ achievement (TACH),
with regard to geographical region and to teacher gender and year of
teaching?
Method
Population and Sample
The population accessible to this study included 337 public high schools from 39
cities in 3 regions, the Black Sea, Mediterranean, and Central Anatolia – 250,000
students and 1,500 high school physics teachers in all. Public schools from 9 cities in 3
regions were chosen via simple random sampling method. Data was collected from a
total of 2,177 students from 25 schools; the percentage of those who returned the
questionnaire was 90%. 1,100 (50.5%) of the ninth to eleventh graders surveyed were
female and 1,077 (49.5%) male. Data was collected from 214 teachers from 71 public
schools, 25 of which were the same schools selected for students, and the response
rate was 75%. The gender distribution of teachers was 76 (36%) female and 138 (64%)
male.
Of the 214 physics teachers, 137 (64%) had graduated from educational faculties,
and 147 (67%) had more than 10 years teaching experience. Of the 2,177 students, 888
(41%) were in ninth grade, 831 (38%) were in tenth grade, and 458 (21%) were in
eleventh grade. 965 (44%) students and 114 (53%) teachers were from the Central
Anatolia region; 606 (28%) students and 53 (24%) teachers were from the
Mediterranean; and 606 (28%) students and 47 (21%) teachers were from the Black
Sea region.
Data Collection Instrument
The data collection instrument used in this study was ‘The Effects of Teachers’
Characteristics on High School Students’ Physics Achievement and Motivation
Questionnaire’ (ETAM), adapted from Korur (2008). The ETAM includes a twodimensional, five-point Likert-type scale. The first dimension corresponded to the
SMOT and TMOT. The second was related to the SACH and TACH. On the fivepoint Likert-type scale, 1 corresponded to ‘decreased the most’, 2 to ‘decreased’, 3 to
‘no effect’, 4 to ‘increased’, and 5 to ‘increased the most’. Therefore, the maximum
score for the SMOT, SACH, TMOT and TACH was 710. Higher scores showed that a
higher number of students/physics teachers perceived a given characteristic of
physics teachers as affecting student motivation and achievement to a greater degree.
Validity and Reliability
The ETAM consisted of 142 items and 20 demographic questions for students and
the same 142 items and 6 demographic questions for teachers. A pilot study was
carried out with 50 high school students, 3 high school physics teachers, and 2
graduate students, to gather their opinions and views on the format of the
105
questionnaire and the grammatical clarity of its items. Their feedback supported the
face validity of the questionnaire. Reliability analysis of the ETAM showed that some
of the items’ corrected correlations were negative and that those items had opposing
tendencies. Therefore, for the data, 33 items were recoded as 1 for 5, 2 for 4, 3 for 3, 4
for 2, and 5 for 1. The results of the reliability analysis indicated that =.9541 for
motivation and .9517 for achievement.
Survey research has identified four possible threats to internal validity. Mortality
threat was evaulated by conducting missing data analysis. Location and
instrumentation threat was guarded against by calling principals and physics
teachers of the schools by phone systematically. Furthermore, students and teachers
filled out questionnaires using the same detailed questionnaire application guide.
Instrument decay had the least effect in this study, since data were gathered via a
questionnaire, rather than through interviews. Confidentiality threat was also
avoided by not asking teachers’ and students’ to give their names on their
questionnaires. In addition, since the sample was randomly selected from the
accessible population, population generalizability was high. In terms of ecological
generalizability, surveying took place in ordinary classrooms in public high schools.
Procedures and Analysis of Data
A detailed literature search was conducted, and a questionnaire booklet and
answer sheets were prepared. Permission to administer the questionnaire was
obtained from the Ministry of National Education. Teachers’ data were entered by
hand and students’ data were entered by scanning optic forms directly to computers.
Statistical analysis was done using SPSS and MS-Excel.
After conducting missing data analysis, descriptive statistics for appropriate
variables were initialized, and mean score tables were prepared. Factor analysis was
also used to categorize the characteristics. MANOVA was used to identify the
answers to the fourth and fifth research questions. For students, geographical region,
gender, and grade level, and for teachers, geographical region, gender, and year of
teaching, were set as independent variables. The dependent variables were the
SMOT, SACH, TMOT, and TACH.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Students’ perceptions of effective physics teacher characteristics. Descriptive statistics
for the ETAM, related frequencies, and respective percentages, in terms of the SMOT
and SACH, are categorized and presented in Table 1. As Table 1 indicates, the mean
scores for the SMOT and SACH were approximately equal, which means that
student motivation and achievement were almost equally affected by teacher
characteristics. The skewness and kurtosis for the SMOT and SACH were within
acceptable ranges for a normal distribution.
106
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for the SMOT and SACH.
DV
IV
Gender
SMOT
Region
Grade
level
Gender
SACH
Region
Grade
level
No
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
3
Students’
No
1077
1100
965
606
606
888
831
458
1077
1100
965
606
606
888
831
458
Mean
S.D
Skewness
Kurtosis
497.7
516.1
504.4
523.3
494.8
505.1
505.1
514.1
499.0
516.9
503.6
526.9
496.1
508.7
504.9
512.3
49.95
52.80
49.78
53.54
50.67
52.35
50.52
54.45
47.97
50.46
48.05
49.83
48.08
50.38
48.51
51.81
-0.328
0.017
0.256
0.029
0.145
0.022
0.209
0.369
0.357
0.017
0.286
0.104
0.068
0.034
0.205
0.415
0.092
-0.247
-0.099
-0.302
-0.115
-0.346
-0.200
-0.065
0.049
-0.255
-0.180
-0.434
-0.094
-0.338
-0.285
0.008
N= 2177
(Gender 1:Male, 2:Female; Geographical region 1:Central Anatolia,
2:Mediterranean, 3:Black Sea; Grade level 1:9th grade, 2:10th grade, 3:11th grade)
The 2,177 students were classified according to tendency in the scales from 1 to 5.
As shown in Table 1, female students’ mean scores were higher than male students’
mean scores for both the SMOT and the SACH. However, the ‘general’ mean scores
in Table 1 merely indicated the number of students who tended to choose items.
Therefore, it was necessary to calculate students’ mean scores of each item for
motivation and achievement respectively, since it was crucial to identify the teacher
characteristics that most affected these variables. For this purpose, scales 1 to 5 were
recoded as 3 for ‘0’, 2 and 4 for ‘1’ and 1 and 5 for ‘2’. Item mean scores above ‘1’ for
the SMOT and the SACH were listed in descending order. Characteristics above the
item mean score 1 were noted as those that most affected student motivation and
achievement.
Analysis of the item means indicated that students perceived the characteristics
of physics teachers that most affected student motivation as being slightly different
from those that most affected student achievement. The item means for the SMOT
and the SACH were analyzed together, and 6 of the first 10 items were matched. The
most important teacher characteristics as perceived by students have been
summarized in Table 2.
107
Table 2
The Most Effective Characteristics for the SMOT and SACH
Characteristics for the SMOT
Characteristics for the SACH
1. Being interested in some students more than the whole class.
2. Lecturing reluctantly.
3. Answering students’ physics-related questions easily.
4. Coming to lessons prepared.
5. Possessing necessary knowledge of the subject matter.
6. Preparing a suitable medium for learning in class.
7. Having a friendly attitude to
students.
7. Giving lectures with appropriate details.
8.Using language
students.
8.Taking
student
questions
into
consideration and repeating subject matter.
offensive
9.Considering
his/her
personal problems.
10. Being honest with students.
to
own
9.Solving problems in lessons that are
similar to university entrance examination
questions.
10.Offering courses in addition to normal
class hours.
Table 2 reveals that characteristics like ‘considering his/her own personal
problems’ had a greater effect on student motivation than on student achievement.
Likewise, ‘giving lectures with appropriate details’ affected student achievement but
not motivation.
Physics teachers’ perceptions of effective physics teacher characteristics. Teachers’
answers to the ETAM were used to identify descriptive statistics for physics teachers’
perceptions of effective teacher characteristics, in terms of two main scores – the
TMOT and the TACH. Descriptive statistics for various parts of the ETAM are
presented in Table 3.
108
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics for the TMOT and TACH.
DV
IV
Gender
Region
TMOT
Year of
Teaching
Gender
Region
TACH
Year of
Teaching
Skewnes
Kurtosis
s
No
Teachers’ No
Mean
S.D
1
138
565.1
35.40
-0.249
1.639
2
76
574.3
29.70
0.534
0.478
1
114
565.2
39.06
0.009
1.191
2
53
574.2
25.22
0.309
-0.103
3
47
569.4
26.98
-0.394
0.883
2
26
567.0
37.69
-0.135
-0.544
3
141
568.7
33.29
-0.204
2.829
4
46
568.5
33.68
0.141
-0.310
5
1
556.0
1
138
555.0
37.61
0.165
0.799
2
76
557.1
35.40
0.348
0.516
1
114
554.2
40.23
0.346
0.711
2
53
560.2
33.77
0.092
0.166
3
47
554.5
31.08
-0.147
0.765
2
26
552.8
36.08
0.039
-0.686
3
141
553.9
36.34
0.308
1.44
4
46
562.8
38.77
-0.002
-0.288
5
1
556.0
N=214
(Gender 1:Male, 2:Female; Region 1:Central Anatolia, 2:Mediterranean, 3:Black
Sea; Year of teaching 1:0-5 years, 2:6-10 years; 3:11-20 years, 4:21-30 years, 5:31 years
and above)
The mean scores for the TMOT and the TACH showed that teachers perceived
the characteristics of effective physics teachers as affecting student motivation much
more than student achievement. The standard deviation values altogether showed
that most teachers provided almost the same scores. The skewness and kurtosis of
the TMOT and the TACH could be seen as indications that the distribution was
approximately normal. When the SMOT and the SACH scores in Table 1 were
compared with the corresponding mean scores of the TMOT and the TACH in Table
3, it was clear that teachers’ mean scores were higher than students’ mean scores.
109
The mean scores for teachers’ perceptions, in Table 3, indicated teachers’ general
tendencies. To identify the items that most affected student motivation and
achievement, the scale was recoded, as it was for student data. All of the item mean
scores for the TMOT and the TACH that were above ‘1’ were listed in descending
order. Scores for the TMOT and the TACH were analyzed together, and 5 of the first
10 items were matched. Teachers’ perceptions of the most effective physics teacher
characteristics have been summarized in Table 4.
Table 4
The Most Effective Characteristics for the TMOT and TACH
Characteristics for the TMOT
Characteristics for the TACH
1. Answering students’ physics-related questions easily.
2. Lecturing reluctantly.
3. Making physics lessons interesting by giving examples from daily life.
4. Using language offensive to students.
5. Getting angry with students’ faults and shouting at or hitting students who
are disrupting the classroom atmosphere.
6.Knowing all students and calling
them by their names.
6. Possessing necessary knowledge of
the subject matter.
7. Humiliating students in front of their
friends with the aim of punishing.
7. Giving lectures with appropriate
details.
8.Giving low grades to instill discipline.
8. Possessing the mathematics and
geometry background necessary for
physics.
9. Being efficiently motivating.
9. Coming to lessons prepared.
10. Being hard-hearted, intolerant and
tedious.
10.Making use of physics laboratories
in lessons.
Table 4 indicates that teachers perceived characteristics like ‘answering students’
physics-related questions easily’ as most affecting student motivation and
achievement. Moreover, characteristics related to transferring subject matter
knowledge to students by making use of laboratories and giving lectures with
appropriate details were perceived by teachers as affecting student achievement
more than student motivation.
Teachers’ and students’ shared perceptions of effective physics teacher characteristics. The
mean scores of each item for the TMOT and TACH in this study and the
corresponding mean scores of the SMOT and SACH were analyzed together, to
identify common effective physics teacher characteristics. First, the item mean scores
for both the TMOT and TACH, and the SMOT and SACH were listed. Second, scores
110
for items related to motivation and achievement were added separately, and the final
score for each item was calculated. The cut-off point for the final scores was
specified as 2.20. A total score of 2.00 (1 for student mean and 1 for teacher mean)
indicated that teachers and students perceived a particular item as having an effect,
albeit a weak one, on student motivation or achievement. However, this study aimed
to find out which characteristics most affected student motivation and achievement.
In the matched list, 57 items were above the total mean score of 2.20 for the SMOT
and TMOT and 46 for the SACH and TACH. Therefore, the final scores for individual
items were listed in descending order for both the SMOT-TMOT and the SACHTACH. Then, items were matched from both parts and their mean scores added. The
combined 38 items and their respective mean scores are given in Appendix A. The
rest of the items, which fell below a final mean score of 2.20, were eliminated.
Factor analysis of the 38 items was carried out using principal component
analysis as an extraction method and varimax with Kaiser Normalization as a
rotation method. There were 8 factors with eigen values of 1.0 or higher extracted by
the SPSS program. These factors accounted for, totally, 54.958 % of the variance.
Therefore, 8 categories were related to the 38 effective teacher characteristics. In
Table 5, the names of the all categories, with respect to item numbers in the
descending order of factor loadings, are given.
Table 5
Categories and Corresponding Items
No.
Teacher Characteristics
Number
Category
of Item
1
Possession and Transference
Matter Knowledge
2
Subject
Item Number
5
1, 2, 4, 9, 18
Knowledge of Profession and Teaching
Techniques
6
40, 41, 47, 51, 87, 141
3
Use of Technology in the Classroom
3
67, 70, 71
4
Enthusiasm for Teaching
5
20, 23, 25, 36, 50
5
Activities for Meaningful Learning
6
22, 34, 60, 61, 63, 72
6
Classroom Management
4
31, 37, 39, 130
7
Personal Characteristics
3
7, 78, 131
8
Attitude Toward
Classroom
6
98, 100, 101, 102, 104,
108
Discipline
in
the
Researchers derived the name of the categories in Table 5 by considering related
literature, the characteristics underlying the categories, and expert views. Effective
physics teacher characteristics mostly fell into the categories entitled to ‘knowledge
of profession and teaching techniques’, ‘activities for meaningful learning’, and
‘attitude toward discipline in the classroom’.
111
Inferential Statistics
The assumptions of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) are normality,
linearity of dependent variables, multicollinearity and singularity, equality of
variances, and independency of observations. The variables were tested for these
assumptions, and all of the assumptions were met. MANOVA was conducted to
answer the third research question. Significant differences were found according to
geographical region, student gender, and grade level with respect to the dependent
measures of the SMOT and the SACH. For region, F(4,2177)=.938, p=.000; for gender,
F(2,2177)=.972, p=.000; and for grade level, F(4,2177)=.984, p=.000. Analysis of
variance (ANOVA) on each dependent variable was conducted as a follow-up to
MANOVA. In Table 6, the follow-up results for the third research question are given.
Table 6
ANOVA Results for the Third Research Question
Source
Region
Gender
Grade Level
Dependen
t Variable
Type III Sum
of Squares
D
f
Mean Square
F
Sig.
SMOT
255987.287
2
127993.644
50.896
.000
SACH
321644.637
2
160822.319
70.716
.000
SMOT
187719.914
1
187719.914
74.646
.000
SACH
173570.874
1
173570.874
76.321
.000
SMOT
33329.571
2
16664.785
6.627
.001
SACH
14723.016
2
7361.508
3.237
.039
ANOVA indicated significant differences in the SMOT and SACH scores, in
terms of all independent variables (geographical region, gender, and grade level).
Tukey results for students region are given in Table 7.
112
Table 7
Tukey Test Results by Students Region
Dependent
Variable
SMOT
Region (I)
Region (J)
Central
Anatolia
Mediterran
ean
-18.9000*
2.5992
.000
Black Sea
9.5538*
2.5992
.001
Central
Anatolia
18.9000*
2.5992
.000
Black Sea
28.4538*
2.8809
.000
Mediterran
ean
-23.3611*
2.4717
.000
Black Sea
7.4673*
2.4717
.007
Central
Anatolia
23.3611*
2.4717
.000
Black Sea
30.8284*
2.7396
.000
Mediterranean
Central
Anatolia
SACH
Mediterranean
Mean Difference Std.Error
(I-J)
Sig.
There were significant mean differences, p=.000, among all regions for both the
SMOT and the SACH. According to these findings, Mediterranean students were
more likely than Black Sea and Central Anatolia students to declare that physics
teachers’ characteristics affected their motivation and achievement. Students from
the Central Anatolia were more likely than students from the Black Sea to report that
these characteristics affected their motivation and achievement. Tukey results by
student grade level are given in Table 8.
Table 8
Tukey Test Results by Student Grade Level
Dependent
Variable
SMOT
Grd.Level (I)
Grd.Level
(J)
Mean
Difference (I-J)
Std.Err
or
Sig.
9th
10th
1.000
10th
9th
SACH
10th
-3.3085E-02
2.4204
11th
-8.9714*
2.8849
.005
9th
3.308E-02
2.4204
1.000
11th
-8.9383*
2.9184
.006
10th
3.7843
2.3017
.227
11th
-3.6373
2.7435
.381
9th
-3.7843
2.3017
.227
11th
-7.4216*
2.7753
.020
113
There were no statistically significant mean differences, at the level of p=.05,
between the ninth and tenth grades for the SMOT and the SACH. In terms of the
SMOT, there were significant mean differences between the ninth and eleventh
grades, p=.005, and the tenth and eleventh grades, p=.006. Eleventh grade students
declared more often than ninth and tenth grade students that physics teachers’
characteristics affected their motivation. There were also no significant mean
differences between ninth and eleventh grade students, with regard to the SACH, but
there were significant mean differences between the tenth and eleventh grades,
p=.020. In other words, eleventh grade students, more than tenth grade students,
thought that teacher characteristics affected their achievement.
MANOVA was also conducted to answer the fourth question of whether
teachers’ geographical regions, gender, and year of teaching had significant effects on
the TMOT and the TACH. For region, F(4,214)=.967, p=.158; for gender,
F(2,214)=.994, p=.569; and for year of teaching, F(2,214)=.977, p=.597. According to
these values, there were no statistically significant main effect for at least one
dependent variable according to geographical region, teacher gender, and year of
teaching. Hence, dependent variables, the TMOT or the TACH, were not explained
by the main and interaction effects of the independent variables. When the
estimation of effect sizes were considered, the partial eta-squared values of teacher
gender, year of teaching and geographical region for each dependent variables were
nearly zero. In other words, the results were neither statistically nor practically
significant for these independent variables.
Some categories of teacher characteristics have been found to affect student
achievement and motivation (Lederman et al., 1994; Witcher et al., 2003; Wubbels et
al., 1995). The six categories identified in this study from teachers’ and students’
shared perceptions supported the findings of the literature. Moreover, this study
found new categories of physics teacher characteristics, like ‘using technology in the
classroom’ and ‘activities for meaningful learning’, that were also effective.
Opdenakker and Damme (2006) and Fives (2003) concluded that ‘teaching
techniques’ and ‘classroom management skills’ support student learning. Studies of
teacher characteristics have suggested similar results in Turkey (Duruhan et al. 1990;
Ergün & Duman, 1998). Drawing on teachers’ and students’ shared perceptions, this
study showed that there are six additional categories of physics teacher
characteristics that affect student motivation and achievement.
Aiello-Nicosia and Sperandeo-Mineo (2000) stated that students perceived the
ability to properly plan lessons and knowledge of subject matter as effective teacher
characteristics. Least important were teacher gender and grooming. The descriptive
statistics generated by this study similarly suggested that students and teachers
perceived physics teachers’ gender, physical appearance, and age as having the least
114
effect on student motivation and achievement. Teachers’ perceptions of the effects of
teacher characteristics, on the other hand, showed that pedagogical knowledge,
subject matter knowledge, and classroom management techniques affected student
motivation and achievement (Duruhan et al., 1990; Eryılmaz & İlaslan, 1999; Wayne
& Youngs, 2003). However, in the study of Witcher et al. (2003), the college students
did not perceive personal characteristics and classroom management techniques as
effective teacher characteristics. In this study, both students and teachers identified
teachers’ ‘Possession and Transference of Subject Matter Knowledge’ and
‘Enthusiasm for Teaching’ as the categories that most affected student motivation
and achievement.
Alkhayyatt (2000) showed that teacher characteristics like ‘enthusiasm’,
‘organizing valuable activities’, ‘answering students’ questions’, ‘subject matter
knowledge’, ‘preparation for lessons’, ‘use of examples’, and ‘use of experiments’
had the greatest influence on student motivation to learn. The present study revealed
a greater number of characteristics than those considered by Alkhayyatt (2000). 38
physics teacher characteristics were perceived by teachers and students as affecting
student motivation and achievement. Both teachers and students concluded that
physics teachers who possessed most of these characteristics had a strong effect on
student motivation and achievement in physics lessons. Moreover, the characteristics
that were derived from students’ and teachers’ shared perceptions have been better
defined by this study than other, similar characteristics were in previous studies.
‘Lecturing reluctantly’, ‘using language offensive to students’, ‘being interested in
some students more than the whole class’, ‘answering students’ physics-related
questions easily’, and ‘coming to lessons prepared’ strongly affected both student
motivation and achievement in physics. The first, second, and third characteristics
had negative effects. Teachers and students indicated that teachers who came to
lessons prepared, had enough subject matter knowledge, and could transfer this
knowledge enthusiastically were able to motivate their students and increase their
achievement. Knowledge transfer is most effectively achieved by providing
meaningful learning activities and by answering students’ physics-related questions.
On the other hand, teachers who did not pay attention to the words they used during
lessons, who did not teach by engaging whole class, and who taught reluctantly
inevitably decreased their students’ motivation and achievement. Moreover, teachers
perceived that physics teachers’ characteristics had a greater effect on student
motivation and achievement than did students. Teachers also perceived these
characteristics as affecting student achievement more than student motivation.
Geographical region, student gender, and grade level had statistically significant
combined effects on both dependent variables, the SMOT and the SACH. Female
students, more than male students, perceived that physics teacher characteristics
affected their motivation and achievement. Significantly, students from the
Mediterranean region perceived the most, while students from the Black Sea region
perceived the least, that physics teacher characteristics affected their motivation and
achievement. Physics teachers’ characteristics affected eleventh grade students more
than they did tenth and ninth grade students for the SMOT and the SACH.
115
Geographical region, teachers’ gender, and year of teaching did not have a
statistically significant combined effect on either of the dependent variables, the
TMOT or the TACH. With respect to the overall findings of this study, effective
physics teacher characteristics were crucial to ensuring that teachers transferred
knowledge and utilized optimal programs that were a mixture of instructional
methods and learning outcomes.
Teachers should try to exhibit effective physics teacher characteristics frequently
during lessons. During routine school inspections by the Ministry of National
Education, teachers should be observed and evaluated with these characteristics in
mind. When candidate teachers are to be placed in educational faculties, their
characteristics could be taken into consideration. A similar study could be done on
groups of high and low achievers in physics courses. A comparable study could be
undertaken of teachers in other disciplines.
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Öğretmen ve Öğrencilerin Fizik Öğretmeninin Etkili Niteliklerini Algıları
(Özet)
Problem Durumu
Öğretmen nitelikleri, literatürde genel olarak, öğretmenlerin sınıftaki davranışları
olarak incelenmiştir. Ayrıca bu çalışmalarda etkili öğretim açısından öğretmen
niteliklerinin önemi vurgulanmıştır. Fakat yapılan çalışmalar, fizik öğretmeninin
hem fizik dersinde hem de sınıf içi davranışlarındaki niteliklerini araştırmamıştır. Bu
çalışma kapsamında ulaşılan öğrenci ve öğretmen sayısı ve kullanılan anket
düşünüldüğünde ulaşılan sonuçlar bu alandaki boşluğun önemli bir kısmını
dolduracaktır. Öğrencinin fizik başarısına ve motivasyonuna en etkili fizik öğretmeni
nitelikleri, öğretmen ve öğrencilerin ortak algıları ile bu çalışma kapsamında
saptanmıştır. Öğretmen niteliklerinin etkilerini açıklamada bazı değişkenlerin
öğrencinin fizik başarısını ve motivasyonunu etkilemedeki rolü incelenmiştir.
Bu çalışmada, ilgili literatürde belirtilen önemli nitelikleri içeren bir anketle,
öğrencilerin ve öğretmenlerin ortak algıları ile en etkili fizik öğretmen niteliklerini
tespit etmek amaçlanmaktadır. Bu algılarından belirlenen fizik öğretmeninin etkili
nitelikleri ile öğrenci başarısı ve motivasyonu arasındaki ilişki araştırılmıştır. Bu
niteliklerin başarı ve motivasyonu etkilemede coğrafi bölge, öğrencinin sınıf seviyesi
ve cinsiyeti, öğretmenin hizmet süresi ve cinsiyeti gibi değişkenlerin hangi düzeyde
katkısı olduğu araştırılmıştır.
Çalışmada uygulanan ankette, öğrenciler için 20 soruluk, öğretmenler için 6 soruluk
‘Kişisel Bilgiler’ kısımları bulunmaktadır. Öğretmen ve öğrencilerden cevap
kâğıdında ‘Başarı’ ve ‘Motivasyon’ sütunlarında yer alan ve niteliğin hangi düzeyde
etkili olduğunu 5’li Likert tipi ölçekte 142 nitelik için ayrı ayrı işaretlemeleri
istenmiştir. Anket Türkiye’deki üç bölgedeki 9 ilde, devlet liselerinin 9., 10., ve 11.
sınıf seviyesinden 2177 devlet lisesi öğrencisine ve aynı bölge ve illerde 214 lise fizik
öğretmenine uygulanmıştır. Uygulamadaki birliktelik açısından, öğretmen ve
öğrenciler anketleri ‘Anket Uygulama Yönergesi’ doğrultusunda doldurmuşlardır.
Verilerin betimsel istatistikleri, faktör analizi ve çıkarımsal istatistikleri için MS-Excel
ve SPSS programları kullanılmıştır.
Betimsel istatistik bulguları öğrencilerin ve öğretmenlerin genel eğilimlerini
tespit etmede önemlidir. Ortalama puanlara göre, fizik öğretmeni nitelikleri
öğrencilerin başarısını ve motivasyonunu aynı oranda etkilemektedir. Fizik
öğretmen niteliklerinin öğrenci başarısını ve motivasyonunu, kız öğrenciler erkek
öğrencilerden daha fazla etkilediğini düşünmektedir.
Her bir nitelik için öğretmen ve öğrencilerin algıları ortalama puanlara
dönüştürülmüş ve puanı ‘1’in üzerinde olan nitelikler alınmıştır. Öğrencilerin
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algılarına göre, öğrencinin başarısını ve motivasyonunu öğretmenin farklı nitelikleri
etkilemektedir. Öğretmenlerin algıları, öğrencilerin algılarına göre, fizik öğretmen
niteliklerinin motivasyon ve başarıya daha etkili olduğu yönündedir. Öğrencilerin ve
öğretmenlerin ortak algılarına göre, öğrencilerin başarısını ve motivasyonunu en çok
etkileyen ilk 10 nitelikleri eşleştirildiğinde; ‘dersi içten gelmeyerek anlatması’,
‘öğrencilere kötü kelimeler kullanması’, ‘bazı öğrencilerle daha fazla ilgilenip, sınıfın
genelini düşünmemesi’, ‘öğrencilerin fizik konularıyla ilgili sorularına rahatlıkla
cevap vermesi’, ‘derse hazırlıklı gelmesi’ en etkili beş nitelik olarak bulunmuştur. Öte
yandan, ortak algılar incelendiğinde, öğretmenin cinsiyeti, sosyo ekonomik durumu,
yaşı en az etkili nitelikler olarak belirlenmiştir.
Öğrencilerin motivasyonunu ve başarısını etkileyen öğretmen nitelikleri madde
bazında öğretmenlerin ve öğrencilerin ortalama puanları toplanarak bir toplam
puana dönüştürülmüştür. Sonuç olarak; motivasyonu etkileyen 57 nitelik, başarıyı
etkileyen 46 nitelik ortaya çıkmış ve bunlar eşleştirilerek bir kesim noktası
belirlenmiş, bu puanın üzerinde toplam puana sahip 38 ortak fizik öğretmen niteliği
en etkili nitelikler olarak tespit edilmiştir. Bu ortak nitelikler üzerinden yapılan
faktör analizi sonucunda, nitelikler 8 faktörde toplanmıştır. Bu 8 faktörden öğretmen
niteliklerinin toplandığı kategoriler oluşturulmuştur. Kategoriler, içindeki nitelikler
gözönüne alınarak, literatürden desteklenerek, ve uzman görüşleri alınarak
isimlendirilmiştir. Bu kategorilerden en çok niteliğin toplandığı üç kategori ‘Meslek
Bilgisi ve Öğretim Yöntemleri’, ‘Anlamlı Öğrenme Aktiviteleri’, ve ‘Sınıf içi Disiplin
Tutumu’ dur.
Öğrencilerden elde edilen veriler kullanılarak, öğrencilerin motivasyonunu etkileyen
öğretmen nitelikleri puanı ve başarısını etkileyen öğretmen nitelikleri puanı iki
bağımlı değişken olarak atanmıştır. Bu bağımlı değişkenler ile coğrafi bölge,
F(4,2177)=0,938, p=0,000; öğrencinin sınıf seviyesi F(4,2177)=0,984, p=0,000; ve
cinsiyeti F(2,2177)=0,972, p=0,000 arasında anlamlı farklar bulunmuştur. Ortalama
farklarını tespit etmek amacıyla yapılan Tukey testi sonuçlarına göre; Akdeniz
Bölgesi’ndeki öğrenciler fizik öğretmen niteliklerini başarı üzerinde daha etkili
olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Daha sonra Karadeniz ve en son İç Anadolu Bölgesi’ndeki
öğrenciler olarak sıralanmaktadır. Sınıf seviyeleri açısından bakıldığında, 11. sınıf
seviyesindeki öğrencilerin 10. sınıftaki öğrencilere göre fizik öğretmen niteliklerinin
başarı üzerinde daha etkili olarak algıladıkları belirlenmiştir. 9. sınıflar ile 10. sınıflar
ve 9. sınıflar ile 11. sınıflardaki öğrencilerin ortalama puanları arasında anlamlı bir
fark bulunamamıştır.
Öğretmenlerden elde edilen veriler kullanılarak, başarıyı etkileyen ve motivasyonu
etkileyen fizik öğretmeni nitelikleri puanları bağımlı değişken olarak atanmıştır. Bu
değişkenler ile coğrafi bölge, öğretmenin cinsiyeti ve hizmet süresi değişkenleri
arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı farklar bulunmamıştır. Bağımsız değişkenlerin
kısmi eta-kare değerleri, her bir bağımlı değişken için sıfıra yakın olarak
bulunmuştur. Dolayısıyla sonuçlar bu bağımsız değişkenler için pratikte de anlamlı
değildir.
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Araştırmanın en önemli sonucu, öğretmenlerin ve öğrencilerin algılarına göre fizik
öğretmeni nitelikleri öğrencilerin başarı ve motivasyonunu etkilemede önemlidir.
Konu bilgisine hakim, derse hazır ve istekli bir fizik öğretmeni, bu niteliklerini
anlamlı öğrenme aktiviteleri ile birleştirip öğrenciye aktarabilirse öğrenciyi güdüler
ve başarısını artırabilir.
Öğretmen niteliklerinin toplandığı 8 kategoriden, en etkili niteliklerin toplandığı iki
kategori ‘Konu Bilgisine Sahip Olması ve Aktarması’ ve ‘Öğretimdeki İstekliliği’
dir. Buna göre; hem öğrenciler, hem de öğretmenler bu kategorilerdeki niteliklere
sahip fizik öğretmenlerinin, öğrenci başarısını ve motivasyonunu artıracağını
düşünmektedirler. Fizik öğretmenleri, öğrencilere göre, öğretmen niteliklerinin
öğrencinin başarı ve motivasyonunu etkilemede daha önemli olduğunu
düşünmektedir.
Öğrencilerde cinsiyet, bölge sınıf seviyesi gibi değişkenler, öğretmen niteliklerinin
etkisini açıklamada önemli olmuştur. Kız öğrenciler öğretmen niteliklerinin başarıya
etkisinin daha çok olduğunu düşünmektedir. Ayrıca 11. sınıf öğrencileri öğretmen
niteliklerinin başarıya etkisinin daha çok olduğunu düşünmektedirler. Akdeniz
bölgesindeki öğrenciler öğretmen niteliklerini oldukça büyük bir ortalama farkı ile
başarıya daha etkili olduğunu belirtmişlerdir.
Fizik öğretmenleri, öğrencilerin başarısını etkileyen nitelikler hakkında bilgi sahibi
olmalıdır. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı tarafından düzenli olarak yapılan öğretmen
değerlendirme ve teftiş süreçlerinde bu nitelikler göz önüne alınabilir. Bu çalışma,
aynı amaçla fizik dersinde başarıları yüksek ve düşük gruplardaki öğrenciler
üzerinde yapılabilir. Diğer branş öğretmenlerinin etkili nitelikleri üzerine benzer
çalışmalar yapılabilir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Etkili öğretmen nitelikleri, öğretmenlerin algıları, öğrencilerin
algıları, fizik öğretmen nitelikleri, öğrenci başarısı, öğrenci motivasyonu.
APPENDIX A
The matched mean scores from the perceptions of teachers and students
Motivation (Mean Scores)
No.*
001
002
004
007
009
018
020
TMOT
1.24
1.25
1.24
1.33
1.46
1.37
1.25
SMOT
1.25
1.17
1.07
1.22
1.34
1.29
1.10
Total
2.49
2.42
2.32
2.55
2.80
2.66
2.35
Achievement (Mean Scores)
TACH
1.35
1.32
1.40
1.27
1.37
1.51
1.23
SACH
1.27
1.30
1.16
1.12
1.39
1.37
1.15
Total
2.62
2.62
2.56
2.39
2.76
2.88
2.38
120
022
023
025
031
034
036
037
039
040
041
047
050
051
060
061
063
067
070
071
072
078
087
098
100
101
102
104
108
130
131
141
1.26
1.15
1.31
1.41
1.34
1.56
1.38
1.31
1.13
1.10
1.34
1.22
1.14
1.43
1.28
1.59
1.36
1.36
1.31
1.31
1.40
1.10
1.55
1.42
1.59
1.55
1.44
1.44
1.49
1.46
1.16
1.15
1.16
1.20
1.42
1.13
1.38
1.19
1.15
1.20
1.12
1.16
1.11
1.07
1.10
1.05
1.19
1.02
1.10
1.18
1.05
1.09
1.13
1.13
1.16
1.28
1.13
1.16
1.14
1.14
1.15
1.04
2.41
2.32
2.52
2.83
2.47
2.94
2.57
2.46
2.33
2.22
2.49
2.33
2.21
2.53
2.32
2.77
2.38
2.47
2.49
2.36
2.49
2.23
2.68
2.58
2.87
2.68
2.60
2.58
2.63
2.61
2.21
1.12
1.04
1.27
1.21
1.27
1.37
1.24
1.28
1.23
1.23
1.17
1.14
1.25
1.35
1.23
1.35
1.27
1.13
1.16
1.15
1.26
1.16
1.31
1.16
1.46
1.35
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.29
1.19
1.16
1.24
1.27
1.33
1.20
1.37
1.20
1.18
1.30
1.20
1.28
1.12
1.16
1.13
1.02
1.11
1.02
1.09
1.18
1.05
1.04
1.15
1.09
1.14
1.23
1.04
1.10
1.08
1.08
1.08
1.07
* Descending order with respect to the item numbers in the questionnaire
2.28
2.28
2.53
2.54
2.46
2.74
2.44
2.47
2.53
2.43
2.45
2.27
2.42
2.47
2.25
2.46
2.29
2.21
2.35
2.20
2.30
2.32
2.41
2.30
2.69
2.38
2.32
2.31
2.32
2.37
2.26
A Survey of Turkish Pre-Service Science Teachers’
Attitudes Toward the Environment
Sibel Özsoy*
Suggested Citation:
Ozsoy, S. (2012). A survey of Turkish pre-service science teachers’ attitudes toward
the environment. Egitim Arastirmaları-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research,
46, 121-140
Abstract
Problem Statement: Increasing global population and unrestrained
consumption of natural resources has resulted in increasing pollution,
poor air and water quality and the extinction of animal and plant species.
Today, environmental problems are experienced worldwide and
threatening the continuity of human life. For the sake of human beings,
environmental problems need to be solved in the near future. Solving
environmental problems is only possible with citizens who are
knowledgeable about environmental issues, aware of environmental
problems, and motivated to work to solve these problems. Environmental
education is the most effective way to educate children about these issues.
Teachers are the key actors who shape children’s interest in and attitudes
toward environmental issues. Thus, for environmental education
researchers, it is always worth studying in-service and pre-service
teachers’ environmental attitudes.
Purpose of the Study: The purpose of this study is to investigate Turkish
pre-service science teachers’ attitudes toward the environment. In
addition, it aims to investigate how pre-service science teachers’
environmental attitudes change with grade level and gender.
Method: A total of 2015 pre-service teachers enrolled at elementary school
science education departments at 13 different universities in Turkey
participated in the study. A 45-item Likert-type questionnaire consisting
of four dimensions, namely, awareness of environmental problems,
general attitudes toward solutions, awareness of individual responsibility,
and awareness of national environmental problems, was used to measure
pre-service teachers’ environmental attitudes. Descriptive statistics;
frequency distributions and percentages, and inferential statistics;
*
Ph.D., University of Aksaray, Faculty of Education, [email protected]
121
122
Sibel Özsoy
independent samples t-test and analysis of variance, were used to
determine pre-service teachers’ environmental attitudes.
Findings and Results: The results of the study showed that pre-service
science teachers have a high level of environmental attitudes (M = 149.67,
SD = 12.10). The results also revealed that there is a statistically significant
mean difference (t (2006) = 2.861, p = .004) between males and females in
favour of females with a small effect size (η2= .004). The results also
showed that there are no significant differences (F (3, 2011) = 2.466, p =
.061) between pre-service teachers enrolling to different grades with
respect to their environmental attitudes.
Conclusions and Recommendations: Overall, the results of the study
indicated that today’s pre-service science teachers have positive attitudes
toward the environment. Additionally, it was found that females have
more positive attitudes toward the environment than males. The gender
difference in favour of females may be due to the cultural roles of males
and females. In traditional views of gender roles, females are responsible
for looking after their children and males are usually responsible for
providing the economic wellbeing of the family. As a result of these
gender roles, males become more competitive and females become more
protective, and thus may show more positive attitudes toward the
environment. Based on these results, it is suggested that environmental
education provided through all steps of formal education take gender
differences into account.
Keywords: Environmental education, pre-service teachers, attitudes toward
the environment, gender difference, grade level difference
Introduction
Human beings are the only species responsible for the current global
environmental situation. The world’s environmental problems are mostly the
consequence of lifestyles in modern society (Gore, 1992; Orr, 1994). Humans are
causing global warming by releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere faster than
the Earth can absorb it, deforesting the Earth by cutting down trees faster than they
can grow, converting grasslands to deserts by overgrazing, causing the extinction of
plant and animal species by over-harvesting, depleting natural resources by overusing them, and by producing more and more waste, polluting the air, water, and
land. In addition, as the human population and its demands on the Earth’s resources
increase, Earth’s ability to absorb the negative consequences of human based
activities diminishes. By the 20th century, humans realized that the Earth has limits
and forcing these limits will impact the human population negatively. All these
environmental problems threaten the quality of human life and the future viability of
all species including humans. Such environmental problems urgently call for
solutions. To solve the problems, humans need to develop an understanding of the
123
actions that cause the deterioration of the environment. This can be possible with
education and environmental education is the only way to solve the environmental
problems that humans are facing (Orr, 1992). As the United Nations Educational
Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] (1977) reported “more than ever, we
need citizens with the awareness, knowledge and skills who are active in the
stewardship of the natural world” (p.1).
Over the course of the last fifty years, a growing number of environmental
education researchers have attempted to produce citizens “who are knowledgeable
concerning the biophysical environment and its associated problems, aware of how
to solve these problems and motivated to work towards the solution” (Stapp, 1969,
p.30). As a component of this effort, inculcating positive environmental attitudes in
children becomes an important task to accomplish. Efforts aimed at developing
positive attitudes toward the environment should start with pre-school education
(UNESCO, 1977) and continue through all levels of formal education. Throughout
the course of formal education, teachers play a vital role in shaping the attitudes of
children (Said, Ahmadun, Paim, & Masud, 2003). Adequate preparation of preservice teachers in teacher-training programmes is necessary to effectively
implement of environmental education in schools (Goldman, Yavetz & Pe’er, 2006).
Thus environmental education researchers have long been interested in pre-service
teachers’ knowledge about and attitudes toward the environment (Oerke & Bogner,
2010; Taylor, Doff, Jenkins & Kennelly, 2007). In the literature, environmental
attitude has been associated with various variables, such as gender, background,
religion, ethnicity, and grade level (Bögeholz, 2006; Bord & O'Connor, 1997; Engel &
Potschke, 1998; Ewert, Place, & Sibthorp, 2005; Hodgkinson, & Innes, 2001; Hughes &
Saunders, 2005). Among previous research studies focusing on environmental
attitudes, a respectable number of studies have analyzed the effects of gender upon
environmental attitudes. Some of these studies revealed that females have more
positive attitudes than males (Davidson & Freudenburg, 1996; Gardos & Dodd,
1995). On the other hand, some studies reported that males are more sensitive to
environment (Hes-Quimbita & Pavel, 1996), and some found that gender does not
cause a significant difference with respect to environmental attitudes (Eagles &
Demare, 1999). Grade level is reported as another important variable linked to
environmental attitudes. Researchers pointed out that grade level is positively
associated with environmental attitudes (Arcury 1990; Inglehart 1995). People with a
higher level of education tended to show more concern about environmental
problems and more respect to the environment, thus demonstrating more positive
attitudes toward environment than those with a lower level of education (Derksen &
Gartrell, 1993). However, there are also a significant number of studies reporting that
environmental attitudes either do not change (Şama, 2003) or even decrease with
increasing grade level (Wojtewicz, 1995). Although evidence about the influence of
gender and grade level has been reported in previous studies, inconsistencies in
these findings and as well as the availability of a huge amount of data regarding
Turkish pre-service science teachers, directed the researcher to investigate whether
gender and grade level affect Turkish pre-service teachers’ environmental attitudes.
With this respect the study focuses on the following research questions:
124
Sibel Özsoy
(1) What are pre-service science teachers’ attitudes toward the environment?
(2) Is there any difference between male and female pre-service science
teachers’ attitudes toward the environment?
(3) What is the role of grade level on pre-service teachers’ environmental
attitudes?
Method
Research Design
A survey was used in this study to collect data on the environmental attitudes of
pre-service science teachers. A survey is an appropriate research method for this line
of inquiry, as it is designed to be used to determine “the attitudes, opinions and
perceptions of persons of interest to the researcher” (Borg, Gall & Gall, 1993; p.21).
Sample
There are 102 state and 52 private universities, totaling 154, in Turkey and 45 of
them have an education faculty. Among the universities with education faculties, 39
of them have science education programmes. Based on the data obtained from the
Student Selection and Placement Centre, every year approximately 4000 students
enroll in the elementary school science education departments of education faculties.
There are approximately 16,000 pre-service teachers enrolling at such education
faculties. Participants of the study consisted of 2,015 pre-service teachers; 812 males
and 1,199 females, enrolled in the science education departments of 13 universities in
Turkey. There were 640 first year, 586 second year, 496 third year and 293 fourth year
students. This study covers approximately 12% of the total population of pre-service
science teachers.
Pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward the environment were measured by
administering the ‘Environmental Attitude Questionnaire’ (EAQ) developed by
Tuncer, Ertepınar, Tekkaya and Sungur (2005). The questionnaire includes 45 Likerttype questions, which make it easy to use, score, and code for statistical analysis. The
EAQ consists of four subscales: awareness of environmental problems (AEP), general
attitudes towards solutions (GAS), awareness of individual responsibility (AIR), and
awareness of national environmental problems (ANEP). The statements in the
questionnaire are designed to determine participants’ awareness of environmental
problems, their opinion on the effect of environmental problems on their future,
participants’ opinions on the solutions to environmental problems, their awareness
of individual responsibilities for the solutions and the relationships between
lifestyles and environmental problems, and their awareness of national
environmental problems (Tuncer et.al, 2005). Tuncer et al. reported the internal
consistency of item sets to be .58, .65, .77, and .55, respectively, using Cronbach’s
alpha. In the present study, internal consistency values for each subscale were
calculated as .79, .55, .79, and .58.
125
Participants’ responses to 45 Likert-type questions comprise the data set used for
analyses. For statements representing positive attitudes toward the environment five
points were assigned to ‘strongly agree’, four points to ‘agree’, three points to
‘undecided’, two points to ‘disagree’ and one point to ‘strongly disagree’. For
statements representing a negative attitude, the scores were reversed. For the
representation of the data the ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ responses, ‘disagree’ and
‘strongly disagree’ responses were combined to give the proportions of students who
affirmed the data.
Procedure
The study was conducted with pre-service science teachers enrolled at 13
different universities during the spring semester of 2009-2010 academic year. At the
beginning of the study, the researchers contacted academics in education
departments at these universities via e-mail and asked for cooperation to conduct the
study. Academics from 13 universities replied positively to the request. The
instrument was then sent to these universities along with guidelines explaining how
the questionnaire should be conducted. These guidelines, informed participants
about the purpose of the questionnaire and procedure for completing it. They were
instructed to think about each item and answer as it applies to them. After the
questionnaires were completed, academic staff from the 13 universities returned
them to the researcher.
Data Analysis
The data gathered were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) version 15.0. Descriptive statistics in the form of frequency
distributions and percentages were used to determine pre-service teachers’ answers
to demographic questions and distributions of responses for four subscales of the
EAQ. Inferential statistics were used to find out the relationships between the
independent variables of gender and grade level and the scores obtained from the
EAQ. The results of the analyses were reported to be significant at the p<.05
statistical significance level and medium effect size.
Results
The following results are based on statistical analyses of the data collected by the
EAQ. The findings are divided into two sections. The first section represents the
results of descriptive statistics, and the second section addresses the results of
inferential statistics.
Results of Descriptive Statistics
Research Question 1: What are pre-service science teachers’ attitudes toward the
environment? To answer the first research question regarding pre-service science
teachers’ attitudes toward the environment, descriptive statistics for each subscale of
the EAQ are reported (see Table1). The questionnaire includes 45 questions. Thus,
the minimum score that can be obtained from the EAQ is 45 and the maximum score
is 225. The scores obtained from the pre-service teachers’ responses had a minimum
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Sibel Özsoy
score of 83, and a maximum score of 202, with a mean of 149.67, and a standard
deviation of 12.10. Overall, the frequency distribution for the 45 items reveals a high
level of positive attitudes toward the environment.
Table 1.
Descriptive Statistics for four subscales of EAQ
N
Min.
Max.
M
SD
AEP
2015
17.00
54.00
35.08
4.51
GAS
2015
25.00
70.00
52.99
5.80
AIR
2015
21.00
65.00
48.73
5.70
ANEP
2015
8.00
27.00
18.40
2.52
Total
2015
83.00
202.00
149.67
12.10
General Awareness of Environmental Problems (AEP): The first subscale contains 12
questions in total. Thus, the minimum score that can be obtained from the subscale is
12 and the maximum score is 60. Scores below 36 can be considered to indicate low
awareness and scores higher than 36 can be considered to indicate high awareness of
environmental problems. Scores obtained from pre-service teachers range from 17 to
54 with a mean score of 35.08 and a standard deviation of 4.51. Based on these
results, it can be concluded that pre-service teachers have a moderately high
awareness of environmental problems. Frequency distributions also support
participants’ high level of awareness of environmental problems. The results show
that the majority of pre-service teachers (72.7%) believe that environmental pollution
is not a temporary problem. Additionally, 74.4% of pre-service teachers disagree with
the proposition that since the natural sources of energy can never be exhausted,
energy will never be scarce on Earth. Similarly 73.7% of them state that they do not
think that over the next ten years environmental problems will diminish. Participants
also disagree (85.6%) with the statement “mankind is very adaptive so there is no
need to be concerned about his survival in a polluted environment.” and the majority
of pre-service teachers (83.4%) think that humanity is abusing the environment. In
addition to these statistics, more than one fifth of pre-service teachers are unsure
about whether people are overloading the Earth’s natural ability to support life on
Earth. Table 2 provides a summary of the frequencies of responses to selected items
in this subscale.
127
Table 2.
Frequencies and percentages of responses to items in AEP
Disagree
Undecided
Agree
Items
f
P
f
P
f
P
a
1465
72.70
192
9.50
322
16.00
5- Industrialized societies give most
people who live in them a high
standard of living.
389
19.30
484
24.00
1030
51.10
6- Mankind is very adaptive so there
is no need to be concerned about his
survival in a polluted environment.
1726
85.60
93
4.60
166
8.20
9- We are overloading the Earth’s
natural ability to support life on earth.
587
29.10
526
26.10
421
20.90
28- Humanity
environment.
the
137
6.80
134
6.70
1681
83.40
37- The natural sources of energy,
such as sun, wind and water, can
never be exhausted, so energy will
never be scarce on earth.
1498
74.40
217
10.80
230
7.50
39- Over the
environmental
diminish.
1485
73.70
252
12.50
173
8.60
3- Environmental pollution
temporary problem.
is
abusing
next ten
problems
is
years
will
General Attitudes Toward Solutions (GAS): The results of descriptive statistics
reveal that the minimum score obtained from the scale is 15 and the maximum score
is 75 with a mean score of 52.99 and a standard deviation of 5.80. Since the mean
score obtained is higher than 45 it can be concluded that pre-service teachers have
positive attitudes toward solutions. Table 3 summarizes the frequencies and
percentages of pre-service science teachers’ responses to some GAS items. An
examination of the frequency distributions reveals that most of the participants
(72.5%) believe in the importance of changing our lifestyles to solve environmental
problems. Additionally, the majority of participants (79.1%) state that in dealing with
any kind of problem we need to first consider how it will affect the environment.
Furthermore, 80.9% believe that society should encourage the conservation of nature.
An examination of the frequency distributions also shows that nearly 20% of preservice science teachers are uncertain about favoring the protection of the
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Sibel Özsoy
environment over economic growth, the sustainable use of natural resources, and the
benefits and harmful effects of technology.
Table 3
Frequencies and percentages of responses to items in GAS
Disagree
Undecided
Agree
Items
f
P
f
P
f
P
7The
ultimate
solution
for
environmental problems depends on
drastic changes in our life-style.
325
16.20
163
8.10
1462
72.50
8 Protection of the environment is
more important than economic
growth.
353
17.60
365
18.10
579
28.70
21- Just as science and technology
monitor environmental problems,
they also solve them, so such issues
will not the points of concern in the
future.
1316
65.30
359
17.80
161
8.00
38- In dealing with any kind of
problem we need to first consider
how it will affect the environment.
182
9.00
188
9.30
1594
79.10
40- Society should encourage the
conservation of nature.
118
9.40
130
6.50
1729
80.90
43- The sustainable use of natural
resources means the continuous use of
them.
585
29
344
17.10
889
23.70
General Awareness of Individual Responsibility and Attitude Toward Changing
Lifestyles (AIR): The third subscale consists of 13 statements. Thus, the minimum
score that can be obtained from this subscale is 13 and the maximum score is 65. The
results show that pre-service teachers’ responses range from 21 to 65 with a mean
score of 48.73 and a standard deviation of 5.70. Since the calculated mean score is
more than 39, it can be concluded that pre-service teachers are aware of their
individual responsibilities and they have a positive attitude toward changing
lifestyles. Table 4 shows the responses given to selected items of the AIR section. The
majority of participants (88.9%) state that the hole in the ozone layer will never stop
growing if we continue to operate as we do now. Additionally, almost all of the preservice teachers (91.5%) agree that individual responsibilities are very important in
protecting the environment from pollution. However, a considerable number of the
129
participants’ responses show that they are not sure about the effects of spending long
periods of time in shopping centres and consumption patterns on natural resources,
and solving environmental problems.
Table 4.
Frequencies and percentages of responses to items in AIR
Disagree
Undecided
Agree
Items
f
P
f
P
f
P
14- We must conserve our
resources for future generations.
160
7.90
41
2.00
1775
88.10
19- If we do not change current
consumption
patterns,
land
degradation and topsoil losses will
increase to the point where they
can no longer support crops.
198
9.80
117
5.80
1632
81.00
24- Individual responsibilities are
very important in protecting the
environmental pollution
98
4.80
42
2.10
1843
91.50
25- The hole in the ozone layer will
never stop growing if we continue
to operate as we do now.
119
5.90
68
3.40
1791
88.90
31- Spending long times in
shopping centres is a type of life
style that has negative effects on
both consumption patterns and the
exploitation of natural resources.
440
21.80
458
22.70
924
45.80
41- Consumption patterns have
nothing to do with the exploitation
of natural resources.
1481
73.50
220
10.90
215
8.90
45- Everybody has a part in
environmental degradation but the
degree of responsibility changes
according
to
individual
consumption patterns.
154
7.70
112
5.60
1689
83.80
Awareness of National Environmental Problems (ANEP): The last subscale consists of
6 statements with a minimum score of 6 and a maximum score of 30. The scores
obtained from pre-service teachers’ responses range from 7 to 27 with a mean score
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Sibel Özsoy
of 18.40 and a standard deviation of 2.52. This means that pre-service teachers have a
moderately positive awareness of national environmental problems. Table 5
represents responses to selected items. Most of the pre-service teachers’ (88.7%) are
aware that there are many plant and animal species in our country that are at the
edge of extinction. Additionally, 79.5% of pre-service teachers think that the solution
to the environmental problems in Turkey is closely related to raising environmental
awareness. The majority (71.2%) of pre-service teachers disagree with, and 13.60%
are undecided about, the statement that “Turkey needs to be industrialized; therefore
environmental destruction due to industrialization can be disregarded”.
Table 5.
Frequencies and percentages of responses to items in ANEP
Disagree
Undecided
Agree
Items
f
P
f
P
f
P
20Turkey
needs
to
be
industrialized;
therefore
environmental destruction due to
industrialization
can
be
disregarded.
1434
71.20
275
13.60
123
6.10
23- There are many plant and
animal species in our country that
are at the edge of extinction.
139
6.80
88
4.40
1788
88.70
42The
solution
to
the
environmental problems in Turkey
is closely related to raising
environmental awareness.
227
11.30
187
9.30
1601
79.50
Inferential Statistics of the EAQ
Research Question 2: Is there any difference between male and female pre-service teachers’
attitudes toward the environment? To answer the second research question, of
determining whether pre-service teachers’ attitudes change with their gender,
inferential statistics were conducted. A discussion of the assumptions that underlie
parametric tests is necessary before introducing them. For parametric tests, it is
assumed that the populations from which the samples are taken are normally
distributed (Pallant, 2007). Skewness and kurtosis values are used for normality
assumptions. If the distribution is perfectly normal, a skewness and kurtosis value of
0 will be obtained. As with kurtosis, a skewness value ranging from -1 to +1 is
considered excellent and values between -2 and +2 are also acceptable. For the
present study, the normality analysis reveals that skewness value is -.135 and
kurtosis value is 1.774. These values demonstrate that the scores of the sample show
131
normal distribution. Another assumption of parametric tests is the homogeneity of
variances. Parametric tests assume that samples obtained from the population have
equal variances (Pallant, 2007). To test this assumption, SPSS performs Levene’s test
for equality of variances. Obtaining significance values higher than .05, suggests that
the variances of two groups are equal, and therefore the assumption is met. In other
situations, ANOVA is reasonably robust to violations of this assumption when the
size of treatment groups is reasonably similar. Additionally, t-tests provide two sets
of results, one for situations where the assumption is violated and one for when it is
not. Taking all these situations into consideration, it is appropriate to use parametric
tests. To test whether pre-service teachers’ attitudes change with gender,
independent samples t-test was conducted. The results of the analysis are
summarized in Table 6.
Table 6.
Results of t-test analysis run to test whether pre-service teachers’ attitude change with
gender
Variable
Gender
N
M
SD
t
p
Environmental Attitude
Females
1199
151.91
11.98
2.861
.00
Males
809
150.18
14.17
The results show that there is a significant mean difference between mean scores
of females (M = 151.91, SD = 11.98) and males (M = 150.18, SD = 14.17) on their
attitudes toward the environment (t (2006) = 2.861, p = .00) with a small effect size (η2=
.01). This means that although the mean difference is statistically significant in favour
of females, this difference is not practically significant.
Independent sample t-tests were also run for each subscale of the EAQ to
determine whether females and males differ from each other. The results reveal that
there is a significant difference between males and females for each subscale with
small effect sizes. Although this difference is in favour of females for GAS (t (2006) =
6.69, p = .00, η2= .02) and AIR (t (2006) = 7.55, p = .00, η2= .03), for the other subscales,
AEP (t (2006) = -2.71, p = .01, η2= .00) and ANEP (t (2006) = -3.89, p = .00, η2= .00), the
difference is in favour of males. The results of the analyses are summarized in
Table7.
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Sibel Özsoy
Table 7.
Results of t-test analyses of pre-service teachers’ attitudes by gender run for each subscale
of EAQ
Subscales
Gender
N
M
SD
Females
1199
34.86
4.38
Males
809
35.42
4.81
Females
1199
53.71
5.29
Males
809
51.96
6.36
Females
1199
49.52
5.26
Males
809
47.59
6.13
Females
1199
18.22
2.36
Males
809
18.67
2.72
AEP
GAS
AIR
ANEP
t
p
-2.71
.01
6.69
.00
7.55
.00
-3.89
.00
Research Question 3: What is the role of grade level on pre-service teachers’
environmental attitudes? To test whether there is a significant mean difference between
pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward the environment one-way ANOVA was run.
The ANOVA results reveal that there is no significant mean difference between preservice teachers enrolled in different grade levels with respect to their attitudes
toward the environment (F (3, 2011) = 2.46, p = .06)
ANOVA tests were also run for each subscale to determine whether pre-service
teachers from different grade levels differ from each other. The results reveal that
pre-service teachers enrolled in different grade levels differ from each other with
respect to their attitudes toward solutions (F (3, 2011) = 3.26, p = .02), as well as their
awareness of individual responsibility and attitudes toward changing lifestyles (F (3,
2011) = 2.66, p = .04). Despite reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in
mean scores between the groups was quite small. The effect size, calculated using eta
squared was .02 for GAS and .05 for AIR. Post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey
HSD test indicated that for GAS the mean score for 1st year students (M = 53.32, SD
= 5.77) is statistically different from 4th year students’ mean scores (M = 52.12, SD =
5.85) and 2nd year students’ mean scores (M = 53.20, SD = 5.72) are statistically
different from 4th years’ (M = 52.12, SD = 5.85). Furthermore, for AIR a significant
difference is found between first years’ mean scores (M = 48.96, SD = 5.57) and 4th
years’ mean scores (M = 47.90, SD = 5.98). Table 8 summarizes ANOVA results run
for each subscale of the EAQ.
133
Table 8.
ANOVA Results
N
M
SD
1
640
35.24
5.02
2
586
34.85
4.45
3
496
35.03
4.09
4
293
35.29
4.11
Total
2015
35.08
4.51
1
640
53.32
5.77
2
586
53.20
5.72
3
496
52.83
5.87
4
293
52.12
5.85
Total
2015
52.99
5.80
1
640
48.96
5.57
2
586
48.92
5.65
3
496
48.70
5.74
4
293
47.90
5.98
Total
2015
48.73
5.70
1
640
18.37
2.68
2
586
18.36
2.55
3
496
18.40
2.37
4
293
18.53
2.32
Total
2015
18.40
2.52
Subscales
Grade Level
AEP
GAS
AIR
ANEP
f
p
1.00
.38
3.26
.02
2.66
.04
.32
.81
134
Sibel Özsoy
Turkey is a rapidly developing country in which young people compose onethird of the total population. In developing countries, increased consumption and
population cause pressures on the environment. Considering this situation, it is very
important to educate the youth “who have the knowledge, skills, attitudes,
motivations, and commitment to work individually and collectively toward solutions
and the prevention of the new ones” (UNESCO, 1975, p.43). Schools are the places
where children receive environmental education and teachers have the potential to
influence the environmental attitudes of their students (Said et. al., 2003). To do so in
a positive manner, teachers should have positive attitudes toward the environment.
Thus, in-service and pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward the environment are
always worth studying. For this reason, the purpose of this study was to investigate
Turkish pre-service science teachers’ attitudes toward the environment and to
explore the effects of gender and grade level on their environmental attitudes.
There are some encouraging outcomes from this research. Descriptive statistics
reveal that pre-service science teachers have a high level of positive environmental
attitudes (M = 149.67, SD = 12.10). They also have a moderately positive awareness of
environmental problems (M = 35.08, SD = 4.51), positive attitudes toward solutions
(M = 52.99, SD = 5.80), high awareness of their individual responsibilities (M = 48.73,
SD = 5.70), and a moderately positive awareness of national environmental problems
(M = 18.40, SD = 2.52). As the frequencies imply, participants are aware that humans
affect and are also affected by the environment. Additionally, the results show that
the participants agree on the importance of individual responsibility and societal
support in protecting the environment. They believe that to solve environmental
problems it is necessary to make drastic changes in our lifestyles. On the other hand,
undecided responses to several statements indicate that participants seem to be
confused about how to change their lifestyles in order to promote more sustainable
use of natural resources. Furthermore, they are unaware of the relationships among
industrialization, scientific and technological developments, and the environment.
They are unsure about the effects of increasing population and consumption on
environmental pollution. It is likely that participants’ lack of knowledge about
sustainable development, renders them unable to draw such connections.
In addition to these findings, the frequencies for several items show that preservice teachers are not optimistic about the future, and they do not have faith that
environmental problems will be solved in the near future. Moreover, they think that
scientific and technological developments have the potential to cause environmental
problems, thus they are the points of concern in the future. However, they also agree
that environmental problems can be solved with increasing environmental
awareness. This promising result suggests that teachers will make an effort to train
their students as environmentally literate citizens.
Gender and grade level are the two independent variables considered in the
study. The results of the present study reveal that although the difference is
practically small, there are statistically significant differences between females and
males with respect to all subscales of the EAQ. A review of related literature
135
supports the gender difference. Concerning gender difference several research
studies show that, females have more positive attitudes toward and greater concern
with regard to environmental issues than males do (Bord & O’Connor, 1997; Eagles
& Demare, 1999; Tikka, Kuitunen, Tyns, 2000; Tuncer et al., 2005). In their studies,
Bord and O’Conner (1997) claim that if an environmental attitudes survey includes
statements that may trigger risk perceptions, females are more likely to get higher
scores than males. According to Bord and O’Conner, questions about radioactive and
chemical waste, environmental degradation and potential loss of animal and plant
species have a high potential to trigger risk perceptions. From this perspective, when
the items in the EAQ are examined, it can be concluded that some of the items may
trigger risk perceptions. This may be the cause of the gender difference obtained. In
addition, gender difference may be due to the traditional cultural roles inhabited by
females and males. Women are traditionally responsible for looking after their home
and taking care of their children (Gilligan, 1982). On the other hand males are more
adventurous, they tend to master nature, focus on hunting, and use natural resources
to provide food and meet the other requirements of their families. Based on these
gender roles, females are more likely to take an emotional attitude toward nature
than males (Caro, Pelkey & Grigione, 1994; Kellert & Berry, 1987), and thus have
more positive environmental attitudes.
As far as different grade levels are concerned, the present study indicates that
there are no statistically significant differences between pre-service teachers enrolled
in different grade levels with respect to their attitudes toward the environment.
However, the results also reveal that although the effect size is small, a significant
difference exists between grade levels with respect to their attitudes toward
solutions, their awareness of individual responsibility and attitude toward changing
lifestyles. For the subscales in which a significant difference was obtained, first years
and second years differ from fourth years with respect to their attitudes. Attitudes of
students toward environmental issues have been measured for a variety of grades
(Ma & Bateson, 1999; Musser & Diamond, 1999). Previous research studies suggested
that age (in this case, grade level) affects environmental attitudes, and younger
students had more positive attitudes toward environmental issues than older
students did (Malkus & Musser, 1997). Age difference is a possible explanation for
the statistical difference obtained. Although the results are statistically significant,
readers should keep in mind that the effect sizes are small. This means that, although
statistically significant differences exist between genders and among grade levels,
these differences are of little practical significance.
Overall, the results of the study indicate that today’s pre-service science teachers
have a positive attitude toward the environment. Due to the high number of
participants, the researcher believes that these findings can easily be generalized to
all pre-service science teachers. Based on the results obtained, it is suggested that
gender differences be taken into account in environmental education provided
through all steps of formal education. In addition, pre-service teachers, through their
vocational training, only take an environmental education course in one semester of
the second year. This time period of exposure may not be to develop environmental
136
Sibel Özsoy
attitudes, so it is suggested that several more courses with environmental content be
included in pre-service teachers’ education curricula. If pre-service teachers are
effectively trained during their vocational education, they can effectively change
future generations’ environmental attitudes. This is the only way to ensure that
children are educated to be environmentally aware and attuned to solving the
environmental problems that human beings face.
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background on students’ activity levels, and knowledge concerning the
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139
İlköğretim Fen Bilgisi Öğretmen Adaylarının Çevreye Karşı Tutumları
(Özet)
Problem Durumu
İnsanoğlu dünyanın içinde bulunduğu durumdan sorumlu olan tek türdür.
Günümüzde yaşanan çevre sorunları modern toplumların yaşam tarzlarının doğal
bir sonucudur. Doğal kaynakların bilinçsizce kullanımı ve bu kaynakların bazılarının
yenilenemez özellikte olması doğanın dengesinin giderek bozulmasına ve yaşanan
çevre problemlerinin giderek artmasına neden olmuştur. Küresel ısınma, bitki ve
hayvan türlerinin yok olmaya başlaması, artan nüfus, artan tüketim, doğal
kaynakların bilinçsizce tüketimi, hava, su ve toprak kirliliği, nükleer kirlilikler bugün
karşı karşıya kaldığımız en önemli çevre problemlerini oluşturmaktadır Yaşanan
çevre sorunları insan hayatının devamlılığı için de bir tehdit oluşturmaktadır.
Hayatın devamlılığı için çevre sorunlarının biran önce çözümlenmesi, oluşacak yeni
problemlerin engellenmesi gerekmektedir. Çevre sorunlarının çözülmesi çevre
hakkında bilgili, çevre sorunlarının farkında olan ve bu sorunları çözmek isteyen
bireylerle mümkündür. Çevre eğitimi de çocukların bu özelliklere sahip bireyler
olarak yetiştirilebilmeleri için en etkili yoldur. Öğretmenler ise çocukların çevreye
karşı tutumlarının şekillenmesinde rol oynayan en önemli aktörlerdir. Çevreye karşı
olumlu tutum sergileyen bireyler yetiştirebilmek için öğretmenlerin de tutumunun
olumlu olması gerekmektedir. Bu yüzden, halen çalışmakta olan öğretmenlerin ve
öğretmen adaylarının çevreye karşı tutumları çevre eğitimcileri için her zaman
araştırmaya değer bir konu olarak görülmüştür.
Bu kapsamda bu çalışmanın amacı, fen bilgisi öğretmen adaylarının çevreye karşı
tutumlarını araştırmaktır. Ayrıca çalışmada, öğretmen adaylarının çevreye karşı
tutumlarının cinsiyet ve sınıf düzeyi faktörleri ile nasıl değiştiği de incelenmiştir.
Yöntem
Çalışmaya 13 farklı üniversitenin ilköğretim fen bilgisi öğretmenliği anabilim
dallarına kayıtlı toplam 2015 öğretmen adayı katılmıştır. Çalışma 2009-2010 eğitimöğretim yılı bahar döneminde yürütülmüştür. Öğretmen adaylarının çevreye karşı
tutumları dört boyuttan oluşan; çevre sorunları hakkındaki farkındalık, genel çevre
sorunlarının çözümüne karşı tutum, bireysel sorumlulukları hakkındaki farkındalık
ve ulusal çevre sorunları hakkındaki farkındalık, 45 soruluk Likert tipi ölçekle
belirlenmiştir. Çalışmadan elde edilen verilerin analizinde Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS)15.0 programı kullanılmıştır.
Betimleyici istatistik; frekans ve yüzde dağılımları, demografik sorulara ve ölçeğin
dört alt boyutunda bulunan sorulara verilen yanıtların analizi için, çıkarımsal
istatistik; bağımsız gruplarda t-testi ve varyans analizi, cinsiyet ve sınıf düzeyi
faktörlerinin öğretmen adaylarının tutumlarına etkisini belirlemek için kullanılmıştır.
Analiz sonuçları, p<.05 istatistiksel anlamlılık düzeyi ve orta etki değeri temel
alınarak raporlanmıştır.
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Sibel Özsoy
Bulgular
Çalışmanın bulguları öğretmen adaylarının çevreye karşı tutumlarının olumlu (M =
149.67, SS = 12.10) olduğunu göstermektedir. Bunun yanı sıra, öğretmen adaylarının
çevre sorunlarına karşı orta derecede farkındalık gösterdiği (M = 35.08, SS = 4.51),
genel çevre sorunlarının çözümüne yönelik olumlu tutum sergiledikleri (M = 52.99,
SS = 5.80), bireysel sorumluluk düzeylerinin yüksek olduğu (M = 48.73, SS = 5.70) ve
ulusal çevre sorunları hakkındaki farkındalıklarının orta derecede olduğu (M = 18.40,
SD = 2.52) görülmektedir. Cinsiyet değişkeni ele alındığında bulgular, küçük etki
değeriyle (η2 = .004), kadınlar ve erkekler arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir
farklılık (t(2006) = 2.861, p = .004 ) olduğunu göstermektedir. Sınıf düzeyi ele
alındığında ise çalışmanın sonuçları farklı sınıf düzeylerine devam eden öğretmen
adaylarının çevreye karşı tutumları arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir farklılık
olmadığını (F (3, 2011) = 2.466, p = .061) göstermektedir.
Sonuç ve Öneriler
Türkiye, toplam nüfusunun üçte biri gençlerden oluşan ve hızla gelişmekte olan bir
ülkedir. Gelişmekte olan ülkelerde artan nüfus ve buna paralel olarak artan tüketim
çevre üzerindeki baskıyı da arttırmaktadır. Bu durum göz önüne alındığında genç
nüfusu çevre konularında bilgili, çevre sorunlarına duyarlı ve yaşanan çevre
problemlerini çözmek için istekli bireyler olarak yetiştirmek büyük önem
taşımaktadır. Öğrencilere bu özellikler okullarda verilecek olan çevre eğitimi ile
aşılanabilir. Ayrıca, öğretmenler öğrencilerinin çevreye karşı tutumlarını etkileme
potansiyeline sahiptirler. Bu etkilemenin olumlu yönde gerçekleşmesi için
öğretmenlerin de tutumlarının olumlu olması gerekmektedir.
Genel olarak değerlendirildiğinde çalışmanın sonuçları bugünün fen bilgisi
öğretmen adaylarının çevreye karşı olumlu bir tutum sergilediklerini ortaya
çıkarmaktadır. Bu çalışmadan ve alanyazından elde edilen diğer sonuçlara göre
cinsiyetin öğretmen adaylarının tutumlarını etkileyen bir faktör olduğu göz önüne
alındığında çevre eğitimi verilirken cinsiyet farkının göz önüne alınması
önerilmektedir. Bunun yanı sıra, öğretmen adayları mesleki eğitimlerinde çevre
eğitimini sadece ikinci yılın birinci döneminde almaktadır. Bu süre çevreye karşı
tutumu geliştirmek için yeterli olmayabilir. Bu yüzden, öğretmen adaylarının
üniversitelerde aldıkları eğitim süresince çevre eğitimi ile ilgili derslerin arttırılması
önerilmektedir. Çevreye karşı tutumu yüksek öğretmenler yetiştirmek gelecek
nesillerin de çevreye karşı olumlu tutum sergilemelerinin teminatı olacaktır. Çevre
sorunlarının çözümünde çocuklarımızın çevreye karşı duyarlı birer birey olarak
yetişmesi en vazgeçilmez yoldur.
Anahtar Kelimeler Çevre eğitimi, öğretmen adayları, çevreye karşı tutum, cinsiyet
faktörü, sınıf düzeyi faktörü.
Videos as an Instructional Tool in Pre-service
Science Teacher Education
Duygu Sonmez*
Meral Hakverdi-Can**
Suggested Citation:
Sonmez, D., & Hakverdi-Can, M. (2012). Videos as an instructional tool in pre-service
science teacher education. Egitim Arastirmaları-Eurasian Journal of
Educational Research, 46, 141-158
Abstract
Problem Statement: Student teaching is an integral part of teacher
education. While it provides pre-service teachers with real classroom
experience, though, it is limited in that it does not provide shared
experience. Used as instructional tools, videos provide a shared common
experience in a controlled environment to pre-service teachers in teacher
education. Video use as a part of teacher education requires that student
teachers be skilled in observation and ability to notice. However, in many
cases, pre-service teachers’ observation skills and ability to discern the
effects of different strategies are neither questioned nor investigated.
Purpose of Study: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of
video use on pre-service teachers’ ability to observe and evaluate teaching
practices and explore how that ability develops.
Methods: This study was conducted with the participation of 26 senior preservice science and technology teachers who were enrolled in a teacher
practice course during the fall semester of their fourth-year undergraduate
education program. Three different videos were used as instructional
tools; participating pre-service teachers were asked to evaluate the
teaching practice in each video. A three-item questionnaire was used for
data collection purposes.
Findings and Results: The findings of the study suggest that, initially, preservice teachers failed to notice details and were only partially able to
recognize the main features of a teaching practice. Most participant
comments focused on what the teacher was doing rather than on students.
As time progressed, participants’ ability to notice instructional strategies
was found to be developed through use of videos.
Corresponding Author:PhD, Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education,
[email protected]
*
**Ph.D.
Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, [email protected]
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Duygu Sönmez, &Meral Hakverdi-Can
Conclusions and Recommendations: Through use of videos, pre-service
teachers’ selective attention and ability to perceive details of a teaching
practice was found to be improved. Since the ability to notice is an
important skill for novice teachers, based on the finding of this study,
video use is recommended as a part of teacher education.
Keywords: Pre-service teacher education, video training, ability to notice
teaching strategies, field experience.
Pre-service teacher education relies on various components for successful
outcomes such as student teaching, which is an important part of pre-service teacher
education in many countries including Turkey and the United States (Star and
Strickland, 2008; YOK, 2006). The most important aspect of student teaching is
experiencing real classroom settings through a teacher practice course, which preservice teachers do not undertake during the first three years of their education.
Although the teacher practice course offers many opportunities for future
teachers, there may be some limitations due to the way the course is structured. In
many cases, only two to three pre-service teachers are assigned to a given
classrooms.
This means that students would experience different teaching
experience and different mentoring relationships as well different classroom
environments, which leads to lack of common experience. Although it is impractical,
given the unavoidable variability of the field experience, a shared common
experience is necessary for the professional development of pre-service teachers.
Videos are an instructional tool that can provide the needed common experience. A
variety of videos can be used to present pre-service teachers with many different
examples of teaching.
Successful teaching practices require teachers to be able to recognize students’
ideas and make necessary pedagogical decisions (American Association for the
Advancements of Science [AAAS], 1993; National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics [NCTM], 2000) while forming their lessons based on these ideas.
Teachers need to be skillful in noticing and interpreting these interactions to be able
to use an adaptive style (Sherin & van Es, 2005). However, in many cases developing
pre-service teachers’ ability to observe and notice is not emphasized in teacher
practice courses or field experiences. The ability to notice is also important when
using videos. According to the work of Berliner and colleagues (1988), the ability to
notice differs among teachers based on their experience. They report that experts are
able to recognize subtle differences in instructional strategies while advanced
beginners and novices are not. In addition, they also report that the advanced
beginners and novices focus on teacher, but not student, actions and discussions.
Therefore, when working with pre-service teachers the ability to notice becomes an
important focus point for educators.
Videos as an Instructional Tool
As an instructional tool, videos provide valuable insight into teaching and its
complex nature and present examples for the purpose of professional development.
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Videos can focus on particular aspects of teaching or allow teachers to evaluate their
own teaching (Beck, King, & Marshall, 2002; Brunvand & Fishman, 2007; Madsen &
Cassidy, 2005, Sherin & van Es, 2005). In today’s world, with advancements in
technology, videos are reasonably cheap and are becoming more available for use in
such different situations as microteaching, video cases, and modeling expert teaching
(Star & Strickland, 2008). The flexibility of videos is another factor that makes them
appealing. It is possible to edit or reassemble videos and use them to launch an openended discussion. In addition, use of videos allows instructors to present examples of
teaching or make connections with theory (Brophy, 2004). The length of a video may
vary; depending on their lesson’s purpose, educators may utilize a one- to threeminute video clip focusing on a specific issue or screen an entire lecture (Brophy,
2004). In the last 15 years, there has been an increase in use of videos in all subject
areas, with various focuses including teachers’ perception.
The history of using videos in teacher education in the United States goes back to
the 1960s with the availability of portable video equipment and the emergence of
videos as an instructional tool. Microteaching, interaction analysis, modeling expert
teaching, video-based cases, hypermedia programs, and recorded field observations
have been accepted approaches for exploring and studying different aspects of
teaching such as classroom management, instructional strategies, time management,
and specific teaching behavior (Sherin, 2004; Brophy, 2004; Sherin, 2004).
In general, the main purpose of video use is for professional development
through the presentation and reviewing of examples that show students how to teach
in the classroom. A variety of programs and approaches use videos as a part of
instructional materials in teacher education. They include the Space for Learning and
Teaching Exploration (SLATE) program, Video Analysis Support Tool (VAST)
software, Literacy Education: Application and Practice (LEAP), and Multimedia
Interactive Learning Environment (MILE) (DeMonner & Espinosai, 1998; Lampert &
Ball, 1995; van Es & Sherin, 2002; Stephens, 2004; Oonk, Goffree & Verloop, 2004).
Different approaches can be used in implementing videos in pre-service teacher
education. Educators can use an entire lecture slot to demonstrate the dynamics of a
lesson or they can employ self-evaluation videos to help pre-service teachers
recognize the strengths and weaknesses in their own teaching. Another approach is
using short fragments of videos. Thus, educators can present best practices of
teaching or focus on particular aspects of teaching and emphasize a specific topic
such as classroom management. Videos present pre-service teachers with the
opportunity of experiencing a wide range of examples in terms of teachers, students,
classroom settings, and pedagogies or content (Star & Strickland, 2008), which may
not be possible in field observations such as the teacher practice course. Also, the
development of a shared language may help pre-service teachers discuss what they
observe. Since videos make an actual record of classroom interactions, they are more
reliable than teacher memory for learning what happened in the classroom. In
addition, while in the classroom teachers have little opportunity to analyze the
impact of what they are doing, but they can reflect on video material using as much
time as they need to gain from the example (Sherin & van Es, 2005).
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In field observations, pre-service teachers’ experiences tend to be individual as
they do not share the same classroom environments and mentor relationships as
their peers. Star and Strickland (2008) discuss the benefits of using videos as
compared to field observation experiences, and point out that using videos in teacher
education provides the advantage of giving the whole class a chance to observe and
share the same examples and launch group discussions on those examples. As
discussed above, the success of using videos relies on teachers’ ability to recognize
the dynamics of a classroom, the strengths or weaknesses of classroom management,
teaching skills, and student-teacher interactions.
Pre-service teachers’ observational skills are important not only when videos are
used as instructional tools but also in observing other teachers. The teacher practice
course relies on pre-service teachers’ ability to learn through observation at practice
schools; observing other teachers is an essential part of teacher education. However,
regardless of the teacher educators’ expectations, pre-service teachers will fail to
learn from mentor teachers if they are unsuccessful in learning through observing
other teachers (Star & Strickland, 2008).
The structure of the teacher practice course does not question pre-service
teachers’ ability to notice and interpret what they observe and to learn from their
observations. The design of a course should take individual differences into account.
In addition, supervisors at the university level have limited opportunities to go into
the field and share classroom experiences with the pre-service teachers. Therefore, in
most cases they are unable to analyze the pre-service teachers’ ability to observe or
determine how they interpret their observations unless they refer to other
instructional resources such as videos.
The main focus of this study was to investigate effects of using instructional
videos on pre-service teachers’ ability to notice strengths and weaknesses of a teacher
or teaching method. Using videos for instructional purposes provides a controlled
environment in which all student teachers experience the same material. Thus, a
controlled environment makes it possible to explore what pre-service teachers notice
from their observations.
Method
Keeping in mind the importance of observational skills in teacher education, this
study aims to investigate effects of video use on pre-service teachers’ ability to notice
details of a teaching practice and explore how pre-service teachers’ discernment
ability changes. Therefore, the study required an in-depth understanding of
participants’ abilities. For this reason, during this study a qualitative research
methodology was employed. Data collection took place during the teacher practice
course. Three locally recorded videos were used as an instructional tool. These
videos were selected from a pool of videos (n=20) that were recorded in realclassroom settings in previous years. These videos include teaching practices in
natural environments; no scenario or advance class preparation was used for the
recording process. The videos were recorded with a digital camera, which was
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stationed at the back of the classroom. The camera was focused on the teacher and
when necessary its angle was adjusted to follow the teacher’s movements during the
lesson. The lessons were unscripted and there were no outside interruptions causing
any change in the flow of the lesson.
Selection and Description of Videos
At the beginning of the study, selection criteria were determined for evaluation of
videos based on the literature (MEB, 1998). For the purpose of this study, the
evaluation criteria were identified under four main themes: planning of the lesson,
progress of the lesson, quality of teaching, and management of the learning environment.
Three experts who are familiar with video use in the classroom took part during the
selection of videos. Presenting pre-service teachers with videos of exemplary cases
was not a concern of this study. Therefore, teaching quality was not a selection
criterion, but existence of the four predetermined main themes was considered
during the selection process.
The three selected videos were of complete lectures from six to eight science and
technology classes with lengths of 30 to 40 minutes. The three videos were found to
be similar in teaching quality based on the criteria that was determined prior to the
selection by the researchers and experts. Using locally recorded videos had benefits:
First, using videos in Turkish prevented any language barrier and allowed
participants to have a complete understanding of the lesson. Second, evaluating
locally recorded videos might have been easier for pre-service teachers since the
classroom environment and culture were familiar.
Participants
Participants in this study were 26 fourth-year pre-service teachers (21 females, 5
males) majoring in science and technology teaching at one of the major public
universities in Turkey. All of the participants were enrolled in the teacher practice
course. Pre-service science teachers started to take part in this study after completing
the third week of the semester at their assigned practice school. Thus, participating
pre-service teachers had settled into their practice schools and were used to the
school environment.
Procedure and Data Collection
During data collection, pre-service teachers were asked to watch three videos,
one per week, and then complete a lesson analysis with the purpose of identifying
strengths and weaknesses of the teaching practice they had watched.
The instrument used to collect data consisted of three questions. The first asked
participants to rate the quality of the teaching based on a 1 to 10 rating scale
(1=lowest and 10=highest). The following two questions were open ended and asked
pre-service teachers to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the teaching in the
video and explain the rationale for their evaluation.
Data collection from video-watching was completed in three stages. The first
stage consisted of a preliminary assessment that aimed to explore pre-service
teachers’ initial ability to notice and identify strengths and weaknesses of a sample
146
lesson. Therefore, without any instruction, pre-service teachers were asked to watch
the first video. Then they were asked to rate the lesson they had watched and write a
report on their observations, stating reasons for their ratings. After completion of the
first report, pre-service science teachers were assigned to investigate and identify the
criteria for evaluating a teaching practice. Pre-service teachers were expected to
submit a written report of the evaluation criteria they identified.
The second phase included watching the second video during the following
week. This time, pre-service teachers were asked to evaluate the second teaching
video based on the criteria they reported on their assignments. At the end of the
second phase, participating teachers were provided with an evaluation criteria sheet
that was developed by the researchers for this study.
The third phase included watching the third video. However, before watching
the video, pre-service teachers were given instructions by the researchers on how
lessons can be evaluated; the evaluation criteria were discussed in the classroom to
make definitions clear and prevent any misunderstandings. The criteria discussed
included the following themes: planning of the lesson, progress of the lesson, quality of
teaching, and management of the learning environment. After watching the third video,
pre-service teachers were asked to evaluate the video content based on the latest
criteria discussed and submit their written evaluations.
Data Analysis
The criteria identified for the selection of videos were also used as a baseline for
the purpose of data analysis. Out of 26 pre-service teachers, two were excluded from
the study due to attendance issues. Each pre-service teacher’s responses to the
questionnaire inquiring about the teaching quality in the three videos were analyzed
and coded separately by the researchers. The predetermined themes were used as a
framework. Upon completion of the coding, researchers compared identified
subthemes and categories. The subthemes and categories that differed were
reanalyzed and a consensus was reported (Bodgan & Biklen, 1998).
The responses to the questionnaires were analyzed in two sections. The first
question of the questionnaire was analyzed separately to explore the distribution of
rating scores given by each pre-service teacher for each video. Pre-service teachers’
responses to questions two and three were analyzed together for each video.
Results
Analysis of the first question on the questionnaire included examining the scores
given to each video by the participating pre-service teachers. The findings reveal an
inconsistency among participants’ ratings. While some pre-service teachers rated the
first video as 7 or 9, others rated it as low as 2 to 3 out of 10. Similar inconsistencies
were also observed for the second video ratings. However, the distribution of scores
was found to be not as diverse as in the first video evaluations. This outcome may be
interpreted as the result of differences in how pre-service teachers evaluate a
teaching practice based, in this case, on their own criteria. On the other hand, the
147
distribution of rating scores shows consistency among participants for the third
video.
Pre-service teachers’ responses to the second and third questions of the
questionnaire were analyzed across each video. The identified themes and
subthemes are reported in Table 2 below. A detailed table of themes, subthemes,
categories and comment distributions are presented in the appendix.
Table 2
Themes and subthemes identified from pre-service teachers’ responses
Theme / category
Subthemes
Planning of Lesson
Appropriate content and lesson plan
Suitable choice of resources
Variety of classroom activities
Progress of Lesson
Introduction
Stating the purpose
Development
Timing of the lesson
Ending of the lesson
Quality of Teaching
Questions
Feedback and monitoring
Teacher provided explanations
Management
Environment
of
Learning
Classroom management
Establishing a learning environment
Use of resources
Communication
Theme 1: Planning of Lesson
Participants’ responses were analyzed across three videos. Under the theme
Planning of Lessons three subthemes were identified: “Appropriate content and lesson
plan,” “Suitable choice of resources,” and “Variety of classroom activities.” As seen
in the appendix, at the beginning of the study, participants were not paying attention
to the Planning of Lesson theme. As the study progressed, participants’ responses
were found to be focusing on the details categorized under this theme, including
“Suitable choice of resources.” Although participants identified and commented on
the subthemes “Suitable choice of resources” and “Variety of classroom activities”
148
for the second and third videos, very few participants commented on the subtheme
“Appropriate content and lesson plan.”
“(…) Teacher started the lesson with an activity and taught the lesson based
on the activity. The choice of activity was appropriate for the content. (…)”
(T12, V3)
“[A]t the beginning of the lesson, the teacher used a variety of resources and
material to get the attention of the students and wanted them to learn the
content of the lesson. His choice of materials was appropriate, I think.” (T20,
V3)
Theme 2: Progress of Lesson
The analysis found participants’ responses on the first and second video to be
limited for the subtheme “Introduction.” However, for the third video, the number of
comments on this subtheme was found to have increased. In particular, the
comments on the subtheme of “Stating the purpose” were found to be a focus of
attention for the participants. While there was only one comment on this subtheme
for the first and second video evaluations, for the third video ten different comments
were identified.
“[T]he teacher explained the purpose of the lesson at the beginning.” (T11,
V3)
“[T]hrough use of different materials such as a mirror, the teacher identified
the purpose of the lesson.” (T4, V3)
For the subtheme “Development,” the ‘timing of the lesson’ category was a
concern with all three videos used during the study. However, the frequency of
comments from participants on this category was found to have increased for the
third video in comparison to the first and second video. A similar trend was also
detected for the other categories; ‘student motivation and attention,’, ‘pace of the
activity,’ and ‘development of lesson for acquisition of knowledge.’
“Teacher is very successful at keeping students’ attention on the lesson.
Students are willing to participate and listen to the lesson. Even though the
class is over they are still attentive to the teacher.” (T20, V3)
“Teacher is unable to manage the time.” (T1, V3)
“[T]he pace of showing pictures was too fast.” (T12, V1)
The subtheme “ending of lesson” was focused on whether the pre-service teacher
noticed the lesson’s conclusion. Participant comments organized under this theme
did not focus on the ending of the lesson at all for the first video. For the third video,
the responses of the pre-service teachers focused on not only the ending of the lesson
but also the nature of the ending, including whether or not there was any
reinforcement of the learning.
“(…) I think the downside of the teaching was not having the ‘what have we
learned’ part.” (T2, V3)
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“[A]t the end of the lesson the teacher did not summarize the lesson and
emphasize the content. No assignment or information was provided to
students for the next lesson.” (T20, V2)
Theme 3: Quality of Teaching
The theme quality of teaching consisted of subthemes including “Questioning,”
“Feedback and monitoring,” and “Teacher provided explanations.” The teacher’s
ability to ask questions plays an important role in teaching practices at every level,
and the subtheme “Questioning” was investigated at two levels. The first concerned
whether the ‘teacher was asking questions’ or not. Participants who noted and
commented on teacher questioning were coded under this category. Participants who
discussed the nature of the questions and how the teacher used questions as a part of
teaching practice were coded under the category ‘nature of questions.’ The ‘nature of
questions’ category includes comments that are focused on higher-order thinking
skills, students having enough response time, students having opportunity to
respond, and teachers asking purposeful questions throughout the lesson. Analysis
of the data revealed that frequency of pre-service teachers’ comments on the first and
second video was higher only for general comments such as references to the teacher
asking questions; they were not commenting on the quality or nature of the questions
asked. They were basically stating the fact and failing to notice the details. On the
other hand, on the third video, pre-service teachers were found to be commenting on
the nature and quality of the questions the teacher was asking. Their comments
focused on whether or not the questions asked by the teacher were designed to
promote higher-order thinking skills.
“… starting the lesson with questions.” (T16, V1)
“[T]eacher’s questions required students to think critically. Instead of asking
yes or no questions, teacher asked questions that required reasoning in
responses.” (T16, V3)
The subtheme “feedback and monitoring” was categorized based on participants’
responses. Either feedback was provided by the teacher and this was reported with a
statement that feedback was provided or participants commented on the nature of
the feedback, including the teacher’s response to student answers, uptake of student
responses, and probing to obtain correct responses. The participant responses
included the following:
“[T]he teacher was asking questions and allowed a couple of students to
respond. When he got the right answer he provided incentive to students.”
(T1, V1)
“The teacher was asking questions throughout the lesson. When he asked a
question of the students and got a correct answer, he highlighted the key
points of the response. When the student’s response was incorrect he
provided the correct answer immediately. I believe instead of giving the
correct answer immediately he should have asked other students and
involved them in coming up with the correct answer.” (T1, V3)
150
As seen from the comments presented above, participants were able to recognize
details, including how a teacher verbally responded to a student or how a teacher
used non-verbal feedback during instruction.
Theme 4: Management of Classroom Environment
“Classroom management” was one of the subthemes that was highly emphasized
from the beginning of the study. However, the nature of pre-service teachers’
comments was found to have changed toward the end of the study. In the first and
second videos, pre-service teachers were recognizing classroom management as
“being able to provide a silent environment” in which students were paying
attention to the teacher. This control of student behavior was the only method of
classroom management they identified. Pre-service teachers also commented on
classroom management issues with statements like “the classroom is too loud,” but
they were not focusing on the nature of the student conversations and whether they
were content-related or not. Accordingly, they were not recognizing student
involvement as a part of the learning atmosphere but focusing only on the setting—
whether it was dark or whether the classroom set-up was acceptable or not.
Nevertheless, pre-service teachers’ comments on the third instructional video
included references to the control of oral responses as well as classroom activities as
a part of classroom management. They also recognized student involvement as a part
of teaching practice, something they did not identify earlier.
The “Establishing a learning environment” subtheme included comments on
classroom environment and its structure as well as interactions between teacher and
student, and student involvement in the lesson. At the beginning of the study,
preservice teachers’ comments primarily identified the classroom setting and its pros
or cons; only two comments focused on student involvement. In contrast, toward the
end of the study the frequency of comments on this category were found to be
increasing, as seen in the appendix.
“He didn’t prepare the environment for the use of a projector. Students
were unable to view the slides.” (T3, V3)
“He completed an activity with the participation of some students;
meanwhile, he was able to involve the whole classroom in the activity.
Students were active.” (T2, V3)
“Teacher was continually allowing the same student to respond to the
questions. He should have provided the same opportunity to other students
as well. Then the lesson would be more appealing.” (T11, V3)
There was little or no emphasis on the students, student behavior, or teacherstudent interactions. The only student-related comment was “students asked
interesting questions,” which was noted by only a few pre-service teachers. Preservice teachers failed to recognize the involvement of students that is required for a
successful classroom environment and the importance of student-student
interactions and conversations to support the learning process. Pre-service teachers’
comments were failing to identify the details that are related to the quality of
teaching.
151
The “Use of resources” subtheme included the identification of resources and
instructional materials such as projectors, chalkboards, and handouts in the
classroom during instruction. Any “yes” and “no” comment or statement of an
existence of use of such materials was coded under the general category of use of
resources. Pre-service teachers’ comments on the quality of resources or instructional
materials and how effectively they were used were coded separately as more detail
was provided. More descriptive comments were provided from the pre-service
teachers in the evaluation of the third video in comparison to the first and second
videos.
“It is nice that the teacher uses visual materials during instruction.” (T6,
V1)
“The teacher used verbal statements to explain how light travels. I think it
would be more effective if he used the chalkboard to explain the content
through drawing.” (T11, V3)
Participating pre-service teachers also commented on the use of resources such as
video or a chalkboard. Their comments were focused on stating the facts—“teacher
used video and asked questions” and “it is nice that he is using visual material.”
However, there were no comments regarding whether the use of video was a
successful strategy or not.
“Communication” was identified as the last subtheme of Management of Learning
Environment. Any verbal and non-verbal communication was included in this
subtheme. Three subtheme categories were identified: ‘suitable use of language by
the teacher,’’ ‘teacher’s voice quality and speed,’ and ‘non-verbal communication.’
One of the findings of this study was that while pre-service teachers were focused on
the suitable use of language by the teacher, very little attention was given to voice
quality and speed and non-verbal communication during the first video evaluations.
On the third video, more pre-service teachers’ comments were identified regarding
suitable use of language and both voice quality and speed (n=20), while non-verbal
communication was found to be receiving very little attention (n=3). The following
comments were categorized under this category:
“[T]he way the teacher refers to students is not appropriate; it would have
been better if she/he called them kids.” (T4, V3)
“The teacher was able to use proper and appropriate language. The tone of
his voice was very effective and changed when he needed to emphasize
something. He was very capable during the instruction.” (T2, V3)
Participants’ other comments were focused on time-management issues related
to the progress of the lesson and sequence of the lesson.
Student teaching practices play an integral role in pre-service teacher education
programs. Use of videos as an instructional tool to support professional development
of student teachers has been a focus of many different studies (Brophy, 2004; Marsh,
152
Mitchell & Adamczyk, 2010; Menirovsky & Galvis, 2004; Sherin & van Es, 2009). In
pre-service teacher education programs, students are expected to spend time in
practice schools and teach in actual classrooms as a part of their student teaching
requirement. However, in many cases there is less emphasis on improving preservice teachers’ ability to recognize and analyze the strengths and weaknesses of a
lesson. In this study, the goal was first to investigate pre-service teachers’ ability to
discern such factors and then to improve their abilities to recognize certain aspects of
teaching by means of using video material as an instructional tool. This study’s
findings reveal that participant student teachers’ selective attention and ability to
notice increased through use of videos. This way, students were able to pay selective
attention to specific instances of a teaching practice taking place in a complex
environment such as a classroom, as presented through a video. Pre-service teachers
were more capable of identifying strengths and weaknesses of a lesson in detail.
Based on the findings, it is evident that at the beginning of this study
participating pre-service teachers were able to identify only partially the main
aspects of a lesson, and their responses focused merely on the existence or nonexistence of certain instructional behaviors and tools. They were not able to recognize
quality of teaching or the students’ role in the learning process. This finding is
consistent with the work of Sherin & Han (2004). As the study progressed, with
instructions provided by their supervisors, pre-service teachers’ ability to discern
such factors developed. Based on the findings of this study, through a systematic
approach of assignments and discussions in the classroom, pre-service teachers
showed progress in their ability to recognize the important details of teaching
practices.
During this study, through the use of videos, pre-service teachers were able to
observe and experience an actual middle school classroom in their learning
environment. Use of videos provided a controlled environment for focusing on preservice teachers’ observation and recognition skills in a way that is not possible in an
actual classroom setting. Results of this study suggest that using recorded video
materials facilitate student teachers’ ability to observe teaching practices in real time.
Mitchell et al. (2008) report similar results by using an INSTEP-type program that
focuses on teachers’ ability to connect theoretical concepts with observed classroom
activities and improve trainees’ observational skills. In addition, Brophy (2004)
points out the importance of real-time experiences.
The ability to notice is an important skill that should be emphasized and
developed to ensure successful outcomes in teacher development. The benefit of
using and discussing videos appears to increase student teachers’ skills in
observation and evaluation. Videos can be successfully used as an instructional tool
to improve pre-service teachers’ ability to recognize details in teaching practices. In
conclusion, use of videos as an instructional tool improves student teachers’
observational skills in complex environments, which in turn is expected to influence
their own teaching skills and abilities. From this perspective, using videos as a part
of pre-service and in-service teacher education is highly recommended.
153
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Öğretmen Eğitiminde Eğitim Materyali Olarak Video Kullanımı
(Özet)
Problem Cümlesi: Eğitim Fakültelerinin son sınıfında verilmekte olan okul deneyimi
dersi, öğretmen adaylarının okul ortamını tecrübe etmelerine olanak sağlayan
niteliğiyle öğretmen eğitiminde önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Bu ders kapsamında
öğretmen adayları, sınıf ortamını gözlemleme ve derslerde öğrenmiş oldukları eğitim
kuramlarını uygulama fırsatı bulmanın yanında, öğretme becerilerini geliştirme
imkanı bulmaktadırlar. Bu süreçte öğretmen adaylarının gözlem becerileri sürecin
etkinliği açısından öne çıkmasına rağmen çoğu zaman okul deneyimi dersi
kapsamında göz ardı edilmektedir. Okul deneyimini dersi kapsamında ortak
deneyimlerin öğretmen adaylarına sunulmasında yaşanılan sınırlılıklar ise diğer bir
eksikliği teşkil etmektedir. Öğretmen adaylarının profesyonel gelişimlerine katkı
sağlamak amacıyla ders ortamında çekilmiş olan videoların eğitim amaçlı kullanımı,
öğretmen adaylarının ortak deneyim yaşamasına olanak sağlar. Videoların sınıf
içinde kullanımı amaçlar doğrultusunda farklılıklar gösterebilmektedir. Tüm dersin
örnek olarak gösterildiği 30–40 dakikalık videolar veya belli öğretim tekniklerinin
155
vurgulandığı 5–10 dakikalık kısa video bölümleri belirlenen hedefler doğrultusunda
tercih edilebilir. Videoların öğretmen eğitiminde kullanılması 1960’lardan beri kabul
gören bir yöntemdir. Elli yıllık süreçte mikroöğretim, hipermedya ve uzman
öğretimini modelleme gibi yaklaşımlarla videoların öğretmen eğitiminde kullanımı
kabul görmektedir. Videoların öğretmen eğitiminde kullanılması veya okul deneyimi
dersi söz konusu olduğunda öğretmen adaylarının gözlem ve öğretim stratejilerini
farkına varma becerilerini kullanmaları gerekmektedir. Her iki süreçte de öğretmen
adaylarından beklenti, öğretim yöntem ve stratejilerini farkına varma ve ayırt
edebilmeleridir. Yapılan çalışmalar; tecrübeli öğretmenlerin öğretim yöntem ve
stratejilerini farkına varma ve belirleme konusunda, tecrübesiz öğretmenlerle
kıyaslandıklarında daha başarılı olduklarını göstermektedir. Bu farklılığa rağmen
öğretmen adaylarının gözlem ve farkına varma becerileri sorgulanmamakta ve bu
konuda sınırlı sayıda çalışma bulunmaktadır.
Araştırmanın Amacı: Bu çalışma, öğretim yöntem ve stratejilerini farkına varmanın
önemini göz önünde bulundurarak; öğretmen adaylarının sınıf ortamında bir
öğretmeni izlerken, öğretimin güçlü ve zayıf yönlerini farkına varma ve belirleme
becerileri üzerine odaklanmaktadır. Çalışmanın amacı iki kısımdan oluşmaktadır. İlk
amaç; öğretmen adaylarının; gözlemledikleri bir derste öğretimin niteliklerinin
farkına varma becerilerinin hangi seviyede olduğunu araştırmaktır. İkinci amacı ise;
video kullanarak verilen eğitim aracılığıyla öğretmen adaylarının öğretim
niteliklerinin farkına varma becerilerinin gelişim sürecini gözlemlemektir.
Araştırmanın Yöntemi: Bu çalışma, dördüncü sınıf fen ve teknoloji öğretmen
adaylarının katılımı ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışmaya güz döneminde açılmakta olan
Okul Deneyimi I dersine kayıtlı 26 öğretmen adayı katılmıştır. Öğretmen adaylarının
okul deneyimi dersi kapsamında üniversitedeki ders sorumlusu ile sürdürdükleri
dersler sürecinde bu çalışma gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışma esnasında üç öğretim
videosu üç hafta boyunca öğretim amaçlı olarak kullanılmıştır. Bu videolar 6-8 sınıf
fen ve teknoloji dersi kapsamında kaydedilmiştir ve sınıf ortamını tam olarak
gösteren 30-40 dakika uzunluğunda videolardır. Kullanılan videolar içerik olarak
öğretmen adaylarının gerçek ortamda karşılaşabilecekleri sınıf ortamlarını
göstermektedir. Çalışmaya katılan öğretmen adaylarından, her bir videoyu
izledikten sonra, öğretim yöntemlerini göz önünde bulundurarak güçlü ve zayıf
yönlerini değerlendirmeleri istenmiştir. Öğretmen adaylarının farkına varma
becerilerini geliştirmek amacıyla haftalık olarak ödevler verilmiştir ve sınıf
ortamında tartışmalar gerçekleştirilmiştir. Her bir dersin sonunda veri toplama aracı
olarak üç sorudan oluşan bir anket kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler iki araştırmacı
tarafından ayrı ayrı analiz edilmiş ve temalar ve alt temalar oluşturulmuştur.
Araştırmanın Bulguları: Elde edilen verilerin analiz sonuçları;
çalışmanın
başlangıcında öğretmen adaylarının, öğretimin güçlü ve zayıf yönlerini detaylı
olarak fark etme konusunda başarısız olduklarını göstermektedir. Öğretmen
adayları; soru sorma, tahta ve diğer teknolojilerin kullanımı gibi belirgin öğretim
yöntemlerini belirlemede başarılı olurken, daha fazla farkına varma becerisi
gerektiren öğretim yöntem ve stratejilerini belirlemede başarı gösterememişlerdir.
Katılımcılar yaptıkları yorumlarda genel olarak öğretmen üzerinde odaklanmakta ve
156
öğrenci davranış ve derse katılımlarını dikkate almamaktadırlar. Öğretmen
adaylarının izledikleri ilk video üzerine yaptıkları yorumlarda odaklandıkları
konulardan bir tanesini sınıf yönetimi teşkil etmektedir. Sınıf içinde öğrencilerin
kendi aralarında çok konuşmaları ve sınıfın gürültülü olması sınıf yönetimi
açısından başarısızlık olarak belirtilmiştir. Öğretmen adayları, öğrencilerin
diyaloglarının niteliği üzerine yorum yapmamışlardır. Ders kapsamında video
kullanılarak verilen eğitim sonrasında ise, öğretmen adaylarının öğrenci
diyaloglarının niteliklerine dikkat ettikleri görülmektedir. Eğitim verilmeden önce
izlenilen ilk videoya öğretmen adaylarının yaptıkları yorumlar ve gözlemler
değerlendirildiğinde öğretmen adaylarının becerileri ve değerlendirme kriterleri
açısından büyük farklılıklar olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. Çalışma sonunda ise öğretmen
adayları arasında değerlendirme kriterleri açısından genel bir anlayış oluşmuş ve ilk
video için gözlemlenen beceri farklılıkları ortadan kalkmıştır. Yapılan çalışma
göstermiştir ki; verilen eğitim sayesinde öğretmen adayları farkına varma becerilerini
geliştirmişlerdir.
Araştırmanın Sonuçları ve Önerileri: Çalışmanın sonuçları incelendiğinde, öğretmen
adaylarının öğretim yöntemlerinin detaylarını farkına varma becerilerinin okul
deneyimi dersi kapsamında gerçekleştirilen eğitim sürecinde geliştiği
gözlemlenmiştir. Okul deneyimi dersi ve öğretmen eğitiminde video uygulamaları
gözlem ve farkına varma becerilerinin kullanılmasını gerektiren durumlar olup, bu
dersler öncesinde öğretmen adaylarının beceri seviyelerinin sorgulanması
gerekmektedir. Bu amaçla video kullanımı olumlu sonuçlar vermektedir. Videolar
1960’lardan beri eğitim amaçlı olarak kullanılmakta ve farklı yaklaşımlarla eğitim
sürecine dahil edilmektedirler. Video kullanıldığı takdirde hedeflerin ve ulaşılacak
kitlenin özelliklerinin iyice belirlenmesi ve uygun uzunlukta ve nitelikteki video
materyallerinin kullanılması olumlu sonuçların elde edilebilmesi için önem
taşımaktadır. Bunun yanı sıra, özellikle öğrenme ortamında tecrübesi bulunmayan
öğretmen adaylarına gerekli ön bilgiler ve yapılandırılmış yönergeler verilmediği
takdirde istenilen hedef davranışların oluşması zorlaşmaktadır. Bu çalışmada video
kullanarak kontrollü bir öğrenme ortamı oluşturulmuş ve öğretmen adaylarının
farkına varma becerilerinin geliştiği gözlemlenmiştir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: öğretmen eğitimi, video ile eğitim, okul deneyimi, öğretim
yöntemlerini farkına varma,
157
Appendix
Table of themes, subthemes and categories identified during the study.
Themes
Subthemes
VI
VII
VIII
0
2
4
b. Suitable choice of resources
1
8
10
2.Variety of classroom activities
0
7
8
1. Planning of Lesson
1. a Appropriate content and lesson plan
2. Progress of the Lesson
1. Introduction
a. Establishing a set
5
13
14
b. Lesson related with the context
3
6
11
c. Stating the purpose
1
1
10
a. Student motivation and attention
1
2
10
b. Pace of the activity
1
1
8
c. Timing of the lesson
6
7
18
d. Development of lesson for acquisition of knowledge
1
3
9
a. General comment
0
0
4
b. Reinforcement of learning
0
3
10
7
9
14
4
6
23
4
3
12
5
13
2. Development
3. Ending of the lesson
3. Quality of Teaching
1-Questions
a. General comments
b. Nature of questions (higher order thinking skills,
students have enough responding time, students have
opportunity to respond, asking purposfull questions
throughout the lesson)
2. Feedback and Monitoring
a. Feedback is provided
b. Nature of feedback
3. Teacher explanations
158
a. Teacher provides explanations
0
0
1
b. Quality and depth of explanations
0
2
11
4. Management Learning Environment
1. Classroom management
a. Classroom management in general
3
7
10
b. Management of routine in classroom
3
7
10
c. Teacher ability to manage student behavior
3
9
10
d. Teacher ability to manage oral responses
1
4
4
e. Teacher ability to manage classroom activities
0
9
9
a. Classroom setting ( dark condition)
4
6
7
b. Interactions between student and teacher
2
5
7
c. Involvement of student
2
9
13
2. Establishing a learning environment
3. Use of resources
a. Use of resources (projector, chalk board… (Y/N)
2
1
8
b. Quality of resources
2
7
8
c. Effective use
0
1
6
d. Use of handout/worksheet
0
8
9
a. Suitable use of language
8
3
12
b. Voice quality and speed
3
5
8
c. Non-verbal communication
2
5
3
4. Communication
The Effects of Project- and Activity-supported
Practiceson Mathematics Education Achievement
and Student Views*
Neşe (Işık) Tertemiz
Suggested Citation:
Tertemiz, N. (2012). The effects of project- and activity-supported practices on
mathematics education achievement and student views. Egitim Arastirmaları
Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 46, 159-178
Abstract
Problem Statement: Preservice teachers acquire the knowledge and skills
needed for elementary mathematics education by themselves obtaining
quality university educations and by being actively involved in
mathematics. Thus, it is essential to make room in teacher education for
student-centered projects and activities.
Purpose of Study: This study aimed to reveal whether using studentcentered project- and activity-supported practices in the course
Mathematics Education II had an effect on preservice teachers’ achievement,
as compared to teacher-centered education. It also aimed to identify
student views on these two student-centered practices.
Methods: Conducted during the 2009-2010 academic year, the study was
designed as a pretest-posttest control group experimental study with
third-year teaching students in the Department of Elementary Education,
Division of Classroom Education at an Ankara university. To compare
student achievement on four of six subproblems, the “Measurement and
Geometry Education Test” was used. Data were analyzed using a t-test
and one-way analysis of variance. For the fifth and sixth subproblems,
student views on the different practices adopted in two student-centered
An extended abstract of this paper was presented at “WCCES XIV World Congress of
Comparative Education Societies. June 14-18. Istanbul 2010”.
*
 
Assist. Prof. Dr., Gazi University, Gazi Education Faculty. [email protected]
159
160
Neşe (Işık) Tertemiz
groups were collected with the help of two open-ended questions, and
content analysis was performed on the resulting qualitative data.
Findings and Results: The first three subproblems examined whether a
difference existed between each group’s “Measurement and Geometry
Education Test” pre and posttest mean scores. A difference in favor of the
posttest was found in all three groups, i.e. between the student-centered
Groups 1 and 2 and the teacher-centered Group 3. In the fourth
subproblem, a meaningful difference was found between the mean
achievement scores of the teacher-centered control group and the studentcentered project- and activity-supported groups. However, there was no
such difference between the mean achievement scores of the two studentcentered groups. Although project and activity group students supplied
many positive comments on the process, they also expressed some
criticism.
Conclusions and Recommendations: It is satisfying that student achievement
on the “Measurement and Geometry Education Test” was meaningfully
higher at the end of instruction in all three groups. The results favored
student-centered project and activity-supported instruction. Using projects
or activities in classes positively affected student success. While the
project-supported group mostly made positive remarks about group work
and project preparation, the activity-supported group mostly made
positive remarks about preservice teachers’ mathematics education
knowledge and skills.
Keywords: Preservice elementary teachers, mathematics education, projectsupported instruction, activity-supported instruction, teacher education
Curricula and instruction play an important role in the development of preservice
teachers’ roles and competencies. The National Education Development Preservice
Teacher Education Project teacher training book Elementary Mathematics Education
(Busbridge & Özçelik, 1997) urges preservice teachers to make a conscious effort to
discover the relationships between mathematical concepts and skills in the
mathematics education courses they take at university, so that they can use this
insight to enable learning in their future classrooms. In addition, changes in 2004 to
the Elementary Mathematics Curriculum (Grades 1-5) (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı [MEB],
2005) significantly affected the perspectives of education faculties on the question,
“How will preservice teachers teach mathematics to children?” Active-learning
projects and tasks in class might help preservice teachers, who are soon to implement
elementary curricula, to equip themselves with the professional knowledge and skills
they need.
Previous studies and educator views on use of the student-centered approach to
project-based learning in classrooms have shown that it effectively increases student
mathematics achievement (Alacapınar, 2008; Aladağ, 2008; Coşkun, 2004; Çakan,
2005; Övez, 2007; Özdemir, 2006; Özdener & Özçoban, 2004; Pierce, 2009; Thomas,
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2000, Yıldız, 2008). This approach helps students learn all aspects of disciplines and
link mathematical topics with other disciplines and real life (Bell, 2010; Dede &
Yaman, 2003; Kaldi, Filippatou & Govaris, 2011; Nastu, 2009; Özdemir & Ubuz, 2006;
Özden, Aydın, Erdem & Ekmekçi, 2009; Pierce, 2009; Robinson, 2009; Saracaloğlu,
Özyılmaz Akamca & Yeşildere, 2006; Wu & Fan, 2010). It also helps them develop
problem solving strategies, create authentic products (models, reports, presentations,
etc.) (Blumenfeld et al.,1991; Coşkun, 2004; Dede & Yaman, 2003; Özdemir & Ubuz,
2006; Kaldi, et al.,2011; Korkmaz, 2002; Saracaloğlu et al., 2006; Robinson, 2009, Wu
& Fan, 2010), work in groups, and learn social skills, interaction, cooperation,
responsibility, social and democratic behaviors, critical thinking, and decisionmaking (Blumenfeld et al.,1991; Dede & Yaman, 2003; Demirhan, 2002; Erdem &
Akkoyunlu, 2002; Kaldi et al., 2011; Korkmaz, 2002; Özdemir, 2006; Özden et al.,
2009; Saracaloğlu et al., 2006; Robinson, 2009; Thomas, 2000; Wu & Fan, 2010). The
student-centered approach to project-based learning has also been credited with
enhancing students’ ability to plan and manage time (Bell, 2010), as well as their selfconfidence, motivation to learn, attitudes, tendencies, beliefs, and perceptions of selfcompetency (Alacapınar, 2008; Bell, 2010; Coşkun, 2004; Baran & Maskan, 2009;
Kaldi, et al.,2011; Meyer, Turner & Spencer, 1997; Nastu, 2009; Saracaloğlu et al.,
2006; Pierce, 2009; Özdemir, 2006; Özdemir & Ubuz, 2006; Thomas, 2000; Toci, 2000;
Yıldız, 2008; Yurtluk, 2003; Tertemiz & Şahinkaya, 2010). In addition, it aids in the
implementation of learning strategies in the instructional process and helps students
take responsibility for learning and constructing knowledge (Başbay, 2005;
Blumenfeld et al., 1991; Choo, 2007; Dede & Yaman, 2003; Kayılı & Çerçi, 2001 ;
Özdemir, 2006; Özden et al., 2009; Pierce, 2009; Kaldi et al., 2011; Meyer et al., 1997;
Thomas, 2000), planning work, researching, questioning, and gathering and
organizing information (Bell, 2010; Dede & Yaman, 2003; Erdem & Akkoyunlu, 2002;
Kalaycı, 2008; Özdemir & Ubuz, 2006; Robinson, 2009; Saracaloğlu et al., 2006).
Another student-centered approach is activity-based learning, where students are
similarly active. Unlike project-based learning, activity-based learning involves
teacher presentations, in addition to student-centered work. Despite being beneficial
to students, activity-based work may not always be interesting. Activity-based
practice gives students higher order thinking skills, in the realm, for instance, of
critical thinking, analysis, and the ability to present ideas in logical sequence. As
students construct their knowledge, they learn how to transfer learning to real life,
using different roles and perspectives. They shape mathematical thought into forms
and get the chance to implement these in the classroom (Choo, 2007; Suydam &
Higgins, 1977; Toluk Uçar & Olkun, 2007). This helps students analyze and improve
their own mathematical knowledge (Choo, 2007). Activity-based learning has been
shown to positively affect the instructional process and learning outcomes (Choo,
2007; Kıyoyukı, 2006; Ron, 2002).
All of the knowledge and skills mentioned above not only help preservice
teachers successfully teach mathematics; they also make them better teachers overall
and affect their professionalism positively (Darling-Hammond & Ricardson, 2009).
Most of the research in this field has been geared towards the earlier stages of
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education, and most projects and activities have focused on the learning of a specific
subject area and its effects on achievement in or attitudes towards a course.
However, the present study involves preservice teachers, incorporates projects and
activities into a mathematics education course, and examines the effects of this on
achievement.
The aim of this study was to reveal whether the use of student-centered
projects and activities in the course “Mathematics Education II” had an advantage
over teacher-centered practices, as concerns preservice elementary teachers’ success
in “Measurement and Geometry Education”. This study also aimed to identify
student views on the two student-centered practices used. The following subproblems were studied to achieve these aims:
1:
Is there a meaningful difference between the “Measurement and Geometry
Education Test” pre and posttest mean scores of the student-centered and
project-supported Group 1?
2:
Education Test” pre and posttest mean scores of the student-centered and
activity-supported Group 2?
3:
Education Test” pre and posttest mean scores of the teacher-centered Group
3?
4.
Education Test” mean achievement scores of Groups 1, 2, and 3?
5:
What pros and cons does project-supported instruction have, according to
the students studied?
6:
What pros and cons does activity-supported instruction have, according to
the students studied?
Method
Research Design
This study had a pretest-posttest control group design. Both quantitative and
qualitative data were collected and analyzed.
Study Group
Participants were students who were attending the Department of Elementary
Education, Division of Classroom Education at an Ankara university during the
spring term of 2009-2010 and who were enrolled in three (of five) sections that were
equivalent to one another with respect to their “Mathematics Education I” final exam
grades. Section equivalence was judged by looking at the grades obtained on the
final exam for “Mathematics Education I”, which is a pre-requisite for “Mathematics
Education II”. This exam is considered to have high content validity. With respect to
their final examination grades, Group 1 had 43 students and a mean of 69.83; Group
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2 had 42 students and a mean of 64.69; and Group 3 had 44 students and a mean of
69.11. Table 1 shows the results of one-way analysis of variance of the final grades.
Table 1
Results of Analysis of Variance of the Mean Final Examination Grades in the Three Sections
Source
variance
of
Sum
squares
of
sd
Mean
squares
2
333,565
Between
groups
667,130
Within groups
25743,362
127
Total
26410,492
129
of
F
p
1,646
.197
Meaningful
Difference
202,704
p<0.05
No meaningful difference existed between the mean final scores of groups 1, 2,
and 3 [F(2-127)=1.65, p<0,05]. This showed that the sections were equivalent at the
beginning of the study, with respect to their “Mathematics Education I” final
examination grades. Group 1 was randomly assigned to the status of projectsupported group (Experimental 1), Group 2 to the status of activity-supported group
(Experimental 2), and Group 3 to the status of control group.
Development of the Measurement Tool
To address the first four sub-problems that were the focus of this study, the
researcher developed the “Measurement and Geometry Education Test”. The
objectives to be measured by this test were identified using the book Elementary
Mathematics Education (Busbridge & Özçelik, 1997) and the course description. The
contents of the course Mathematics Education II mostly included the pedagogical
component of “instructional strategies knowledge” (Shulman, 1986; Manizade, 2006).
Instructional strategies knowledge includes methods and techniques that correspond
to the question, “How do you teach this?” (Gökbulut, 2010). The items on the
measurement tool included questions about the basic concepts, principles, and
teaching of the subdomains of “Measurement and Geometry”. The units covered in
“Measurement and Geometry Education” and instructional strategies knowledge
constituted the limitations of this study. Items were prepared with the aid of Altun
(1998), Baykul (2005), Busbridge and Özçelik, (1997), and the Elementary (grades 1-5)
Mathematics Curriculum (MEB, 2005). The initial 44-item measurement tool was
evaluated with 145 students, using the ITMEN item analysis program to analyze
both item difficulty index (p) and item discrimination index (r). Its alpha reliability
was .72. The test used in the study had 35 items, and its alpha reliability was .78.
164
Experimental Procedures
The study took place during the spring term in the course “Mathematics
Education II”, which is taken by third-year preservice teachers. This course was
taught for three hours each week. The time allocated for the units treated in the study
was six weeks. All three sections were taught by the same instructor. The course
content and presentations were the same for the three sections, too. Classes were
theoretically conducted by the instructor of the three sections. However, classes in
Group 1 were supported by group project work on “Measurement and Geometry
Education”, while those in Group 2 were supported by activities related to
“Measurement and Geometry Education” that were prepared individually by
students and implemented in the entire class. “Measurement and Geometry
Education” classes in Group 3 were fully teacher-centered.
The instructor of student-centered and project-supported Group I gave
information about project preparation for the first two weeks and studied related
references and research with her students. She then discussed possible project
themes or topics. Students chose as themes “string” and “paper”. They were asked to
voluntarily form groups. During the first week, students reviewed activities from
Elementary Mathematics Education (Busbridge & Özçelik, 1997), Altun (1998), Baykul
(2005), Toluk Uçar and Olkun (2007) and the Elementary (Grades 1-5) Mathematics
Curriculum (MEB, 2004). Discussions then ensued about what to do, how groups
would operate, how projects would be prepared, samples, and expectations. The
instructor prepared a timetable with students, who were asked to develop group
work plans and plans for sharing tasks. The first three weeks were allocated to a
survey of the literature, and the instructor helped students think about alternatives.
Students were asked to create activities that taught the subdomains of “Measurement
and Geometry Education” around the themes, connect them to other courses and
daily life, and create a final product (such as a magazine, poster, model, material, or
diorama). From time to time, guidance was given to students both inside and outside
of class. Students prepared their group projects and presented them. Subsequently,
group members evaluated themselves and their group work and were evaluated by
their classmates, using the forms prepared for these purposes by the students
themselves. Students submitted their group folders and products to the instructor. At
the end of the term, these products were exhibited in the department corridor.
In the other student-centered and activity-supported Group 2, in addition to the
teaching of topics by the instructor, the above-mentioned resources were distributed
to students, who were then asked to plan the activities in them individually, prepare
worksheets for the entire class, and implement the activities. When needed, the
lecturer acted as a guide. Students assessed both implementors of the activities and
the activities themselves, using the student-generated graded scoring forms. At the
end of the term, each student had a folder of all activities conducted in class and
evaluated herself. The instructor also evaluated students’ in-class performance and
folders. In the control group, known as Group 3, classes were taught in a teachercentered way. The techniques used were question-answer, discussion, and samplesharing activities.
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Data Analysis
A dependent samples t-test was used to determine whether there was a
difference between the “Measurement and Geometry Education Test” pretest and
posttest mean scores of the project-supported, activity-supported, and control
groups, in order to answer the first three sub-problems. For the fourth subproblem,
the three groups were compared, and one-way analysis of variance was used to
determine whether there was a statistically meaningful difference between the
“Measurement and Geometry Education Test” achievement scores of students in the
three groups. Qualitative data were used to answer subproblems five and six. From
2008-2009, when similar experimental procedures were used to seek answers to a
different question (Tertemiz & Şahinkaya, 2010), as well as in the year when the
present study was conducted, student volunteers were asked to write down the pros
and cons of using projects and activities in mathematics education courses. A total of
45 students in the project-supported group and 50 in the activity-supported group
expressed their views by typing them on separate computers. Content analysis was
performed on the data obtained, and codes were formed. For reliability purposes,
codes were checked by an associate professor and an assistant professor. These codes
were combined, to identify main and subcategories. Each category was defined in the
study by the three most frequent views within it. In order to make the findings easily
readable, interpretable and understood, frequencies and percentages were given.
Results
The findings presented address the sub-problems derived from the research
question given in the Introduction. As regards the first sub-problem: A t-test for
dependent samples was used to establish whether a meaningful difference existed
between the “Measurement and Geometry Education Test” pre and posttest mean
scores of project-supported Group 1; the results are shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Pre and Posttest Mean Scores, Standard Deviation, and t Values of Project-Supported
Group 1
N
Mean
Std.
deviation t
36
17,92
3,19
Posttest 36
28,67
3,93
Group I
Project-supported
group
Pretest
-14,604
Sd
P
35
0,000*
*p<0.05
As shown in Table 2, the “Measurement and Geometry Education Test” posttest
achievement ( X=28.67) of project-supported group students was higher than these
students’ pretest achievement ( X=17.92). A statistically meaningful difference was
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also found between the post and pretest achievement of students in the projectsupported group (p<0.05).
As regards the second sub-problem: A t-test for dependent samples was used to
establish whether a meaningful difference existed between the “Measurement and
Geometry Education” pre and posttest mean scores of activity-supported Group 2,
the results of which can be seen in Table 3.
Table 3
Pre and Posttest Mean Scores, Standard Deviation, and t Values for Activity-Supported
Group 2
Group 2
N
Mean
Std.
deviation t
Activity
Pretest
supported
Posttest
group
33
17,61
4,41
33
28,76
4,49
-12,413
Sd
P
32
0,000*
*p<0.05
Table 3 shows that the “Measurement and Geometry Education Test” posttest
achievement ( X=28.76) of activity-supported group students was higher than these
also found between the post and pretest achievement of students in the activitysupported group (p<0.05).
As regards the third sub-problem: A t-test for dependent samples was used to
establish whether a meaningful difference existed between the “Measurement and
Geometry Education Test” pre and posttest mean scores of teacher-centered Group 3;
the results are presented in Table 4.
Table 4
Pre and Posttest Mean Scores, Standard Deviation, and t Values for the Control Group
N
Mean
Std.
deviation t
36
17,36
3,86
Posttest 36
21,61
5,35
Group 3
Control
group
Pretest
-5,004
Sd
P
35
0,000*
*p<0.05
As shown in Table 4, the “Measurement and Geometry Education Test” posttest
achievement ( X=21.61) of activity-supported group students was higher than these
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also found between the post and pretest achievement of control students (p<0.05).
As regards the fourth sub-problem: The “Measurement and Geometry
Education Test” mean achievement scores (difference between pre and posttest
scores) of the three groups in the study (student-centered and project-supported,
student-centered and activity-supported, and teacher-centered) are shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Mean “Measurement and Geometry Instruction Test” Scores of Groups 1, 2, and 3
Std.
deviation
Groups
N
Mean
Project-supported group (Group 1)
36
10,75
4,42
Activity-supported group (Group 2)
33
11,15
5,16
Control group (Group 3)
36
4,25
5,10
The mean “Measurement and Geometry Education Test” achievement score
obtained by activity-supported group students ( X=11.15) was higher than that of
project-supported group students and teacher-centered control students. However,
one-way analysis of variance was used to find whether a statistically meaningful
difference existed between the “Measurement and Geometry Education Test”
achievement scores of the three groups; the results are shown in Table 6.
Table 6
Analysis of Variance Results Concerning the Mean Achievement Scores of Groups 1, 2,
and 3
Sum of
Squares Sd
Mean of
Squares F
Between
groups
1.062,219 2
531,110
Within
groups
2.443,742 102
23,958
Total
3.505,962 104
*p<0.05
P.
Meaningful Difference
* Project-supported group
22,168 0,000* and control
*Activity-supported
group and control
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Table 7 shows a meaningful difference between the mean achievement scores of
teacher-centered control students and students in the student-centered project and
activity-supported groups, in favor of the latter two (p<0.05). However, there was no
meaningful difference between the mean achievement scores of the two studentcentered groups; namely, between the activity-supported and project-supported
groups.
As regards the fifth sub-problem: The project- supported group (45 students)
gave 186 (66%) positive views of the benefits of project- supported instruction and 96
(34%) negative views. The main categories, three most frequent subcategories, and
student views were as follows:
Positive Student Views
About group work: Different ideas, brainstorming, idea exchange (39, 87%): “We
learned new things by exchanging ideas and brainstorming.” Collaborative learning
(25, 55%): “We tried collaborative learning ourselves.” Fun (10, 22%): “We had a
good time with our groupmates.” About Contribution to Personal Development:
Responsibility (9, 20%): “We learned our responsibilities.” Using materials and
developing hands-on skills (9, 20%): “Most important, it has improved my use of
materials.” Socialization (5, 11%): “It is conducive to socialization.” About
Mathematics Instruction: Learning by doing (6, 13%): “As it’s practical, you learn by
doing.” Learning different aspects of a topic (6, 13%): “The project enabled me to see
the topic from different perspectives.” Activity implementation skills (5, 11%): “We
got to know the activities in the curriculum closely and implemented them.”
About Project Preparation and Presentation: Creative and successful products
(21, 47%): “Learning will become more permanent as we practice our ideas and have
the opportunity to create concrete products.” Fun, interesting, colorful (4, 08%):
“Preparing a joint project together was fun.” Exhibition (3, 06%): “We exhibited our
work. It was useful.”
Negative Student Views
Avoiding responsibility in the group, etc. (26, 58%): “Some people in the group
had little sense of responsibility.” Being time-consuming (21, 47%): “It took too much
time.”
Difficulty of reaching consensus within groups (20, 44%): “Occasional differences
of opinion caused problems.”.
As regards the sixth sub-problem: The activity-supported group (50 students)
gave 130 (68%) positive views of the benefits of activity-supported instruction and 62
(32%) negative views. The main categories, three most frequent subcategories, and
student views were as follows:
Positive Student Views
About Mathematics Education Knowledge and Skills: Getting rid of monotony
and boredom and making class fun and interesting (26 students, 52%): “Instruction
became more fun. We learned new things to help students enjoy mathematics
education and not get bored.”
Teaching Experience (14, 28%): “It provided professional development. I got to
learn what can happen in class and how to teach.” Collating such resources as files,
activities, and materials (13, 26%): “When we become teachers, we won’t have time
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to find such a variety of activities…I’ll use them in the future.” About Mathematics
Learning Knowledge and Skills: Permanent, effective, repeated, and better learning
(9, 29%): “Mathematical topics were learned tangibly.” Making topics concrete (5,
11%): “Concrete examples helped further understanding.” Multidimensional
thinking (3, 6%): “We saw that there were multiple ways of solving a problem.”
About Contribution to Personal Development: Data under this heading may be
summarized as self development (3), responsibility (1), seeing one’s deficiencies (1),
self-confidence (1), regular study habits (1), class management (1), and hands-on
skills (1).
Negative Views
Activities are time-consuming (18, 36%): “They took too much time.” Cost (7,
14%): “They are a financial burden.” Failing to meet aims (7, 14%): “In crowded
classes, some activities could not be understood.”
The following conclusions were made based on the findings obtained in regard to
the subproblems: A meaningful difference was found between the “Measurement
and Geometry Education Test” pretest and posttest mean achievement scores of all
three groups (the student-centered project and activity-supported groups and the
teacher-centered control group), in favor of the posttest scores. Further, studentcentered practices created a meaningful difference in student achievement, as
compared to teacher-centered practices. However, no meaningful difference was
found between the student-centered groups, with respect to student mean
achievement scores.
Positive student views of project-supported instruction revolved around group
work, personal development, learning and teaching mathematics, and project
preparation and presentation, while negative views mostly emphasized evasion of
responsibility within groups, amount of time spent on activities, and difficulty
reaching consensus. Positive student views of activity-supported instruction
emphasized the knowledge and skills of preservice teachers in teaching and learning
mathematics, as well as personal development. Negative views, on the other hand,
seemed to focus on the time and cost of activities and failure to achieve aims.
The three practices used in this study resulted in increased “Measurement and
Geometry Education Test” mean scores for each of the three groups from pretest to
posttest. However, this increase was most meaningful for the student-centered
groups. Smith (2001: Cited in: Dede & Yaman (2003)) found that project work is
effective in science and mathematics education, while Özdemir (2006) showed it to be
effective in 7th grade geometry education. Prince (2004) cited Astin (1993), Hake
(1998), and Choo (2007), who found that active learning positively affects student
achievement. Ron (2002) revealed that well-designed instructional activities have an
effect on student comprehension and concept development. Other, previous studies
corroborating these findings are generally at the elementary level (Aladağ, 2008;
Çakan, 2005; Övez, 2007). Darling-Hammond and Ricardson (2009) integrated
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teachers into active learning practices, which offered them opportunities to learn and
teach effectively. These teachers’ students were also more successful. Another
significance of the present study is that it taught preservice teachers strategies,
methods and techniques, building their knowledge and skills. Soylu (2009) studied
preservice teacher competency in the instructional methods and techniques used in
mathematics classes and found that less than 20% felt they were adequately
equipped with the constructive, discovery-based, collaborative, modeling, playbased, case study, and problem solving methods and techniques that are used in
mathematics classes.
The positive student views obtained in this study of project-based learning are
similar to those found by Alacapınar (2008), Çakan (2005), Kalaycı (2008), Kurnaz,
Sünbül, Sulak and Alan (2005), and Yıldız (2008). As pointed out by Şahin (2007) and
also by Gözüm, Bağcı, Sünbül, Yağız, and Afyon (2005) in a study conducted in a
private elementary school, teachers and students stress “learning by doing” when
expressing their views of project-based learning. Corroborating the findings of the
present study, Gözüm et al. (2005) stated that students’ hands-on skills improved as
a result of project-based learning; Gözüm et al. (2005) and Yıldız (2008) found that
students thought such work enjoyable; Yıldız (2004), Yıldız (2008) and Özdemir
(2006) concluded that students gained a feeling of responsibility; Yıldız (2008) and
Pierce (2009) stated that students’ group work skills improved. Yıldız (2004) also
found that students’ research skills became better, and Özdemir (2006) and Yıldız
(2004) found that creativity improved. In addition, the student views mentioned by
Özdemir (2006) on learning from multiple perspectives and sharing ideas among
group members also corroborate the findings of the present study. The complaints of
preservice teachers in the present study about time are also mentioned in Başbay
(2005), Baran and Maskan (2009), Özden et al. (2009). However, while Bell (2010) has
stated that students need to manage their time effectively and efficiently while
working on projects, Blumenfeld et al. (1991) have suggested giving students enough
time to allow them to produce successful projects. In addition, the negative views of
students in this study on the difficulty of reaching consensuses within groups are
supported by Mueller and Flemmings’ (2009, Cited in: Pierce, 2009) finding that
certain cooperative groups may experience difficulty agreeing and by Felder and
Brent’s (1996) finding that some students hate active learning group work, resist
cooperation, cause conflicts in groups, and fail to meet group responsibilities.
The positive student views obtained in this study on activity-based learning seem
to support the results of Choo’s (2007) study on the effects of activity-based learning
on student achievement in the course “Career Development and Planning”. Choo
found that 90.4% of students thought that learning through activities was more
interesting, as this gave students a chance to put their knowledge and skills to use,
enhanced their understanding, and was more fun than traditional learning methods.
The problem of time was also present in activity-based work. Choo (2007)
emphasized that even though teachers may have planned meticulously, time still
can be a problem in activity-based instruction.
The fact that two-thirds of students in both project- and activity-supported
groups voiced positive views is a sign that student-centered practices are needed.
171
The present study may lead to changes in teacher-centered classrooms. As opposed
to the idea that a teacher teaches and students learn, the idea that students can set
their own goals may gain importance. The complaint by the project-supported group
that some group members can evade responsibility can be overcome by using more
group work in classes, so that students learn group responsibility. At the same time,
groups can be formed more carefully. Students who can get along and work together
may be grouped together, or the numbers of students in groups could be planned
better. Both groups of students in this study complained that projects and activities
took too long. This feedback should be considered carefully, and the problem should
be overcome with practical solutions, such as by organizing timetables and topics in
such a way so as not to bore students. Classes can become completely project- and
activity-based. Future student-centered studies might focus on whether students’
and lecturers’ responsibilities in the instructional process and views have changed.
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Proje ve Aktivite Destekli Uygulamaların Matematik Öğretimi Öğrenci
Erişisine Etkisi ve Öğrenci Görüşleri
Özet
Problem Durumu
Sınıf öğretmeni adaylarından gelecekte beklenen rol ve yeterliklerin geliştirilmesinde
eğitim fakültesi programlarının ve öğretim elemanlarının rolü büyüktür. Milli
Eğitimi Geliştirme Hizmet Öncesi Öğretmen Eğitimi Projesi yayınlarından olan
İlköğretim Matematik Öğretimi ( Busbridge & Özçelik, 1997) kitabında gelecekte
çocukların en iyi şekilde öğrenmelerini sağlamaları amacıyla, öğretmen adaylarının
fakültede aldıkları matematik öğretimi derslerinde matematiksel kavram ve
becerileri ve bunlar arasındaki ilişkileri keşfetme amacıyla etkin bir çaba içine
girmeleri gerektiği vurgulanmaktadır. Ayrıca, 2004 yılında İlköğretimdeki tüm
derslerde olduğu gibi İlköğretim (1-5.sınıflar) Matematik Dersi Öğretim
Programındaki (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, 2005) değişim, fakültelerin öğretmen
adaylarına verecekleri “matematiği çocuklara nasıl öğreteceğiz?” konusundaki
anlayışlarını da büyük oranda etkilemiştir. Bu amaçla temelinde aktif öğrenme olan,
proje ve aktivitelerin derslerde kullanılması, ilköğretim dersleri öğretim
programlarının uygulayıcıları olacak öğretmen adaylarının mesleklerinde sahip
olmaları gereken bilgi ve becerilerle donanık olarak yetişmeleri yolunda onlara katkı
sağlayacaktır.
Çalışmanın Amacı
Çalışmada, sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının “Matematik Öğretimi II” dersinde öğrenci
merkezli proje ve etkinlik destekli uygulamaların, öğretmen merkezli öğretime göre
öğrenci başarısı üzerinde etkili olup olmadığını ortaya koymak ve öğrenci merkezli
iki farklı uygulamaya ilişkin öğrenci görüşlerini belirlemek amaçlanmıştır. Amaca
ulaşmak için aşağıdaki alt problemlere cevap aranmıştır:
1: Öğrenci merkezli proje destekli Grup 1’in “Ölçme ve Geometri Öğretimi Testi” ön
ve son test başarı puan ortalamaları arasında manidar bir fark var mıdır?
2: Öğrenci merkezli etkinlik destekli Grup 2‘nin “Ölçme ve Geometri Öğretimi Testi
“ ön ve son test başarı puan ortalamaları arasında manidar bir fark var mıdır?
3: Öğretmen merkezli uygulamaların yürütüldüğü Grup 3’ün “Ölçme ve Geometri
Öğretimi Testi “ ön ve son test başarı puan ortalamaları arasında manidar bir fark
var mıdır?
4. Grup 1, Grup 2 ve Grup 3’ün “Ölçme ve Geometri Öğretimi Testi “erişi puan
ortalamaları arasında anlamlı bir fark var mıdır?
5: Proje destekli gruba göre, derslerin projelerle desteklenmesinin olumlu ve
olumsuz yanları nelerdir?
6. Etkinlik destekli gruba göre, derslerin etkinliklerle desteklenmesinin olumlu ve
olumsuz yanları nelerdir?
Yöntem
177
2009-2010 öğretim yılında Ankara’da bir eğitim fakültesinin ilköğretim bölümü sınıf
öğretmenliği anabilim dalında üçüncü sınıf öğrencileri üzerinde yürütülen çalışma,
öntest - sontest kontrol gruplu deneysel desen olarak tasarlanmıştır. İlk dört alt
problemde öğrencilerin başarılarını ve grupları karşılaştırmak için araştırmacı
tarafından geliştirilen “Ölçme ve Geometri Öğretimi Testi” kullanılmıştır. Veriler t
testi ve tek yönlü varyans analizine tabi tutulmuştur. 5 ve 6. alt problemlerde,
öğrenci merkezli iki farklı uygulamaya ilişkin öğrenci görüşleri, iki açık uçlu soru ile
toplanmış ve nitel veriler üzerinde içerik analizi yapılmıştır.
Uygulama bahar döneminde “Matematik Öğretimi II” dersinde yapılmıştır. Ders
haftada 3 saattir. Araştırmada ele alınan üniteler için ayrılan süre 6 hafta haftadır.
Her üç gruba da aynı öğretim elemanı girmektedir. Her üç grup için hazırlanan ders
içerikleri ve sunumları aynıdır. Her üç grupta dersler teorik olarak öğretim elemanı
tarafından işlenmiştir. Farklı olarak, Grup 1’de dersler öğrencilerin grup olarak
hazırladıkları “Ölçme ve Geometri Öğretimi”ne ilişkin proje çalışmalarıyla
desteklenmiştir. Grup 2’de dersler öğrencilerin bireysel hazırladıkları ve tüm sınıfa
yaptırdıkları “Ölçme ve Geometri Öğretimi”ne ilişkin aktivitelerle desteklenmiştir.
Grup 3’te ise “Ölçme ve Geometri Öğretimi” tamamen öğretmen merkezli
işlenmiştir.
İlk üç alt problemde her bir gruba ait “Ölçme ve Geometri Öğretimi Testi” ön-test
ve son-test başarı puan ortalamaları arasında fark olup olmadığına bakılmıştır.
Öğrenci merkezli uygulamaların yapıldığı Grup 1, Grup 2 ve öğretmen merkezli
öğretimin yapıldığı Grup 3’ün ön test başarı puan ortalamaları ile son test başarı
puan ortalamaları arasında son test lehine her üç grupta da manidar fark
bulunmuştur. Dördüncü alt problemde; öğretmen merkezli uygulamanın yapıldığı
kontrol grubundaki öğrencilerin “Ölçme ve Geometri Öğretimi Testi” erişi puan
ortalamaları ile öğrenci merkezli uygulamaların yapıldığı proje ve etkinlik destekli
gruplardaki öğrencilerin erişi puan ortalamaları arasında manidar bir fark
bululurken, öğrenci merkezli uygulamaların yapıldığı proje ve etkinlik destekli
gruplardaki öğrencilerin
erişi puan ortalamaları arasında manidar bir fark
bulunmamıştır. Proje ve etkinlik destekli gruplardaki öğrencilerin sürece ilişkin
olumlu görüşlerinin çokluğu ve ortak yanları yanı sıra olumsuz görüşleri de
mevcuttur.
Sonuç ve Öneriler
Her üç grupta da yapılan öğretimle öğrenciler başlangıçtaki durumlarına göre
farklıdırlar. Bazı yeni davranışlar kazanmışlar; önceden sahip oldukları bazı
davranışlar istendik yönde değişmiştir. Bu durum derslerin proje ve etkinliklerle
desteklenmesi lehine manidardır. Öğrenci görüşlerine bakıldığında, proje destekli
grupta olumlu görüşler daha çok grup çalışması, kişisel gelişime katkı, matematik
öğrenme - öğretmeye katkı ve proje hazırlama ve sunma üzerinde yoğunlaşırken
olumsuz görüşler az da olsa grup içinde sorumluluktan kaçma, uzlaşmada güçlük ve
zaman konusundadır. Etkinlik destekli grupta ise olumlu görüşler matematik
öğrenme – öğretme bilgi ve becerileri kazanma, kişisel gelişime katkı yönünde iken,
178
olumsuz görüşler az da olsa diğer gruptaki gibi zaman alıcı olması, masraflı ve bazen
amaca ulaşamama doğrultusundadır.
Öğrencilerin tamamına yakınını öğrenci merkezli uygulamalardan memnun olmaları
ve erişileri üzerindeki olumlu etkisi bu tür çalışmaların sınıf ortamında
kullanılmasının yararlı olacağına işarettir. Ancak zaman sorunu ve grup içi
sorumluluklar konusu üzerinde durulmalıdır. Dersler tamamen proje ve etkinlik
temelli işlenebilir. Yapılacak öğrenci merkezli çalışmalarda öğretim elemanı ve
öğrencinin öğrenme – öğretme sürecindeki sorumlulukları ve bakış açılarında bir
değişim olup olmadığı araştırılabilir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: sınıf öğretmeni adayı, matematik öğretimi, proje destekli öğretim,
etkinlik destekli öğretim, öğretmen yetiştirme
The Toronto Empathy Questionnaire:
Evaluation of Psychometric Properties among
Turkish University Students
Tarık Totan*
Tayfun Doğan**
Fatma Sapmaz***
Suggested Citation:
Totan, T., Doğan, T., & Sapmaz, F. (2012). The Toronto Empathy Questionnaire:
Evaluation of psychometric properties among Turkish university students.
Egitim Arastirmaları-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 46, 179-198
Abstract
Problem statement: Today, it is widely accepted that empathy is a
multidimensional factor that facilitates human relations. The common idea
that empathy comprises more than one component has created diversity
in the assessment of the said factor; many researchers have developed
empathy scales that include different dimensions. However, unidimensional assessments minimize differences between assessments and
develop an accepted core assessment tool.
Purpose of Study: The Toronto Empathy Questionnaire (TEQ) is a selfreport style, uni-dimensional, 16-item, five-point Likert type scale
developed to assess the empathy levels of individuals. The objective of
this study is to adapt the TEQ into Turkish and to analyze its
psychometric properties in a sample of Turkish university students.
Methods: Study participants included 698 university students from Ege
and Sakarya University. In the research, the Emphatic Tendency Scale and
the Basic Empathy Scale were used as data collection tools along with the
TEQ. In the adaptation of the questionnaire, a linguistic equivalence study
was performed first. The psychometric properties of the TEQ were
analyzed through item analysis, exploratory and confirmatory factor
Correpsonding Author:Ph.D., Abant İzzet Baysal University, Faculty of Education,
Department of Guidance and Counseling, [email protected].
*
Ph.D., Sakarya University, Faculty of Education, Department of Guidance and Counseling,
[email protected].
**
Ph.D., Sakarya University, Faculty of Education, Department of Guidance and Counseling,
[email protected].
***
179
180
Tarık Totan, Tayfun Doğan, & Fatma Sapmaz
analysis, criterion-related validity, internal consistency and test-retest
methods.
Results: As a result of the linguistic equivalency study, a positively
significant correlation was found between the original form and the
Turkish form of the questionnaire. The exploratory and confirmatory
factor analysis results demonstrated that the questionnaire had a unidimensional structure. Within the scope of the criterion-related validity,
positively significant correlations were found between the TEQ, Emphatic
Tendency Scale and Basic Empathy Scale. The TEQ’s internal consistency
coefficient and test-retest reliability coefficient were .79 and .73
respectively. The findings of this study showed that the Turkish form of
the TEQ was a valid and reliable assessment tool to assess the empathy
levels of university students.
Key words: Empathy, Toronto Empathy Questionnaire (TEQ), adaptation,
psychometric properties
Humankind, as a social entity, is in the position of communicating with others at
every stage of life. However, the problems of establishing healthy interpersonal
communication come into the forefront. Interpersonal relations have gradually
gotten more complicated in conjunction with urbanization, technological progresses,
changes in industry and complicating community structure (Bayam, Şimşek, &
Dilbaz, 1995). Therefore, as a significant element of healthy communication, the
ability to empathize is more important today. Given the related literature, the
number of studies on communication and interpersonal relations has increased
gradually and the attention is directed toward the concept of empathy.
Although research on empathy started at the end of the 19th century with the
German definitions of “einfühlung,” the process gained speed as American
experimental psychologists translated the term from German to English in the early
20th century (Wispé, 1990). There are different definitions and functions of empathy
in various psychological consultation theories (Marcia, 1990). However, if the matter
in question is empathy, the first name that comes to mind is Carl R. Rogers, who
conducted studies on empathy throughout his life and discussed empathy as an
indispensable element of the psychological consultancy process (Dökmen, 1987).
According to Rogers, empathy is that “a person puts himself/herself in other's place
and sees events from his/her point of view, understands and feels his/her emotions
and ideas accurately and communicates it to him/her” (Rogers, 1983; Dökmen, 1988).
It is remarkable that Rogers emphasizes two dimensions of empathy in his definition
(1983) cognitive and emotional. These dimensions are also emphasized in other
empathy-focused studies (Stephan & Finlay, 1999; Engeler & Yargıç, 2007).
Emotional empathy is defined as a process of understanding other individuals’
emotions and responding to and sharing such emotions. On the other hand,
cognitive empathy is defined as the ability to perceive other individuals’ feelings and
understanding their emotions and ideas (Yüksel, 2004). As seen in the definitions, the
181
emotional dimension of empathy involves —in the simplest term— a person’s
appropriate responses to others’ emotional responses such as sadness and anger. In
other words, a person may feel sorry for sad people or treat them with tenderness
and affection as a response to their sadness. Nonetheless, the fact that a person has a
similar emotion does not depend on knowing the source of another’s emotional
response. That is to say, a person may feel an emotion similar to that of others even if
he/she just sees or knows that others suffer without understanding why they suffer.
On the contrary, the cognitive dimension of empathy is oriented to thinking and
understanding and covers a cognition-based process. In this dimension, a person
understands the situation or the emotions and ideas of others (Spreng, Kinnon, Mar,
& Levine, 2009). İkiz (2006) says of the cognitive aspect of empathy, “a person
understands of what others feel” (37). According to him, the emotional aspect of
empathy includes “a person’s feeling of what others feel” (37).
As a result, in the literature, some researchers highlight the cognitive aspect
(Gallup & Platek, 2002) while others underline the emotional aspects (Mehrabian &
Epstein, 1972). However, most agree that empathy comprises both cognitive and
emotional components (Pecukonis, 1990; Shamay-Tsoory, Tomer, Goldsher, Berger,
& Aharon-Peretz, 2004; Dadds et al., 2008). Due to the fact that the levels of
awareness and understanding of people with a high level of emotional and cognitive
empathy increase, it will be easier to establish a healthy and satisfactory
communication (Dökmen, 1987, 2000).
Today, it is widely accepted that empathy is a multidimensional factor that
facilitates human relations. The common idea that empathy comprises more than one
component has created diversity in the assessment of the faculty and many
researchers have developed empathy scales that include different dimensions (e.g.,
Hogan, 1969; Mehrabian & Epstein, 1972; Davis, 1980, 1983; Elliott et al., 1982; Özbay
& Şahin, 2000; Lawrence, 2004; Wakabayashi et al., 2006; Muncer & Ling, 2006;
Jolliffe & Farrington, 2006; Engeler & Yargıç, 2007; Dadds et al., 2008; Bora & Baysan,
2009; Kaya & Siyez, 2010). Based on the diversity of multidimensional empathy
scales and the marked differences between the results of such scales, Spreng et al.
(2009) developed a uni-dimensional assessment tool. The objective of developing the
scale in question was not to return from multidimensional assessments to unidimensional assessments but to minimize the differences between assessments and
develop a core assessment tool (Spreng et al., 2009). In line with this objective, Spreng
et al. (2009) reviewed widely accepted empathy scales and developed the Toronto
Empathy Questionnaire. The objective of this study is to adapt the TEQ into Turkish
and to analyze its psychometric properties in a sample of Turkish university
students.
Method
Participants
The research was conducted on a total of 698 university students from three
different groups of participants. The first group comprised 33 university students
studying at Ege University’s Department of English Language and Literature and
182
participating in the linguistic equivalence study. The second group consisted of 588
university students [357 females (60.7 percent) and 231 males (39.3 percent)] from
Sakarya University’s Faculty of Education during the 2008-2009 academic year that
were chosen by a convenience sampling method among nonprobability sampling
techniques. The average age of this group was 20.60 (female = 20.22, S= 1.85; male
= 21.20, S= 1.81). In this group, 269 were freshmen (45.75 percent, female n= 196,
male n= 73), 100 were sophomores (17.01 percent, female n= 60, male n= 40), 77 were
juniors (11.04 percent, female n= 39, male n= 38) and 142 were seniors (24.15 percent,
female n= 62, male n= 80). The third group consisted of 77 students at Sakarya
University’s Faculty of Education that participated in the test-retest study.
Data Collection Tools
The Toronto Empathy Questionnaire (TEQ): Developed by Spreng et al. (2009), TEQ
is a 16-item (eight items are scored negatively and eight items are scored positively)
five-point Likert type scale. During the development of the TEQ, the researchers
aimed to assess empathy as an emotional process, contrary to similar scales. To this
end, they analyzed earlier assessment tools intended for assessing the empathy skill
and created their item pools by determining a total of 142 items from those
assessment tools. In their initial studies, Spreng et al. (2009) performed validity and
reliability studies by applying 142 items to a group of 200 people. Following the
structural validity study, the researchers determined 41 factors with an Eigen value
higher than 1 and explaining 75.23 percent of the questionnaire’s total variance.
Estimating that empathy could be assessed in a single dimension as an emotional
process, they restricted their exploratory factor analysis to one single factor.
Therefore, they obtained a single factorial structure comprising 16 items, each of
which had a factor load higher than .40. In the reliability study, the researchers
reported the TEQ’s Cronbach-α value as .85. Within the scope of the criterion-related
validity studies, they found that the TEQ had a high positive correlation with a
similar scale (Empathic Concern by Davis, 1983) and a negative correlation with a
dissimilar scale (Autism Quotient by Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2004). In their
second study of a different sample, they detected that the questionnaire had similar
correlations with the same scales. On the other hand, the third study of 65 university
students concluded that the questionnaire’s item total correlations varied between .34
and .71. During the same study, researchers discovered the questionnaire’s test-retest
reliability coefficient was .81. Having completed these validity and reliability studies,
they underlined that the TEQ was a short, straight, homogenous and powerful
assessment tool to evaluate empathy as an emotional process.
The Empathic Tendency Scale (ETS): ETS was developed by Dökmen (1988) for the
purpose of assessing individuals’ potential of empathizing in their daily lives. A
Likert type scale, it contains 20 items and each question is scored from 1 point to 5
points. The minimum and maximum scores on the scale are 20 and 100, respectively.
The total score implies the participants’ empathic tendency scores. Higher scores
mean higher empathic tendencies and vice versa. The test-retest reliability coefficient
of the ETS was .82. The internal consistency reliability coefficient calculated by means
183
of Cronbach-α method was .72. The correlation between the subscale “understanding
emotions” of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule and the ETS was .68.
The Basic Empathy Scale (BES): BES was developed by Jolliffe & Farrington (2006).
The scale’s Turkish adaptation and validity and reliability studies were carried out
by Topçu, Baker, & Aydın (2009). BES comprises 20 items. There is a five-item Likerttype key for the scale. The TEQ can assess empathy in two sub-dimensions—
cognitive and affective. Researchers reported the Cronbach-α reliability coefficient as
.83 for the entire scale, .80 for the cognitive sub-dimension and .76 for the affective
subscale. The validity of the BES was analyzed by means of a CFA. It concluded that
the two-factor structure of the original form was confirmed in the Turkish sample,
too.
Procedure
In order to adapt the TEQ, researchers contacted R. Nathan Spreng, one of the
developers of the questionnaire, to obtain the necessary permission. Then, the
questionnaire was translated into Turkish by four instructors with a good command
of English from the field of psychological counseling and guidance. After it had been
translated by four different people independently, the translation forms were
analyzed by the researchers. The statements that were believed to represent each
item best were picked and a single form was created. This form took its final shape
following the necessary corrections and discussions. After this stage, high-level
correlations were identified between the items of the original form and the translated
form. Afterwards, the questionnaire was given to the participants. The data
collection tools were applied to the volunteer students during course hours.
Applications took approximately 10-15 minutes.
Data Analysis
Prior to being subjected to statistical processes, research data underwent data
cleaning (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; Osborne & Overbay, 2008). Wrong encodings
detected by frequency tables were arranged by looking at raw data. It was
determined that the missing values at all parameters were not above 5 percent. The
structural validity study employed the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) methods. EFA identifies the factors under which
there are scale items mathematically. CFA is a statistical method aimed at
theoretically determining which item is located under which factor before the
analysis and allowing for analyzing item-factor association (Child, 2006; Brown,
2006). For EFA and CFA used during the structural validity in study. Schwab (2005a)
stated that data collected from a total of 100 participants would be adequate in the
principal components analysis as EFA. However, Costello & Osborne (2005) said
that, in factor analysis studies, the number of participants is usually determined by
the participant item rate, which is generally 10:1 but may decrease to 2:1. If the
participant item rate is accepted as 10:1, there should be at least 160 participants for
16 items of the TEQ (16:10= 160). Given the number of the research participants (n=
588), the number is much higher than it is supposed to be (588:16=37). It was
determined that, in the research data, the univariate normal distribution (z= ±3.00)
184
and multivariate normal distribution (Mahalonobis D2) with a normal distribution
(Kolmogorov Smirnov p≥ .05) and linearity were not outliers (Schwab, 2005b;
Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Since these criteria were sufficient, the research data used
in the adaptation study was adequate for statistical analyses and the validity and
reliability studies were performed. Researchers used internal consistency and testretest methods in the reliability study of the TEQ. In addition, an item analysis was
used to determine the questionnaire items’ power of representing the questionnaire;
researchers also conducted upper and lower 27 percent-group comparisons for the
purpose of each item’s power of distinctiveness (Büyüköztürk, 2007). Finally,
researchers analyzed the TEQ’s distinctive validity study on the base of gender. The
statistical analyses were carried out by means of IBM PAWS SPSS 18 (SPSS, 2009)
and LISREL 8.80 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2006) programs.
Results
Linguistic Equivalency
The most significant procedure during the adaptation of an assessment tool from
the society in which it was developed to another society is the translation from the
source language to the target language (Geisinger, 1994). According to the bilingual
pattern used in the linguistic equivalency study (Deniz, 2007), the participants of a
linguistic equivalency study should have an excellent command of both languages.
Therefore, 33 students at Ege University’s Department of English Language and
Literature (all of which had an excellent command of both Turkish and English)
participated to the linguistic equivalence study conducted in the first stage of the
research. When the findings obtained as a result of the analysis were examined, a
positive significant correlation (r= .72, p= 000) was found in the total of the source
and target language forms. Furthermore, when the correlations between the items in
the source and target languages were examined by the Spearman rho formula
because of ordinal data (Gravetter & Wallnau, 2007), significant correlations with
values varying between .41 and .72 were detected.
185
Table 1
Correlation Values Between Items in English and Turkish Forms
Items
rho
Item1
.72**
Item 2
.55**
Item 3
.48**
Item 4
.47**
Item 5
.42*
Item 6
.41*
Item 7
.55**
Item 8
.74**
Item 9
.45*
Item10
.61**
Item 11
.43**
Item 12
.68**
Item 13
.48**
Item 14
.54**
Item 15
.59**
Item 16
.72**
*p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .001
The items in the Turkish form of the questionnaire reflected the original form
because researchers observed a sufficient correlation between the TEQ's original
form and translated form when the correlation coefficients acquired as a result of the
linguistic validity study were analyzed.
Item Analysis
An item analysis was performed in order to determine the questionnaire items’
power of predicting the total score. According to the results, the values of Items 1, 6
and 9 were below.30. Therefore, those items were omitted from the questionnaire
and the analyses were repeated. As a result of the item analysis conducted after
omitting the said items, the item total correlations varied between .31 and .55. Upper
and lower 27 percent group comparisons were conducted to determine each item’s
186
power of distinctiveness. Accordingly, the differences between the items were
statistically significant (p≤ .001). These results demonstrated that the questionnaire
items’ power to represent the questionnaire and distinctiveness were sufficient. The
results obtained are given below in detail.
Table 2
Independent Groups t-test Results of Upper and Lower 27% Group Differences and Item
Total Correlations of TEQ
Items
Item 2
Item 3
Item 4
Item 5
Item 7
Item 8
Item10
Item11
Item12
Item13
Item14
Item15
Item16
1n=
Corrected Item-Total
Correlations1
.31
.37
.40
.44
.44
.36
.36
.47
.52
.51
.55
.35
.41
t values for each items
(Upper and lower 27% group)2
11.162*
9.449*
13.030*
11.835*
13.344*
10.202*
9.344*
13.073*
15.550*
16.597*
13.616*
12.178*
12.247*
588, 2n1, n2= 159, sd= 317, *p ≤ .001
Structural validity
The structural validity of the TEQ was examined using EFA and CFA methods.
As a result of the analysis performed by restricting it to a single factor, it was
determined that the Kaiser Meier Olkin (KMO) coefficient was .85 and the Barlett χ2
value was 1519.05 (p= .000). The variance value of the single factor with an Eigen
value of 3.933 was 24.58 percent. However, the item factor loadings of Item 1 (.22),
Item 6 (.26), and Item 9 (.29) were below .40. Although the factor loadings of these
items were determined to be very low, following the first CFA for original model, it
was found that all parameter estimation values of the items were positively loaded
and the goodness of fit indexes were partially adequate (χ2= 405.92, df= 104, χ2/df=
3.91, GFI= .92, NFI= .88, RFI= .86, CFI= .91, RMR= .057, RMSEA= .070). When the
corrected item total correlations were examined so the observed confirmation level
was assessed to be sufficient, the values of Item 1 (.19), 6 (.20), and 9 (.23) were found
to be very low. Therefore, Item 1, 6 and 9 were omitted from the questionnaire.
Turkish validity and reliability studies of the TEQ which originally comprised 16
items were carried out on the base of 13 items. As a result of the EFA performed on
the remaining items, the KMO value was .85 and the Barlett Sphericity Test χ2 value
was 1350.23 (p= .000); it explained 29.17 percent of the variance in total. A KMO
coefficient of .70 and higher is adequate for accepting the Barlett χ2 analysis as
187
important (Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2006). As a result, it was determined that the
analysis was sufficient enough.
Table 3
The Exploratory Factor Analysis Result of the TEQ
Items
Item 2
Item 3
Item 4
Item 5
Item 7
Item 8
Item10
Item11
Item12
Item13
Item14
Item15
Item16
h2
.16
.24
.26
.31
.31
.24
.22
.32
.40
.40
.44
.21
.29
F1= TEQ total
F1
.40
.49
.51
.56
.56
.49
.47
.57
.63
.63
.67
.45
.53
As a result of the EFA performed during the TEQ’s structural validity study, it
was found that the item factor loads took a value between .40 and .67. Field (2005)
expresses that researchers generally expect factor loads to be more than .30 as a result
of the factor analysis. However, Hair et al. (2006) state that it should be above .40. As
a result of the EFA, the factor loadings of 13 items were sufficient. EFA values were
sufficient for 13 items included in the questionnaire’s Turkish form and researchers
analyzed the verification level of the model using the CFA. Given the first model
output, the association of the error covariance belonging to Item 8 and Item 13 was
effective in decreasing the chi-square value of the model. Therefore, Item 8 and Item
13 were analyzed; researchers found that they could be accepted as close to each
other in terms of meaning. Therefore, the error covariances of these two items were
associated.
Table 4
The Goodness of Fit Indexes
Models
First
Model
Final
Model
χ2
265.34
df
65
χ2/df
4,09
GFI
.93
NFI
.91
RFI
.89
CFI
.93
IFI
.93
RMR
.054
RMSEA
.072
234.67
64
3.67
.94
.91
.90
.94
.94
.052
.067
188
Due to the fact that a noticeable decrease occurred in the chi-square level as a
result of the association of the item error covariance, the model following the
association was accepted as the final model. The ratio of the chi-square value to the
degree of freedom is below 5 in the final model. Moreover, the values belonging to
GFI, NFI, RFI, CFI and IFI from the model goodness of fit indexes are more than .90.
On the other hand, RMR and RMSEA values are loaded with the values below .08.
Researchers (Aron & Aron, 2002; Schumacker & Lomax, 2004; Kline, 2005; Raykov &
Marcoulides, 2006; Vieira, 2011) state that, in the structural equivalence model,
goodness of fit loaded with .90 or more is a sign of a good fit. Hoe (2008) expresses
that RMSEA value below .08 is acceptable as well. The goodness of fit indexes were
sufficient, and the diagram belonging to the CFA final model is given below.
Figure 1. The model output of the TEQ as a result of CFA after item omission.
In the CFA, all the parameter estimations of the final model were positively
loaded. Parameter estimations took values between .35 and .62. For the purpose of
189
analyzing the validity of the said results, the research data was distributed into
two groups; one group was 40 percent (n= 235) and the other group was 60 percent
(n= 353). Then a cross validation was performed. As a result of the cross validation, it
was found that the parameter estimations belonging to the model in the CFA
analyses of both groups were non-zero and positively loaded. Furthermore, it was
determined that the goodness of fit of the 60 percent group [χ2= 229.39, df= 65,
χ2/df= 3.53, GFI= .91, NFI= .87, RFI= .91, CFI= .90, IFI= .90, RMR= .065, RMSEA=
.073] and the goodness of fit of the 40 percent group [χ2= 113.50, df= 65, χ2/df= 1.75,
GFI= .93, NFI= .90, RFI= .88, CFI= .95, IFI= .95, RMR= .056, RMSEA= .056] were at
acceptable levels except for first group’s NFI and second group’s RFI. Therefore, the
structural validity of the TEQ's Turkish form was sufficient.
Criterion Related Validity
In order to demonstrate the criterion-related validity of TEQ, BES (Topçu, Baker,
& Aydın, 2009), ETS (Dökmen, 1988) and the TEQ were applied to 115 university
students. Accordingly, it was determined that the TEQ had a positively significant
(p≤ .001) correlation of .47 with the cognitive dimension, .59 with the affective
dimension, .68 with the entire BES and a positively significant (p≤ .001) correlation of
.35 with ETS.
Reliability
The reliability of the TEQ was calculated using the test-retest and Cronbach’s
alpha internal consistency method. For the test-retest study, the questionnaire was
applied once every three weeks to 77 students studying at Sakarya University’s
Faculty of Education, and a correlation of .73 was found between two applications.
The Cronbach-α internal consistency coefficient of the questionnaire was .79.
According to these results, the TEQ had a sufficient level of reliability.
The Distinctive Validity
Spreng et al. (2009) state that the TEQ showed considerable gender-based
differences in their second and third studies. In their first study of 200 university
students, the researchers found that the difference between female and male
participants was not significant, and that the empathy levels of the female
participants (second study = 48.93, sd= 6.77; third study = 48.93, sd= 6.90) were
considerably higher than the empathy levels of the male participants (second study
= 43.46, sd= 7.79; third study ( = 43.63, sd= 7.93) in their second study of 79
university students (t77= 3.16, p≤ .05, Cohen d= .73) and their third study of 65
university students (t63= 2.39, p≤ .001, Cohen d= .63). The existence of gender-related
differences in the data collected within the scope of the research was analyzed by
means of t-test analysis for independent samples. Table 5 shows the results.
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Table 5
Result for the Independent Sample t-test of the Gender-Related Differences in the TEQ
Gender
n
Women
357
Men
231
ss
t
df
p
Cohen d
40.77
6.46
8.465
586
.000
.57
35.97
7.10
The t-test analysis for independent samples determined that, of the research
participants, the empathy levels of women ( = 40.77, s= 6.46) were significantly
higher (t586= 8.465, p= .000) than the empathy levels of men ( = 35.97, sd= 7.10). The
influence magnitude of this difference is high like the second and third studies by
Spreng et al. (2009) because gender is an important distinctive element in empathy.
In other words, this research concluded that being female was more significant in
high levels of empathy than being male.
This study analyzed the psychometric properties of the TEQ in a sample of
Turkish university students. In this context, its linguistic validity was examined and
a linguistic equivalence study between the original form and the Turkish form was
carried out. To demonstrate the structural validity of the TEQ, EFA and CFA were
carried out. Within the scope of criterion-related validity, however, correlations
between TEQ, ETS and BES were analyzed. On the other hand, reliability of the TEQ
was calculated by means of the test-retest and internal consistency methods.
Furthermore, an item analysis was performed to demonstrate the questionnaire
items’ power to represent the total score and distinctiveness. Finally, researchers
carried out a gender-based distinctive validity study.
The linguistic equivalency study is of high importance in scale adaptation
studies. In the research, after the original form was translated into Turkish and the
most suitable statements had been determined, both the original form and the
Turkish form were given to a group with a good command of both languages at
different times. Then the correlations were analyzed both on the base of each item
and on the total score obtained from the data of both applications. Accordingly, all
the correlations between the items were positively significant and varied between .41
and .72. In terms of the total score, a relation of was obtained between the original
form and the Turkish form. These results are sufficient in terms of linguistic
equivalency.
The TEQ items’ power predicting the total score and distinctiveness were
examined using an item analysis and upper and lower 27 percent group methods.
According to the results, Items 1, 6 and 9 were omitted from the questionnaire since
their values were below .30 and analyses were performed. As a result of the item
191
analysis conducted after omitting these items, it was found that the corrected item
total correlations varied between .31 and .55, i.e., the item total correlations of all
items were above .30. When the groups of 27 percent were analyzed, all the
differences between the items were significant. In line with these differences, it was
concluded that the questionnaire items’ had a distinctive power.
The factorial structure of the original questionnaire comprises a single dimension.
In this study, researchers performed an EFA to demonstrate the factorial structure of
the TEQ, and a CFA was performed to determine whether the factorial structure of
the original form was confirmed in the sample of Turkish university students. As a
result of the exploratory factor analysis performed by restricting it to a single factor, a
structure having an Eigen value of 3.933 and explaining 29.17 percent of the total
variance was obtained. It determined that the factor loads of the questionnaire items
varied between .40 and .67. On the other hand, as a result of the CFA, it was
concluded that the fit index values were sufficient and the Turkish sample confirmed
the factorial structure of the original form.
Researchers analyzed the validity of the TEQ by means of the criterion-related
validity as well as the EFA and CFA. Accordingly, this study used the ETS
previously developed in the Turkish culture and the BES adapted into Turkish. This
research found a correlation of .35 between TEQ and ETS, .68 between the TEQ and
BES, .47 between the TEQ and the BES’s cognitive subscale and .59 between the TEQ
and the BES’s affective subscale. The reliability of the scale was analyzed with testretest and internal consistency (Cronbach-α) methods. Accordingly, the internal
consistency reliability coefficient of the TEQ was .79. However, the reliability
coefficient applied once in two weeks and calculated by means of the test-retest
methods was .73.
Consequently, the results of this study turned the TEQ into a 13-item unidimensional assessment tool. These results showed that the TEQ had sufficient
validity and reliability in the assessment of Turkish university students’ empathy
levels. It is thought that the questionnaire can be employed in the psychological
consultation process as well as research on human relations and empathy owing to
its features such as practical use and assessment and not being time-consuming.
192
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Toronto Empati Ölçeği: Türk Üniversite Öğrencilerinde Psikometrik
Özelliklerinin Değerlendirilmesi
(Özet)
Problem Durumu
Günümüzde empatinin insan ilişkilerini kolaylaştırıcı bir etkiye sahip çok boyutlu bir
yeti olduğu görüşü yaygın olarak kabul görmüştür. Empatinin birden çok
bileşenden oluştuğu konusundaki yaygın görüş bu yetinin ölçümüne ilişkin çeşitliği
de beraberinde getirmiş, pek çok araştırmacı farklı boyutları içeren empati ölçekleri
geliştirmişlerdir Çok boyutlu empati ölçeklerinin çeşitliliği ve bu ölçeklerden alınan
sonuçlar arasında belirgin farklıklar olmasından yola çıkarak Toronto Empati Ölçeği
(TEÖ) özgün formunda tek boyutlu bir ölçme aracı olarak yapılandırılmıştır. Ölçeğin
geliştiricileri, TEÖ’ni geliştirilme amaçlarını çok boyutlu ölçümlerden tek boyutlu
ölçümlere bir geri dönüş sağlamak olmadığını daha çok ölçümler arasındaki
farklılıkları minimum düzeye indirmek ve görüş birliği sağlanmış çekirdek bir ölçme
aracı geliştirmek olarak tanımlamaktadırlar.
Bu çalışmada Toronto Empati Ölçeğinin (TEÖ) Türk üniversite öğrencilerinden
oluşan örneklemde psikometrik özellikleri incelenmiş; geçerlik ve güvenirlik
çalışmaları yapılmıştır. Bu bağlamda ilk olarak dil geçerliliğine bakılmış ve özgün
form ile Türkçe form arasındaki dilsel eşdeğerlik çalışması yapılmıştır. TEÖ’nin yapı
geçerliğini ortaya koymak üzere betimleyici ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizi yöntemleri
kullanılmıştır. Ölçüt bağıntılı geçerlik kapsamında ise TEÖ ile Empatik Eğilim Ölçeği
(EEÖ) ve Temel Empati Ölçeği arasındaki ilişkiler incelenmiştir. TEÖ’nin güvenirliği
ise test tekrar test ve iç tutarlık yöntemleriyle hesaplanmıştır. Ayrıca ölçek
maddelerinin toplam puanı temsil etme gücünü ve ayırt ediciliğini ortaya
koyabilmek amacıyla madde analizi yapılmıştır. Son olarak cinsiyete dayalı ayırt
edici geçerlik çalışması yürütülmüştür
Araştırmada üç farklı grup olmak üzere toplamda 698 üniversite öğrencisi katılımcı
olarak yer almıştır. İlk grupta yer alan Ege Üniversitesi, İngilizce Dili ve Edebiyatı
bölümünde eğitim alan 33 üniversite öğrencisi ölçeğin özgün ve hedef formuna
incelemeye yönelik dil geçerliği çalışmasında yer almıştır. Araştırmanın geçerlik ve
güvenirlik çalışmalarının büyük bir kısmının yürütüldüğü ikinci grubu oluşturan
katılımcılar 2008-2009 eğitim-öğretim yılı içerisinde Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim
Fakültesi’nde öğrenim gören olasılıksız örnekleme teknikleri arasında yer alan
uygun örnekleme yöntemiyle belirlenen 357’si kadın (%60,7), 231’i erkek (%39,3)
toplam 588 üniversite öğrencisidir. Araştırma verisi toplandığı sırada katılımcıların
269’u üniversite birinci sınıfta (%45,7, kadın n= 196, erkek n= 73), 100’u ikinci sınıfta
(%13,1, kadın n= 60, erkek n= 40), 77’si üçüncü sınıfta (kadın n= 39, erkek n= 38) ve
142’si ise son sınıfta (%24,1, kadın n= 62, erkek n= 80) öğrenimlerine devam
etmektedir. Katılımcıların genel yaş ortalaması 20,60 olarak belirlenmiştir (ss= 20,60;
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kadın = 20,22, ss= 1,85; erkek = 21,20, ss= 1,81). Son olarak Sakarya Üniversitesi
Eğitim Fakültesine devam 77 öğrenci üzerinden elde edilen veriyle araştırmanın test
tekrar test geçerliğine ait çalışmalar yürütülmüştür. Araştırma bulgularının analizleri
sırasında betimsel faktör analizi, doğrulayıcı faktör analizi, bağımsız örneklemler için
t-testi, Pearson Momentler Çarpımı Korelasyon katsayısı ve Spearman rho yöntemleri
IBM PAWS SPSS 18 ve LISREL 8.80 programları aracılığıyla incelenmiştir.
Ölçek uyarlama çalışmalarında dilsel eş değerlik çalışması büyük önem taşımaktadır.
Araştırmada özgün formunun Türkçeye çevrilmesi ve en uygun ifadelerin
belirlenmesinden sonra her iki dile de hâkim bir gruba özgün form ve Türkçe form
farklı zamanlarda uygulanmıştır. Ardından her iki uygulamanın verisi üzerinden
hem her madde bazında hem de alınan toplam puan bazında ilişkiler incelenmiştir.
Buna göre maddeler arası ilişkilerin tümünün pozitif yönde önemli olduğu .41 ile .72
arasında değiştiği görülmüştür. Toplam puan açısından ise özgün form ile Türkçe
form arasında .72 korelasyon elde edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlar dilsel eşdeğerlik açısından
yeterli kabul edilebilecek düzeydedir.
TEÖ’ nün maddelerinin toplam puanı yordama gücü ve ayırt ediciliği madde analizi
ve %27’lik alt-üst gruplar yöntemleriyle incelenmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre 1, 6
ve 9. maddelerin değerlerinin .30’un altında olduğu saptandığından bu maddeler
ölçekten çıkarılarak analizler yapılmıştır. Söz konusu maddeler çıkarıldıktan sonra
yapılan madde analizi sonucu madde toplam korelasyonlarının .31 ile .55 arasında
olduğu başka bir ifadeyle tüm maddelerin madde toplam korelasyonlarının .30’dan
yukarıda olduğu bulunmuştur. %27’lik gruplar incelendiğinde maddeler arasındaki
farklılıkların tümünün önemli olduğu görülmüştür. Bu farklılıklar doğrultusunda
ölçek maddelerinin ayırt edicilik gücünün yüksek olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır.
Özgün ölçeğin faktör yapısı tek boyuttan oluşmaktadır. Bu araştırmada da TEÖ’nin
faktör yapısını ortaya koyabilmek amacıyla betimleyici faktör analizi ve özgün
formun faktör yapısının Türk üniversite öğrencilerinden oluşan örneklemde
doğrulanıp doğrulanmayacağını ortaya koymak üzere doğrulayıcı faktör analizi
yapılmıştır. Tek faktörle sınırlandırılarak yapılan betimleyici faktör analizi
sonucunda özdeğeri 3,933 olan ve toplam varyansın % 24,58’ ini açıklayan bir yapı
elde edilerek ölçek maddelerinin faktör yüklerinin .40 ile .67 arasında değiştiği
belirlenmiştir. Doğrulayıcı faktör analizi sonucunda ise uyum indeksi değerlerinin
yeterli düzeyde olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmış ve özgün formun faktör yapısının Türk
örneklemde doğrulandığı görülmüştür [χ2= 234,67, df= 64, χ2/df= 3,67, GFI= ,94,
NFI= ,91, RFI= ,90, CFI= ,94, IFI= ,94, RMR= ,052, RMSEA= ,067].
TEÖ’nin geçerliği betimleyici ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizinden başka ölçüt bağıntılı
geçerlik yöntemiyle de incelenmiştir. Buna göre daha önce Türk kültüründe
geliştirilmiş Empatik Eğilim Ölçeği (EEÖ) ve Türkçeye uyarlanmış Temel Empati
Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. TEÖ ile EEÖ arasında .35, Temel Empati Ölçeği ile .68, Temel
Empati Ölçeği Bilişsel alt boyutuyla .47, Duyuşsal alt boyutuyla .59 düzeyinde pozitif
yönde önemli ilişkiler bulunmuştur. Ölçeğin güvenirliği ise test tekrar test ve iç
tutarlık (Cronbach alfa) yöntemleriyle incelenmiştir. Buna göre TEÖ’nin iç tutarlık
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güvenirlik katsayısı .79 olarak bulunmuştur. İki hafta arayla gerçekleştirilen, test
tekrar test yöntemiyle hesaplanan güvenirlik katsayısı ise .73 olarak bulunmuştur.
Araştırmada TEÖ’nden alınan puanların cinsiyete göre bir farklılık gösterip
göstermediği de incelenmiş ve elde edilen bulgulara göre kadın ve erkeklerin empati
düzeyleri arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmuştur. Buna göre
kadınların empati düzeylerinin erkeklere göre anlamlı derecede daha yüksek olduğu
sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.
Özgün formda yer alan 1. Madde “Birisi heyecanlandığında bende heyecanlanırım”, 6.
Madde “Benden daha az şanslı insanlara karşı duyarlı ve ilgiliyimdir” ve 9. Madde “Diğer
insanların ruh hallerine uyum sağlarım” madde toplam korelasyonları ve faktör yükleri
.30’dan düşük olduğundan dolayı çıkarılmış ve analizler bu maddeler olmaksızın
tekrar yapılmıştır. Bu üç madde dışında TEÖ’nin uyarlanmasında kültürlerarası
geçerlilikle ilgili bir problemle karşılaşılmamıştır.
Sonuç olarak TEÖ bu çalışma sonucunda 13 maddelik tek boyutlu bir ölçme aracı
haline gelmiştir. Elde edilen tüm bu sonuçlar TEÖ’nin Türk üniversite öğrencilerinin
empati düzeylerini ölçmede yeterli geçerlik ve güvenirliğe sahip olduğunu ortaya
koymuştur. Ölçek kullanımının ve değerlendirilmesinin kolay ve pratik oluşu, çok
zaman almaması gibi özelliklerinden dolayı gerek psikolojik danışma sürecinde
gerekse insan ilişkileri ve empati ile ilgili yapılacak araştırmalarda kullanılabileceği
düşünülmektedir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Toronto Empati Ölçeği, ölçek uyarlama, psikometrik özellikler
Turkish Adaptation of the Gratitude
Questionnaire
Asuman Yüksel
Nagihan Oğuz Duran
Suggested Citation:
Yüksel, A., & Oğuz Duran, N. (2012). Turkish adaptation of the Gratitude
Questionnaire. Egitim Arastirmaları-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research,
46, 199-216
Abstract
Problem Statement: Although the study of gratitude in psychology has a
very short history, the findings of several studies underline the role of
gratitude in enhancing individual well-being. Therefore, it is important to
be able to assess levels of individual gratitude in counseling and research
settings. Since, in the Turkish literature, no measure of gratitude has been
validated for college students, it is important to adapt The Gratitude
Questionnaire (GQ), one of the most commonly used self-report measures
of dispositional gratitude in recent literature, into Turkish, for use in
research and practice.
Purpose of Study: The purpose of this study was to translate the Gratitude
Questionnaire (GQ; McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002) into Turkish
and investigate its validity and reliability among Turkish undergraduate
students.
Methods: Forward and back translation methods were used to translate the
GQ from English to Turkish. The Turkish form of the GQ, along with
optimism, positive and negative affect, and satisfaction with life measures,
was administered to a total of 859 Turkish college students (For age
M=20.23, SD= 1.77) who were recruited from all departments at the
Faculty of Education, Uludağ University. Exploratory and confirmatory
factor analyses were used to examine the factor structure of the scale. The
relationship between GQ scores and scores on other measures was
*Corresponding Author:Assist.Prof.Dr. Uludağ University Faculty of Education,
[email protected]
** Assist.Prof.Dr. Uludağ University Faculty of Education, [email protected]
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Asuman Yüksel, & Nagihan Oğuz Duran
assessed by calculating the Pearson product moment correlation
coefficient. Additionally, internal consistency was evaluated by calculating
Cronbach’s alpha, and item-total correlation and test-retest reliability
coefficients were calculated by Pearson correlation.
Findings and Results:
Regarding construct validity, the scale was
unidimensional. However, a five-item model, rather than the original sixitem version, fit the sample of Turkish college students better [GFI=0.97,
CFI= .94, AGFI=0.90, SRMR = 0.04, RMSEA=0.10]. The findings also
indicated sufficient evidence in favor of the concurrent validity and
reliability of the Turkish GQ.
Conclusions and Recommendations: The results of this study revealed that
the five-item GQ can be used to evaluate prepositional gratitude among
Turkish college students.
Key words: Gratitude, validity, reliability, college students
Gratitude is a concept that has become more widely recognized in recent
psychological studies, as a result of the emergence of positive psychology, which has
a renewed focus on the capabilities and potential of individuals, rather than on their
problems, unresolved issues, or missed opportunities. Although in the literature,
gratitude has been conceptualized as an emotion, an attitude, a moral virtue, a habit,
a personality trait, and a coping response, a dispositional perspective that
emphasizes gratitude’s emotional component seems to have predominated recently
(McCullough & Tsang, 2004; Emmons, McCullough, & Tsang, 2007). Two widelyused measures of gratitude, the Gratitude Resentment and Appreciation Test (GRAT;
Watkins, Woodward, Stone, & Kolts, 2003) and the Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ;
McCullough et al., 2002), define and assess gratitude from the perspective of
emotions. These measures view gratitude as a general, trait-like tendency to
recognize and respond with positive emotions (appreciation, thankfulness) to the
benefits one receives from other persons or transpersonal bodies, such as God,
nature, and the cosmos (McCullough et al., 2002; Emmons et al., 2007). In other
words, gratitude is a sense of wonder, thankfulness, and appreciation for life that can
be expressed towards other sources, typically by giving thanks to benefactors for
their help (Emmons & Shelton, 2002).
Hence, gratitude is a feeling that is directed towards external sources. According
to Emmons (2004), gratitude is an experience that differs significantly from other
emotions, since one can feel happy or angry at oneself, or proud of one's
accomplishments, but cannot be grateful for oneself. It is the expression of thanks for
goodness outside of oneself that truly defines gratitude. People are grateful if they
are aware of the good things that happen to them and if they express thanks to those
201
responsible (Emmons, 2004). According to recent literature, this kind of experience of
gratitude has the potential to build resources for both society and individuals.
This potential makes gratitude a topic of interest in sociology, psychology, education,
and counseling.
At a societal level, gratitude has such benefits as reciprocal altruism and social
cohesion (Simmel, 1950; as cited in Emmons, et al., 2007, pp. 328-329). At an
individual level, it enhances one’s personal and relational well-being. Recent
literature reveals causal links between gratitude and human well-being. For instance,
McCullough et al. (2002) reported in four studies that dispositionally-grateful people
(as measured by the GQ) report higher levels of vitality, happiness, satisfaction with
life, hope, and optimism, as well as lesser levels of depression and anxiety, envy, and
materialism. McCullough et al. also reported prosocial behaviors and traits (such as
empathy, forgiveness, helpfulness, and support), and religiousness and spirituality
as other psychological correlates of dispositional gratitude. Other western studies
replicated these findings, using the same gratitude instrument (the GQ;
McCoullough et al. (2002). Wood, Joseph & Linley (2007), for instance, pointed to the
positive relationship between gratitude, lower levels of stress and depression, and
higher levels of happiness and life satisfaction among undergraduate students. In
another study on Vietnam War veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
Kashdan, Uswatte, and Julian (2006) reported gratitude as a predictor of affect
balance, rewarding social activity, intrinsically-motivating activity, and self-esteem.
Studies on gratitude interventions have also revealed the relationship between
gratitude and psychological and physical well-being. Emmons and McCullough
(2003) examined this relationship in a series of three studies. The first compared
those who kept gratitude journals and those who recorded hassles or neutral life
events, in a “writing once a week for 10 consecutive weeks” design. Their results
revealed that the former group exercised more regularly, reported fewer physical
symptoms, felt better about their lives as a whole, and were more optimistic about
the upcoming week, compared to the other two groups. In the second study,
participants were asked to write in their diaries each day for two weeks, rather than
once a week. The results showed that participants in the daily gratitude condition
were more likely to report having helped someone with a personal problem or
having offered emotional support to another, relative to those in the hassles or social
comparison condition. Finally, in the third study, a 21-day gratitude intervention was
conducted with a sample of adults with neuromuscular disease. The results revealed
more positive affect (PA), greater optimism, greater sense of connectedness to others,
and better sleep duration and sleep quality for those in the daily gratitude writing
condition, compared to those in the non-treatment control condition.
Replicating the “gratitude, hassles, and control condition” design of Emmons and
McCullough (2003) with a sample of early adolescents, Froh, Sefick, and Emmons
(2008) reported that counting blessings was associated with enhanced self-reported
gratitude, optimism, and life satisfaction, as well as with decreased negative affect
202
(NA). Moreover, children who practiced grateful thinking had more positive
attitudes toward school and family. In other studies, Froh and colleagues conducted
two additional interventions, to show that gratitude can help young people
experience long-lasting boosts to their well-being. In one of these studies (Froh,
Kashdan, Ozimkowski, & Miller, 2009), children and adolescents who were low in
positive affect and who wrote and personally delivered a gratitude letter to a
benefactor, compared to those who kept journals about daily events, reported greater
gratitude and positive affect at posttreatment and greater positive affect at the 2month followup mark. In another study (Froh, Bono, & Emmons, 2010), children who
were taught how to think gratefully, compared to those in an attention-control
group, reported more grateful thinking, gratitude, and happiness (per self and
teacher reports) and also wrote more thank you cards to their parent teacher
association.
In another experimental gratitude intervention study, Watkins et al. (2003)
examined the relationship between gratitude and PA by allocating student
participants to one of three gratitude conditions: (1) thinking about a living person
for whom they were grateful; (2) writing an essay about a living person for whom
they were grateful, and (3) writing a letter to a living person for whom they were
grateful. Significant increases in PA emerged for all gratitude conditions, compared
to the control condition, with the strongest increase in the grateful thinking
condition.
To conclude, although the study of gratitude in psychology has a very short
history, the findings of several studies have underlined the role of gratitude in
enhancing individual well-being. Improving gratitude via psychological intervention
seems to be a useful way of improving well-being. Therefore, it is important to be
able to assess individual levels of gratitude in counseling and research settings.
Gratitude has been measured using different assessment techniques. For instance,
in some studies, gratitude was assessed by soliciting free responses to questions
about gratitude, such as, “What would you say or do in response to someone helping
you?” (e.g., Okamato & Robinson, 1997), while in other studies, such grateful
behavior as saying “thank you” was directly observed (Becker & Smenner, 1986).
Most other studies asked participants to rate their gratitude toward someone using a
scale (e.g., Overwalle, Mervielde, & De Schuyter, 1995; Parker & de Vries, 1993).
Recently, heteromethod assessment, that is, the use of valid and reliable self-report
measures in combination with multiple sources of data (e.g. ratings by peers or
laboratory procedures) has been suggested as a way of eliminating measuring bias
(Emmons, et al., 2007).
The Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ; McCullough et al., 2002) is one of the most
commonly used self-report measures of dispositional gratitude in recent literature.
Although the GQ, in general, has been found to have good psychometric properties,
several questions remain unresolved. For instance, studies on the adaptation of the
203
GQ to Chinese culture have revealed better psychometric properties for a five-item
version of the scale than for the original six-item version (Chen, Chen, Kee, & Tsai,
2009). Additionally, Froh, Fan, Emmons, Bono, Huebner, and Watkins (2011) have
reported that Item 6 is “difficult to understand” and “very abstract” for young
people.
In Turkish literature, no measure of gratitude has been validated for college
students. Moreover, several studies have revealed a considerable amount of
psychological deficits, such as depression and anxiety, among Turkish university
students (e.g., Ceyhan, Ceyhan, & Kurtyılmaz, 2009; Kaygusuz, 2002; Silah, 2003).
These findings point to the need to focus and improve psychological resources, such
as by developing a grateful disposition, in this population. Therefore, it is important
to adapt the GQ into Turkish for use in counseling research and practice. This study
adapted the GQ to a Turkish group and investigated its validity and reliability in this
context.
Method
Participants
A total of 859 undergraduate students (mean age= 20.23, SD= 1.77) from the
Faculty of Education at Uludağ University participated in this study. Participants
were selected from 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grade volunteers from all of the faculty’s
departments (Educational Sciences, Foreign Language Education, Elementary
Education, Turkish Language Education, Computer Education and Instructional
Technology, Education in Religion and Ethics, Physical Education and Sports, and
Fine Arts Education). The sample included 541 females (mean age = 20.60, SD = 2.01)
and 317 males (mean age = 20.02, SD = 1.57). One student did not report gender.
First-year students constituted 27.9% of the sample. Second-, third-, and fourth-year
students made up 28.2 %, 23.9%, and 20.0% of the sample, respectively.
Measure of Gratitude. The Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ; McCullough et al., 2002)
is a six-item scale on which high scores reflect high levels of gratitude. Items on the
GQ assess four facets of gratitude: (1) intensity, which refers to feeling more intensely
grateful than would someone less disposed toward gratitude, (2) frequency, which
refers to reporting feeling grateful many times each day (3) span, which refers to the
number of life circumstances for which a person feels grateful during a given time,
and (4) density, which refers to the number of persons to whom one feels grateful for
a single positive outcome. Two items are reverse-coded. Participants responded to
the items on a 7-point Likert-type scale, with alternatives ranging from 1 (“strongly
disagree”) to 7 (“strongly agree”).
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The GQ has been reported to be a unidimensional measure with good
psychometric properties. McCullough et al. (2002) assessed the GQ’s factor structure
through a series of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Confirmatory factor
analyses specifying a one-factor congeneric measurement model typically yield
goodness-of-fit indexes that are considered to be within acceptable ranges (i.e.,
comparative fit indexes range from .90 to .95, and standardized root mean residuals
typically range from .05 to .10). Estimated Cronbach’s alpha for the six-item GQ have
ranged from .76 to .84 (McCullough et al., 2002).
To find evidence for correlation with other measures of gratitude, McCullough,
Emmons, and Tsang (2002) used a self-report measure that instructed participants to
indicate how well each of three gratitude-related words (“grateful”, “thankful”, and
“appreciative”) described them. Scores on the two measures were correlated at r (N =
1182) = .65, p < .001. Scores on the GQ-6 also correlated with peers’ ratings of target
amounts of dispositional gratitude, at r = .33, p < .01.
The construct validity of the gratitude scale was found to be correlated with life
satisfaction (r=.53, p < .05), vitality (r = .46, p <.05), happiness (r= .50, p < .05),
optimism (r =.51, p < .05), and hope (r =.42, p < .05). A grateful disposition was found
to be associated positively with well-being, prosocial behaviors/traits, and
religiousness/spirituality. It was negatively associated with envy and materialistic
attitudes (McCullough et al., 2002). Measures of the “Big Five” personality
dimensions typically account for 20-30% of variance in GQ-6 scores. Extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism predicted unique variance in GQ-6 scores
(McCullough et al. 2002).
Measure of Optimism. Optimistic orientation was measured by the life orientation
test (LOT; Scheier & Carver, 1985), which is comprised of four positively-worded,
four negatively-worded, and four filler items. Items are arranged on a 5-point Likert
scale, with alternatives ranging from 0 (“strongly disagree”) to 4 (“strongly agree”).
Scheier and Carver (1985) reported a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .76 and a testretest stabilities coefficient of .79 for the LOT. Aydın and Tezer (1991) translated the
LOT into Turkish and tested its validity and reliability. They reported a factor
structure quite similar to that of the original scale developed by Scheier and Carver
(1985). They also reported adequate internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = .72),
and test-retest reliability (r = .77 over a four-week interval). In the present study, the
alpha coefficient was found to be .72.
Measures of Positive and Negative Affect. The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule
(PANAS) was developed by Watson, Clark, and Telegen (1988) to measure general
tendencies toward positive and negative affect. PANAS includes 10 positive and 10
negative items, which are added together within each sub-scale to determine positive
and negative affect scores. Different scores can be obtained for different timeframes
(at the moment, today, within the past few days or year, in general). Both the PA and
NA subscales of PANAS, as well as a general timeframe, were used to measure
205
student moods in the present study. Participants were asked to indicate “how you
feel in general” on a 1 (“very slightly”) to 5 (“extremely”) scale. PANAS has been
reported to have good internal consistency, with lack of correlation between positive
and negative affect and good test-retest stability over a 2-month period (Watson et
al., 1988). Gençöz (2000) adapted the scale to Turkish. She reported that, consistent
with the original study, factor analysis revealed two factors that accounted for 44% of
total variance and that internal consistencies for PA and NA were .83 and .86,
respectively. In the present study, the alpha coefficients for PA and NA were found
to be .79 and .80, respectively, indicating sufficient internal consistency.
Measure of Satisfaction with Life. The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener,
Emmons, Larsen & Griffin, 1985) is a five-item scale that measures cognitive
evaluation of individual life satisfaction. Each item is scored from 1 to 7, “strongly
disagree” to “strongly agree.” Item scores are added together to attain a total score,
which ranges from 5 to 35, with higher scores reflecting more satisfaction with life.
The internal consistency of the scale was .87, and the test-retest reliability for a 2month period was .82 (Diener et al., 1985). Sümer (1996) translated the scale into
Turkish and reported satisfactory internal consistency (α = .89). In the present study,
the alpha coefficient was found to be .83.
Procedure
Four independent translations of the GQ from English to Turkish were initially
produced. Two of the translators were instructors in English teaching, whereas the
other two were instructors in departments of psychological counseling and guidance
at two different Turkish universities. Subsequently, the authors reached agreement
about the best translation for each item. Following this, two bilingual translators back
translated the Turkish version of the GQ from Turkish to English. None of the items
required any modification. The Turkish version was also tested on five
undergraduate students, individually interviewed, in order to test its relevance and
meaningfulness in the Turkish cultural context. The instrument was clearly and
unambiguously understood by all of these students.
After translation, the Turkish form of the GQ was administered to the sample,
along with the optimism, satisfaction with life, and positive and negative affect
scales. Questionnaire packs were distributed to the sample in the fall semester of the
2009-2010 school year. Students were recruited at lectures. The instructions written
on the cover page of the scales were read to the entire class. Students who agreed to
participate were given directions on how to complete the test and were asked to be
honest when responding to test items. Administration of the questionnaires took
about 20 minutes. Anonymity was guaranteed. To assess test-retest reliability, the
GQ was administered to a sub-sample of 51 students (mean age = 18.25, SD = .66)
from the original sample four weeks after the first administration of the
questionnaires.
206
Statistical Analysis
In addition to such descriptive statistics as frequencies, percentages, means, and
standard deviations, the present study made use of Pearson product-moment
correlations to assess the relationships among variables. Item-total correlation
coefficients and a test-retest reliability coefficient were also calculated. Exploratory
factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were employed to
examine the structure of the GQ. Statistical analyses were performed using LISREL
8.30 and SPSS for Windows 13.0.
Results
Findings Related to Validity Studies of the GQ
Construct Validity of the GQ (Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis)
Before beginning factor analysis of the GQ, the suitability of the data for factor
analysis was assessed by examining (1) the adequacy of the sample size, and (2) the
strength of the relationship among the items. In these assessments, the “5 cases for
each item formula” suggested by Tabachnick and Fidell (2001); Barlett’s test of
sphericity, which should be statistically significant at .05; and the Kaiser-MeyerOlkin (KMO) measures of sampling adequacy, which should be .6 or above, were
utilized with SPSS, to assess the factorability of the data (Pallant, 2001). Bartlett’s test
of sphericity yielded a measure of 1454.08 (p < .05), while KMO yielded a measure of
.71, revealing the adequacy of the present data for factor analysis, in addition to the
adequacy of the sample requirements.
For the purpose of verifying the original one-factor structure of the GQ, principle
component analysis with varimax rotation was applied to the GQ scores. The initial
solution revealed 2 factors with eigen values of greater than 1, explaining 44.42% and
18.64% of variance, respectively. Inspection of the screeplot revealed a break after
the second component. However, Item 6, “Long amounts of time can go by before I
feel grateful to something or someone,” was the only item of which the second factor
consisted. Hence, the use of two criteria [(1) the a priori hypothesis, stemming from
previous studies, that the gratitude measure has one dimension, (2) the
interpretability of the factor solution] led to the decision to retain only one
component for further investigation. The rotated solution, with one component,
revealed a five-item solution (Item 6 was eliminated), with all items showing a
number of strong loadings. This solution explained a total of 53.27% of variance.
Factor loadings were .86, .85, .52, .70, and .66 for the five items, respectively.
Additionally, CFA was conducted, to test the factorial validity of the Turkish GQ
with five items. As can be seen from Figure 1, the factor loadings detected with CFA
varied from .38 to .89. The results revealed a good fit [χ2=76.25, df=5, GFI=0.97, CFI=
207
.94, AGFI=0.90, SRMR = 0.04, RMSEA=0.10] for the five-item GQ with a sample of
Turkish undergraduates.
Figure 1. Results of CFA
Concurrent Validity of the GQ
The relationships among GQ scores and PA, NA, LOT, and SWLS scores were
also examined by calculating Pearson’s correlation coefficient for the total sample.
Table 1 shows the results. As evidences for the concurrent validity of the scale, GQ
scores was found to be significantly related to PA score (r = .27, p < .01), NA score (r
= -.18, p < .01), LOT score (r = .40, p < .01), and SWLS score (r = .39, p < .01). Although
these correlations are not high, they respected as acceptable.
208
Table1.
Pearson Product Moment Correlations among GQ5 and PA, NA, LOT, and SWLS
Scores
Variable and Scale
M
SD
N
1- Gratitude (GQ5)
25.47
6.12
859
-
2-Positive affect (PA)
48.55
7.71
853
.27**
-
31.80
7.76
853
.18**
.19**
-
33.46
5.44
852
.40**
.42**
.50**
-
18.10
7.01
858
.39**
.35**
.31**
.50**
3-Negative affect (NA)
4- Optimism (LOT)
5- Satisfaction with iife
(SWLS)
1
2
3
4
5
-
**p < .01
Findings Related to Reliability Studies of the GQ
Cronbach’s alpha for the five-item Turkish version of the GQ was .77. The fourweek test-retest variability of the GQ, based on a sub-sample (n = 51) of the total
sample, was .66 (p < .01). Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations of the
GQ, together with item-total correlations.
209
Table 2.
Means, Standard Deviations and Corrected Item-total Correlations of Items in the GQ
Item
Mean
SD
no
Item-total
correlation
1
5.51
1.67
.826**
2
5.04
1.72
.817**
3
5.33
1.72
.588**
4
4.44
1.74
.707**
5
5.17
1.61
.672**
**p<.01
The purpose of the present study was to adapt the GQ for use with Turkish
undergraduate students. Overall, this study replicated the three main findings
obtained in previous studies (Chen et al., 2009; Froh, et al., 2011): (1) Factor analyses
revealed better psychometric properties for a one-factor five-item GQ than for the
original six-item model with the Turkish undergraduate sample; (2) GQ scores were
found to be correlated with relevant theoretical constructs (optimism, positive affect,
negative affect, satisfaction with life); and (3) The scale was found to have sufficient
reliability. With the exception of the first of these, the foregoing results are also
consistent with the findings of other, previous studies conducted with western
samples (e.g., McCullough et al., 2002; Wood et al., 2007)
As with previous studies (Chen et al., 2009; Froh et al., 2011), Item 6 (“Long
amounts of time can go by before I feel grateful to something or someone”) was
eliminated from the Turkish GQ, since it was not a valid means of assessing
individual differences in gratitude. Chen et al. (2009) explained the misfit of Item 6
210
as due to the lack of diverse life experiences in their sample. According to them, the
school they studied “may not [have] stimulate[d] students to be grateful to someone
or something.” Alternatively, Chen et al. said that the temporal definition of
“gratitude” in this item might have been inappropriate for their study, which was
focused on present individual beliefs. Similarly, Froh et al. (2011) reported the
inappropriateness of Item 6 for young people, since this item is too abstract and
difficult for this group to understand. Therefore, the replication of findings by the
present study may be explained as due to cultural issues. Although it could be
speculated that gratitude works differently for young people and the elderly in the
west and east, further studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis.
The results of this study revealed that the five-item Turkish GQ had sufficient
psychometric properties. Considering earlier literature on the positive (e.g., vitality,
happiness, satisfaction with life, hope, and optimism) and negative (e.g., depression
and anxious symptoms, envy and materialism) psychological correlates of
dispositional gratitude (Kashdan et al., 2006; McCoullough et al., 2002; Wood et al.,
2007), and the literature on the influence of the experience and expression of
gratitude on individual emotional, social, and physical well-being (Emmons &
McCullough, 2003; Froh, et al., 2008; Watkins et al., 2003), the Turkish GQ could be
suggested for use both in counseling interventions and in counseling research.
Counselors could use this instrument as part of assessments of the effectiveness of
their counseling interventions, which aim to improve human resources (particularly
gratefulness, but also other resources, such as satisfaction with life and optimism).
On the other hand, researchers could use the Turkish GQ to examine antecedents,
consequences, or correlates of grateful behavior and thereby enlighten counseling
practice. For instance, having knowledge of other possible correlates of dispositional
gratitude, such as early childhood environment and parental attitudes, might
motivate counselors to develop and test preventive or developmental counseling
programs geared toward parents and toward improving grateful behavior among
children.
Despite its possession of satisfactory psychometric properties, the Turkish GQ
can be recommended for use only with undergraduate students, since the sample of
the present study was composed of undergraduates. Further studies on the validity
and reliability of the Turkish GQ with different samples and age groups could
eliminate this limitation. Moreover, the present study was limited to conducting both
confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses of the same sample. It would be ideal
to conduct confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses of at least two separate
samples in future studies. Finally, based on the earlier literature (e.g., Emmons, et al.,
2007), the Turkish GQ could be recommended as a multimethod assessment
technique for use in future gratitude studies. Thereby, the boundedness of its global,
single-session self-report measures could be eliminated. Using the GQ both for selfrating and peer-rating, as well as using it together with qualitative methods (e.g.,
interviews) and laboratory procedures (e.g., designs that reveal grateful behaviors) is
also recommended.
211
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Minnettarlık Ölçeği’nin Türkçe’ye Uyarlanması
(Özet)
Problem Durumu: Minnettarlık (şükran), son dönem psikoloji alan yazınında,
bireylerin olumlu ve güçlü yönlerine vurgu yapan pozitif psikoloji yaklaşımının bir
sonucu olarak sıkça sözü edilen kavramlardan biridir. Minnettarlık kavramı çeşitli
çalışmalarda bir duygu, kişilik özelliği, tutum, ahlaki değer veya baş etme tepkisi
olarak ele alınmakla birlikte, kavramın duygu boyutuna vurgu yapan ve
minnettarlığı bir “eğilim” (disposition) olarak ele alan bakış açısının, son dönem alan
yazınında baskın olduğu görülmektedir. Minnettarlığı ölçmek amacıyla yaygın
olarak kullanılan iki ölçme aracında (GRAT ve GQ) da minnettarlığın bu bakış
açısından tanımlandığı ve ölçüldüğü görülmektedir. Minnettarlığı sosyoloji, eğitim,
psikoloji ve psikolojik danışmanlık alanlarında önemli kılan, onun hem topluma hem
de bireye olan katkılarıdır. Minnettarlığın toplumsal düzeyde özgeci davranışlar ve
toplumsal bağlılıkta artış gibi faydalarından söz edilirken, bireysel düzeyde de
bireylerin psikolojik ve bedensel iyi oluşuna katkıları çok sayıda araştırma
214
bulgusuyla ortaya konmuştur. Araştırma bulguları, minnettarlığın psikolojik
müdahalelerle geliştirilmesinin, bireylerin iyi oluşlarını arttırdığını göstermektedir.
Bu nedenle, psikolojik danışma alanında, gerek uygulamaların yürütülmesinde
gerekse yapılacak araştırmalarda bireylerin minnettarlık düzeylerinin ölçülebilmesi
önemlidir. Yurt dışında son yıllarda yapılan araştırmalar incelendiğinde;
Minnettarlık Ölçeği (MÖ; McCullough, Emmons ve Tsang, 2002)’nin, minnettarlık
eğilimini ölçen kendini anlatma tipi ölçme araçları içinde en yaygın olarak
kullanılanlardan biri olduğu görülmektedir. Altı maddeden oluşan MÖ’de yüksek
puan, yüksek minnettarlık düzeyini yansıtmaktadır. Ölçek maddeleri, bireylerin
minnettarlığını şiddet, sıklık, süre ve yoğunluk olmak üzere dört yönden
değerlendirmektedir. Katılımcılar cevaplarını; 1(kesinlikle katılmıyorum) ile 7
(tamamen katılıyorum) arasında değişen 7’li Likert tipi bir ölçek üzerinde
işaretlemektedirler. Türkiye’de üniversite öğrencilerinin minnettarlık eğilimini ölçen
bir ölçek bulunmamaktadır.
Bu nedenle, araştırmalarda ve uygulamalarda
kullanılmak üzere MÖ’nün Türkçeye uyarlanması önemlidir.
Araştırmanın amacı: Bu araştırmanın amacı, MÖ’yü Türkçeye uyarlamak ve ölçeğin
Türk üniversite öğrencileri için kullanılabilirliğine ilişkin geçerlik ve güvenirlik
kanıtları elde etmektir.
Yöntem: Araştırma, Uludağ Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi’nin Eğitim Bilimleri,
Yabancı Diller, İlköğretim, Türkçe Eğitimi, Bilgisayar ve Öğretim Teknolojileri,
Beden Eğitimi ve Spor, Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi Öğretmenliği, Güzel Sanatlar
bölümlerinin 1., 2., 3. ve 4. sınıflarında okuyan ve araştırmaya katılmaya gönüllü
olan 859 (541 kız, 317 erkek, bir öğrenci cinsiyetini belirtmemiştir) öğrenci üzerinde
yürütülmüştür. Araştırmanın verileri, MÖ’nün Türkçeye çevrilmiş özgün formunun
yanı sıra, Yaşam Yönelimi Ölçeği, Olumlu ve Olumsuz Duygu Ölçeği ve Yaşam
Doyumu ölçekleri kullanılarak elde edilmiştir. Verilerin çözümlenmesinde
betimleyici istatistiklerin yanı sıra açımlayıcı ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizi ve Pearson
momentler çarpım korelasyon tekniği kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler SPSS 13 ve
LISREL 8.30 programları kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir.
Bulgular: Örneklemin faktör analizine uygunluğunu ortaya koymak için örneklem
uygunluğu ve Bartlet’s Sphericity testleri yapılmıştır. “Madde başına beş kişi”
formülüne göre araştırma örnekleminin büyüklüğü (N= 859), .71 olarak hesaplanan
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) örneklem uygunluk katsayısı ve Barlett Sphericity testi
χ2 değeri (1454,08, p<.05) verilerin faktör analizi için uygun olduğunu göstermiştir.
Temel Bileşenler Analizi ile yapılan açımlayıcı faktör analizi sonucunda, özdeğeri
1’in üzerinde olan maddelerin, ölçeğin özgün formundaki tek boyutlu yapıdan farklı
olarak iki boyutlu bir yapı ortay koydukları görülmüştür. Birinci faktör varyansın
%44.42’sini açıklarken, yalnızca ölçeğin altıncı maddesinden oluşan ikinci faktör
varyansın %18.64’ünü açıklamaktadır. Ölçeğin orijinal formunun tek faktörden
oluşan yapısına sadık kalınarak, Varimaks döndürme yöntemi ile yapılan ikinci
faktör analizinde toplam varyansın %53.27’sini açıklayan, 5 maddelik ve tek boyutlu
bir ölçme aracı elde edilmiştir. Daha önceki analizde ayrı bir faktöre yüklenen altıncı
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madde, ölçeğin bu formuna dâhil olmamıştır. Beş maddelik MÖ’de yer alan
maddelerin faktör yükleri sırasıyla .86, .85, .52, .70 ve .66’dır. MÖ’nün 5 maddelik
formunun doğrulanması amacıyla yapılan doğrulayıcı faktör analizinde modelin
uyum indeksleri incelenmiştir. Uyum indeksi değerleri beş maddelik modelin iyi
uyum verdiğini göstermektedir [χ2=76.25, df=5, GFI=0.97, CFI= .94, AGFI=0.90, SRMR
= 0.04, RMSEA=0.10]. Ayrıca MÖ’nün Yaşam Yönelimi Ölçeği, Olumlu ve Olumsuz
Duygu Ölçeği ve Yaşam Doyumu Ölçeği ile arasında ölçeğin uyum geçerliliğini
ortaya koyacak şekilde, çok yüksek olmasa da anlamlı düzeyde korelâsyonlar
hesaplanmıştır [Olumlu duygu (r=.27, p<.01), Olumsuz duygu (r=-.18, p<.01),
Yaşam yönelimi (r=.40, p<.01), Yaşam doyumu (r=.39, p<.01)]. MÖ’nün Türkçe
formunun iç tutarlılık katsayısı. 77 olarak bulunmuştur. Test-tekrar test güvenirlik
çalışması için ölçeğin Türkçe formunun 51 öğrenciye 4 hafta arayla iki kez
uygulanması sonucunda hesaplanan korelasyon katsayısı ise .66 (p<.01)’dır.
Sonuçlar: Türk Üniversite öğrencileri üzerinde gerçekleştirilen bu araştırmada, tek
faktörden oluşan beş maddelik MÖ’nün, ölçeğin altı maddelik orijinal formundan
daha iyi psikometrik özellikler gösterdiği ortaya çıkmıştır. Mevcut alan yazınla
tutarlı olarak, MÖ’nün Türkçe formundan elde edilen puanlarla, araştırmada ele
alınan teorik değişkenler (iyimserlik, olumlu duygu, olumsuz duygu, yaşam
doyumu) arasında anlamlı ilişkiler bulunmuştur. Ayrıca, uyarlanan ölçeğin yeterli
güvenilirlik kanıtlarına sahip olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. Sonuç olarak, elde edilen
bulgular, MÖ’nün Türkçe formunun üniversite öğrencilerinin minnettarlık düzeyini
ölçmek için geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçme aracı olduğunu göstermektedir.
Öneriler: MÖ, gelecekte doğrudan minnettarlık eğilimini arttırmak üzere
geliştirilecek psikolojik danışma ve rehberlik (PDR) programlarının etkinliğinin test
edilmesinde kullanılabileceği gibi, yaşam doyumu, iyimserlik vb. geliştirmeyi
amaçlayan benzer programların etkinliğinin test edilmesinde de kullanılabilir. Ayrıca
araştırmacılar, minnettarlığın ilişkili olabileceği potansiyel değişkenler,
minnettarlığın ortaya çıkarıcıları ya da sonuçları üzerinde yürütecekleri
araştırmalarla PDR hizmetlerine ışık tutabilirler. MÖ’nün geçerlik ve güvenirlik
çalışmaları farklı yaş grupları üzerinde gerçekleştirilebilir.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Minnettarlık (şükran), geçerlik, güvenirlik, üniversite öğrencileri
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