1st Issue - International Journal of Early Childhood Education

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VOLUME 1, ISSUE 1, OCTOBER
2012
International
Journal of Early
Childhood Education
Research
Editorial Board
Editor in Chief
Riza Ulker, Zirve University, Turkey
Editorial Board Members
Wendy Whitesell, Penn State University, USA,
Lütfü Ilgar, Istanbul University, Turkey
Emine Ferda Bedel, Canakkale University, Turkey
Şengül Ilgar, Istanbul University, Turkey
Zuhal Yılmaz, Middle East Technical University, Turkey
Kevser Koç, Gaziantep University, Turkey
Burçin Öğrenir, City University of New York, USA
Zeynep Işık Ercan,Purdue University-Fort Wayne, USA
Journal Manager and Owner
Riza Ulker
11 Radcliff Ct.
Sicklerville, NJ 08081, USA
Phone: 856 912 45 55
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION RESEARCH
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
Inclusion Level of Children Rights Issues In Social Studies Textbooks: (Case
of Turkey and the United States) *
Zihni MEREY1
Gazi University, Faculty of Education, Social Studies Education
Harun PARPUCU
University of Northern Iowa, College of Education, Curriculum and Instruction
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the level of
allocation of children rights issues in social studies
textbooks in Turkey and the United States. For this aim, six
social studies textbooks from both countries were
examined. These textbooks were analyzed in terms of their
level of “children rights issues,” in line of the Convention of
Children Rights (CRC). This study is a qualitative study as
a document analysis. A content analysis method was used
to analyze the textbooks. As a result, it was observed that
children rights issues were included more in Turkish
textbooks. While the intensity scores of the “survival rights”
subcategory was listed the highest in Turkish textbooks, on
the other hand, the intensity scores of the “development
rights” subcategory were placed the most in the United
States textbooks.
Key words: Children’s Rights, The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Child, Social
Studies, Textbooks, Turkey, The United States.
This study was presented at the International Conference on Global Issues of Early Childhood
Education and Children's Rights, April, 27–29, 2012, Zirve University, Gaziantep, Turkey.
1
Zihni MEREY is currently a PhD at the Department of Social Studies Teaching. Her research interests
include citizenship education, human rights (children rights), human rights education, democracy
education, values education, and social studies education.
Correspondence: PhD. Zihni MEREY, Gazi University, Faculty of Education, Department of Social
Studies Teaching. 06400 Ankara/Turkey. E-mail: [email protected] Phone: +90 312 212 9806.
*
1 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION RESEARCH
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
Introduction
The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) emerged after the adoption
of several important human rights treaties large numbers of human of declarations, and several
UN resolutions about human rights. For example, the Declaration of Geneva (1924), the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the Declaration of Children’s Rights (1959),
Declaration on the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the Covenant on Economic,
Social, and Cultural Rights (1966) were drawn up to create formal obligations for human
rights and serve as the background for the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.”
However, a large number of problems emerged regarding human rights implementation,
needing special conventions to assure the implementation of the guaranteed rights. In addition
to these treaties, there was also the history of special documents or special provisions for
children’s rights (Flekkoy & Kaufman, 1998; UNICEF, 2011). In 1978, on the eve of the
United Nations-sponsored International Year of the Child, a draft text was proposed for the
Convention on the Rights of the Child. Drawing heavily from the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, a working group within the United
Nations collaborated on a draft, finally agreeing on became the articles of the Convention on
the Rights of the Child. Final approval from United Nations Member States came when the
UN General Assembly unanimously adopted the text of the Convention on the Rights of the
Child on November 20th, 1989.” The Convention then became legally binding in September
of 1990, after 20 States had ratified it. Many countries ratified the Convention very soon after
it was adopted and others continued to ratify or accede to it, making it the most widely ratified
human rights treaty (UNICEF, 2011). The concept of “the child” has become more clearly
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defined and protected through the Convention, which has been ratified by every government in
the world except for Somalia and the United States which have not ratified this UN treaty
(Alderson, 2008; Save and Children, 1999). The recognition of the child’s interests and rights
became real on the twentieth of November, 1989 with the adoption of the International
Convention on the Rights of the Child which is the first and only international legally binding
text recognizing all the fundamental rights of the child. The Convention made clear the
relationship between children’s rights and human rights, equating the two and protecting the
child as a human being. As part of human rights, children’s rights are constituted by the
fundamental guarantees and essential rights granted to all humans (UNICEF, 2011).
The most straightforward statement of children’s rights as human rights exists in the
United Nations Declaration of the Rights of the Child (Cohen, 1980). However, the CRC is
equally important as the major international covenant for moral and legal subjects possessed
of fundamental entitlements. The CRC has also generated further international commitments
and agreements in respect to children’s rights in key areas. For example, children involved in
armed conflict, sale of children, child prostitution, and child pornography were entered and
enforced in the Optional Protocol in 2002 (Archard, 2004). The Convention protects the full
range of human rights- civil, political, economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian all of
which have been modified to suit the requirements of children (Cohen, 1995). In Convention,
although children’s rights are stated under different titles, it is possible to gather and study
them under four primary groups as survival rights, rights to development, rights to protection,
and rights to participation (Akyüz, 1999; Karaman - Kepenekçi, 2010a; Karaman - Kepenekçi
& Aslan, 2011)
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Survival rights are a prerequisite for human rights. The Convention explains survival
rights explicitly in Article 6, survival rights are understood to include human basic survival
needs, such as “inherent right to life” (Article 6), “survival and development” (Article 6),
avoiding “separation from parents” (Article 9), ”health and health service” (Article 24),
“social security” (Article 26), “leisure, recreation and cultural activities” (Article 31), an
adequate standard of living (Article 27), and the overall “implementation of rights” (Article,
4). The child has the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standards of health and to
facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health, especially to “diminish infant
and child mortality” (Article 24). According to this article, state parties shall develop primary
health care, and provide adequate nutritious foods and clean drinking water, health education,
and family planning services (Alderson, 2008). Every child has the right to standards of living
adequate for the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, and social development. State parties
should assist families in need with necessary assistance, for example: food, clothing, and
housing (Article, 27). Survival rights should be considered to include most of the child’s needs
(Alderson 2008; Flekkoy & Kaufman, 1998), and these rights are often repeated in other
categories.
Development rights stress the importance of fostering and nurturing the many
dimensions of the child.
According to the UNCR, Article 6 includes the rights to
development. Development rights include, among others, the child’s rights to “parental
guidance and the child’s evolving capacities” (Article 5), “to give name and nationality”
(Article 7), “the preservation of identity” (Article 8), “family reunification” (Article 10), “the
highest attainable standard of health and benefit from social insurance” (Article 26),
“education” (Article 28 and 29), “the enjoyment of one’s culture, language and religion”
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(Article 30), and that the same rights apply to “handicapped children” (Article 23), (Flekkoy &
Kaufman, 1998; Özdemir Uluç, 2008). This final article reflects is reflected concern about
development in the Convention, providing specific development assistance for disabled
children.
Protection rights result from the Convention’s core value of human dignity. These
rights, among others, include: “the right to be protected from economic situations” (Article
32), “from the illicit use of ...drugs” (Article 33), “from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse”
(Article, 34), “from torture and deprivation of liberty” (Article 37 ), “from armed conflict”
(Article 38),“from abduction” (Article 35), “from denial of due process or other criminal and
judicial safeguards” (Article 40)
“the right to protect children from any form of
discrimination” (Article 2), “from the kidnapping and retention of children abroad” (Article
11), “from maltreatment” (Article 19), “from deprived family” (Article 20/21), with “special
protection to be granted to children who are refugees” (Article 22), from “all other forms of
exploitation” (Article 36), and from “lack of rehabilitative care” (Article 39), (Akyüz,1999;
Flekkoy & Kaufman, 1998; Özdemir Uluç, 2008). The Convention protects children from all
forms of physical or mental injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, and maltreatment
or exploitation and has provoked significant policy changes throughout the world (Franklin,
1986). According to the Convention the only restrictions are to protect the rights and
reputations of others and to protect national security and public order as well as public health
and morals (Freeman, 1997).
In the UN Convention participation rights mainly appear in Articles 12-16, including
rights to information (Flekkoy & Kaufman, 1998). Children’s participation rights can be
separated into two groups of rights in the Convention. The group articles focus on the forms of
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participation and the condition of participation, covering articles 12, 13, 14, 15, 31 and 40
(Flekkoy & Kaufman, 1998). These articles include: “The child’s rights to express an opinion”
(Article 12), The key article of the Convention on participation is Article 12. Article 12, which
applies to decision making within families as well as within other institutions (Howe &
Covell, 2005), requires “states parties shall assure to the child who is capable of forming his or
her own views the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child, the
views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the
child” (Article 12). “This Convention encourages adults to listen to the opinions of children
and involve them in decision-making -- not give children authority over adults. Article 12 does
not interfere with parents' right and responsibility to express their views on matters affecting
their children” (UNİCEF, 2011). The Convention says that children shall have the “right to
freedom of expression” (Article 13), including freedom to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas of all kinds, as well as the right to obtain and make known information.
The child’s right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion is also protected (Article 14),
alongside ‘the child’s right to meet with others and join or set up associations” (Article, 15).
The child’s right to protection from interference with privacy, family, and home (Article, 16),
their access to appropriate information and protections from harmful materials (Article, 17),
the right to leisure, play, and participation in cultural and artistic activities (Article, 31), and
the administration of juvenile justice (Article, 40) are all part of the Convention. The
participation rights complement and overlap with protection and survival rights (Alderson,
2008). In the articles, the Convention gives all the children participation rights regardless of
race, region, color, religion, or nationality and promotes their participation in activities of
society, family, school, and local community. The other groups of participation rights focus on
the requirements of participation. According to the Convention, the responsibilities of parents
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are not only in bringing up their children in a way that is appropriate to their evolving
capacities. Parents are also responsible for appropriate direction and guidance. The
Convention also asserts that the state is responsible for assistance to the parents (Flekkoy &
Kaufman, 1998). Children participate in countless activities and relationship in pairs or
groups, such as playing games, digging ponds, acting, and cooking.
The Place of Social Studies Textbooks in Children’s Rights Education
The purpose of social studies in the elementary schools is to introduce children to the
world of people. The main aim of the social studies courses that have been practiced in Turkey
is expressed so as to provide an environment and opportunity for an individual to understand
and to make contributions to himself/ herself, to the society in which he/ she lives, and to the
world, through his/ her own wishes and skills. In other words, the main purpose for teaching
social studies is citizenship education (Safran, 2005; MONE, 2005; Tezgel, 2006). In the
United States, elementary schools have similar objectives for social studies, and they are
considered part of citizenship education as the basic purpose of social studies (Chapin &
Messick, 2002; Ellis, 2002).
Social studies classes provide students as citizens who adopt democratic values with
adjustment in the society and let them apply their information and richness in the life. Social
studies classes always present the most significant possibilities for human rights education.
Students learn about democratic governments and functions of these governments, and beliefs
and values within the country’s rich cultural mosaic. Thus, students start developing the
consciousness of responsibility they need to feel towards their countries. In this context, social
studies classes provide benefit for individual to fulfill responsibilities as a member of world
and country family in order to get human rights and democracy develop and spread around
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(Tezgel, 2008). Social studies classes educate students as citizens who adopt democratic
values with adjustment in the society and let them apply their information and richness in the
life. Social studies classes are the ones that include human rights education in the first place.
According to 42nd article of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), “States
Parties undertake to make the principles and provisions of the Convention widely known, by
appropriate and active means, to adults and children alike”. This article emphasizes that it is
required to actualize the convention. Also in accordance with this provision, in education
children’s awareness is to be raised about rights which are given and recognized by CRC. This
awareness in education can be achieved initially by textbooks (Karaman - Kepenekçi, 2010b).
Textbooks are basic instructional materials that are prepared in accordance with a particular
course’s teaching program. Textbooks are the most basic learning resources (Turner, 2004).
They provide many advantages for educators, enabling them to animate the curricula and give
life to subjects taught in the classroom (UNESCO, 2007; Aslan & Karaman - Kepenekçi,
2008). In social studies teaching, textbooks are not only the most important assistants of the
teacher while giving the course but also they play the most important role in human rights
education (Karaman - Kepenekçi, 2010b).
Social studies courses are one of the most important courses of elementary education
in both countries. They include history, philosophy, geography, law, sociology, and political
sciences (citizenship education). Besides these issues, in social studies classes in Turkey,
human rights issues are presented as interdisciplinary topics (MONE, 2005); and children are
raised as individuals who know their rights and use them to fulfill their responsibilities
(Karaman - Kepenekçi, 2010b).
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On the other hand, United States textbooks in elementary education are textbooks
programs. They contain an array of resources such as primary documents, art work, narrative
histories, vocabulary lessons, skills lessons, and activities. In the United States, students are
introduced to the Constitution of the United States as a part of the fifth-grade social studies
curriculum in U.S. elementary schools. In primary schools, a paraphrased version of the
Constitution is usually included in fifth-grade textbooks. It contains all of the parts, for
example, the preamble, the 7 articles containing the rules by which citizens agree to live, and
27 changes or amendments (Parker, 2009). In addition, Individual rights are taught as
fundamental values and principles in values education (Chapin & Messick, 2002; Chapin,
2009; Hoge, Field, Foster & Nickell, 2004; Parker, 2009; Seefeldt, 1997; Sunal & Haas, 2005;
Van Cleaf, 1991; Zarrillo, 2004).
Children’s rights education issues have been increasing since CRC (1989) was adopted
by United Nations, and it is seen as one of the most challenging issues in the world, in relation
to how to teach and protect children’s rights. Therefore, recently there have been a number of
studies that focus on Akengin, 2008; Çakir Tunc, 2008; Ersoy & Ersoy, 2008; Ersoy, 2011;
Covell, Howe & Polegato, 2011; Howe and Covell, 2009; Habashi & at el, 2010; KaramanKepenekçi, 2006; Kop & Gül, 2010; Naqvi, 2001; Neslitürk & Ersoy, 2007; Özdemir Uluç,
2008; Merey, 2012a,; Reynaert, Bouverne & Vandevelde, 2009; Salman Osmanağaoğlu, 2007;
Smith, 2007; Taylor & Percy-smith, 2008; Thomas, 2007; Uçuş, 2009; Ulusavaş, 2008;
Yurtsever, 2009) children’s rights education. However, very few studies in the literature have
attempted to examine the inclusion of children’s rights issues in textbooks for students
(Karaman-Kepenekçi, 2009, 2010a; 2010b; Karaman - Kepenekçi & Aslan, 2011; Nayir and
Karaman - Kepenekçi, 2011).
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As it can be seen there is not any research about children’s rights issues in the United
States social studies textbooks. On the other hand, as the above studies demonstrate in Turkey,
there have been a number of studies about children rights issues conducted by Karaman –
Kepenekçi. For example; Karaman-Kepenekçi & Aslan (2011)’s “Children’s Rights in School
Level Books” study aimed to determine level of allocation of children’s rights in books, and
Karaman-Kepenekçi (2010a)’s study determined to what extend and how children's rights are
allocated in the stories in the 100 Basic Literary Works list recommended for children in
Turkey. Both studies found that statements about development rights were higher than the
others. In Nayir and Karaman – Kepenekçi’s (2011) study on “children’s participation rights
in elementary schools’ Turkish Textbooks “, it has been observed that the right to set up an
association and the right to assemble peacefully were given less places when compared with
the right to express opinions and right to participate in decisions.
The level of allocation to children’s rights issues in United States social studies
textbooks has not been examined yet. Therefore, it may be important to examine the children’s
rights issues in both countries’ textbooks. Comparing both countries’ textbooks will help to
investigate and explain the instruments that textbook authors should develop in order to
include not only the well-established local, regional and national dimension but also the global
dimension in textbooks.
Purpose
The main objective of this study is to make a comparison between social studies
textbooks in Turkey and the United States in terms of their level of allocation to children
rights issues.
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Research Model
This study, aiming to define the inclusion levels of children’s rights in Turkey and USA
social studies elementary (4-6 grades) textbooks, is a qualitative study as a document analysis.
Document analysis includes the analysis of written materials containing the targeted fact or
facts (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2005).
Data Collection
In this study, the elementary (4-6) social studies textbooks in Turkey and USA are
analyzed. For the purposes of this study, we analyzed the Turkish social studies textbooks was
approved with Head Council of Education and Morality decision numbered 190118 and
revised and updated by Department of Publications, Ministry of National Education in 2011.
For the USA part of the study, we analyzed the Unıted States social studies textbooks prepared
by the Harcourt Horizons School Publishers in 2005 and revised and recommended for all the
states in 2008 and has taken Award Winning program. These were chosen due to the fact that
there isn’t one set of standards valid for educational textbooks nation-wise and different states
have different textbooks and practices in USA. When presenting the findings, we quoted the
gains of both countries’ textbooks directly.
Since first level (4th and 5th grade), and second level (6th and 7th grade) are the levels
at which social Studies Education is presented in Turkey, these levels were selected for our
study. Accordingly, a second a sample group was formed comprising social studies curricula
in the United States that are taught to students of the same age group.
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Data Analysis
We used content analysis for the data analysis of this study. Main activity in the
content analysis is to gather similar data around certain concepts and themes, and to organize
and interpret them in a style the audience can understand. Briefly, it is to reveal the concepts
and relations to explain the gathered data (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2005). It is essential in a study
to define the analysis unit to be used (Baş ve Akturan, 2008). Later, sentences that form a
meaningful whole are coded. The coding could take place in advance according to the
concepts that the study is based on. Further, the findings are interpreted. According to Strauss
and Corbin (1990), defining the categories and subcategories is central to the content analysis.
In this research, the analysis category is defined as "Children’s Rights". This analysis is
divided into four sub-categories: "Right to Development’, ‘Right to Survival", "Right to
Protection," and "Right to Participation". Each subcategory is related to relevant article of Bill
of Children’s Rights. For instance: right to survive is related to articles 6, 9, 18, 24, 26, 27,
and 31 in Bill of Children’s Rights; right to develop is related to articles 5, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23,
28, and 29; right for protection is related to articles 2, 11, 19, 20, 22, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,
38, 39, and 40; finally right for participation is related to articles 3, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17
(Özdemir Uluç, 2008). These sub-categories are defined according to the Convention on
Children’s Rights, as follows:
Survival Rights: These rights include the provisions that meet the basic needs of a child, such
as: the child's right to live, proper living standards, medical assistance, diminishing infant
and child mortality, nutrition, shelter, and so on.
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Development Rights: These rights consist of the right to education, the right to play and rest,
cultural rights, religion, conscience and freedom of thought, and other rights such as the right
to receive information, which children need in order to perform at the highest level..
Protection Rights: These rights require children to be protected against every kind of child
neglect, abuse, and exploitation. For refugee children, these rights include topics such as:
special care, the protection of the child in the judicial system, children in situations where
there is armed conflict, child labor, sexual exploitation, and substance abuse.
Participation Rights: These rights allow the child to gain an active role in society; these
rights are freedom to express his opinions, active participation in matters concerning the
child, and taking part in associations, such as the right of peaceful assembly.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability in qualitative studies means whether the same results will be obtained in
similar environments and whether other researchers are able to get the same results with the
same set of data (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2005). For the purposes of reliability in this study, Inal’s
(1998) example was applied and researchers coded for both countries’ textbooks (4-6th grades
Social Studies student Texbooks) at different times. For examples two subcategories and a
textbook were arbitrarily selected and coded by the co-authors of the paper (namely the
‘Survival Rights’ and ‘Development Rights and ‘Turkish and United States Textbook 5 and 6
Gardes’). For the reliability of coding, two researchers separately read all gains in the book
and coded the gains meaningfully related in the relevant boxes. Researchers compared the two
sets of separate analysis results and controlled consistency. In order to assure the validity of
the work, when analyzing books, books are examined as a whole, except for the table of
contents, chronology, bibliography, glossary, pictures, photos, maps, and graphics were not
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excluded in the coding process. Hall & Houten (1983) and Yıldırım and Şimşek (2005) state
that at least a 70-% agreement between coders is required for reliability in qualitative studies.
In this reliability study, a 95-% agreement between the researchers/coders is reached. Validity
in qualitative studies means observing the researched phenomenon as it is and through an
impartial lens (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2005).
In the study, as a unit in an analysis, a sentence is chosen and how often the subcategories are seen in each sentence is detected. While analyzing the books, both the apparent
and the hidden content are taken into consideration. In plain words, the words corresponding
to sub-categories in every sentence are considered as the sentences or statements that are
defined by the stated sub-categories. The significance of every topic is assessed through
categorizing, defining, and coding processes (Karaman - Kepenekçi, 2011). To determine the
total number of words in the texts, each word was counted individually and, accordingly, the
values of the subcategories within the textbooks are expressed as percentage, frequency, and
intensity values in the tables.
In order to find out the approximate total word number in each textbook, the remaining
number of pages has been calculated and then multiplied by an average number of words on a
page. The average number of words on a page was determined by calculating the average
number of words from the three pages chosen randomly from the beginning, middle, and end
of each textbook. The values of categories in the textbooks have been indicated in the tables as
frequency, percentage, and intensity values. Coding was done by the researcher. For each
textbook, the subcategory percentages and the subcategory intensity scores were obtained
using the formulas given below (Aslan & Karaman- Kepenekçi, 2008; Karaman – Kepenekçi,
1999; 2005).
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Subcategory frequency
Subcategory percentage = __________________________x 100
Total frequency of all subcategories
Subcategory frequency
Subcategory intensity score =___________________________x 1000
Total word number of the texts
Due to small values in the original calculation, the intensity scores of all subcategories
were multiplied by 1000 in order to avoid complications while interpreting. This modified
operation on intensity scores was merely a matter of convenience.
4. Findings
When Turkish social studies elementary education textbooks from fourth through sixth
grades are examined, as can be seen in the table, in Turkish social studies textbooks, the
intensity score related to children’s rights are given the utmost place in SS4 (%33.3, n=727)
textbooks and
followed respectively by SS5 (%29.1, n=706) and SS6 (%23.6, n=644)
textbooks. When sub-categories about children’s rights are examined as a whole, in Turkish
social studies textbooks, the intensity score related to the right to survival are given the utmost
place in SS4 textbooks (%36.6, n=882) and then are followed respectively with the
development of rights (%31.4, n=767), and the right to participation (%16.6, n=390). Also, the
intensity score about the right to protection are rarely given (%1.5, n=38).
15 Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
Table 1: Dissemination of all of the subcategories in Turkish social studies textbooks
according to frequency (f), percentage (%), and intensity score (IS)
Turkish social studies textbooks
Scores
Categories
Social Studies 4
Social Studies 5
Social Studies 6
(21.750)*
(24.100)*
(27.245)*
Total
f
%
IS
f
%
IS
f
%
IS
f
%
IS
Survival Rights
321
44.2
14.7
291
41.2
12.0
270
41.9
9.9
882
42.5
36.6
Development Rights
220
30.3
10.1
256
36.2
10.6
291
45.3
10.7
767
36.9
31.4
Protection Rights
16
2.2
0.7
13
1.9
0.5
9
1.3
0.3
38
1.8
1.5
Participation Rights
170
23.3
7.8
146
20.7
6.0
74
11.5
2.7
390
18.8
16.5
Total
727
100
33.3
706
100
29.1
644
100
23.6
2077
100
86
*Approximate total word numbers of the social studies student textbooks
4.1. Survival rights of children in Turkish social studies textbooks
As can be seen in table one, in Turkish social studies textbooks, the intensity scores
related to right to survival are given the utmost place in SS4 (%14.7, n=321) textbooks. SS4 is
followed respectively by SS5 (%12.0, n=291) and SS6 (%9.9, n=270) textbooks. The
following sentences, quoted from the Turkish textbooks, can be given as examples of the
statements related to right to survival.
•
In order to maintain a healthy and happy life, basic needs are required and then other
needs must be met. (SS4, p.84)
•
Do you know what is your most important right? It is survival right, isn’t it? (SS5, p. 28)
•
I know that I have the right to benefit from health services. (SS6, p.161)
4.2.
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Development rights of children in Turkish social studies textbooks
As can be seen in table one, in Turkish social studies textbooks, the intensity scores related to
right to development are given the utmost place in the SS6 (%10.7, n=291) textbook. SS6 is
followed respectively by SS5 (%10.6, n=256) and SS4 (%10.1, n=220) textbooks. The
following sentences, quoted from the Turkish textbooks, can be given as examples of the
statements related to right to development.
•
The City Council opened a new center for the visually handicapped. Suna and Ceren
went there. Suna goes there everyday no., She is reading aloud from textbooks and is
recording them to tape. (SS4, p.119)
•
We have fun a lot when I play with my friends, We joke with each other and laugh…Our
game’s group is growing day by day. (SS5, p.16)
•
I can explain my opinion freely (SS6, p.1161)
4.3.
Protection rights of children in Turkish social studies textbooks
As can be seen in table one, in Turkish social studies textbooks, the intensity scores
related to right to protection are given the utmost place in the SS4 (%0.7, n=16) textbook. SS4
is followed respectively by SS5 (%0.5, n=13) and SS6 (%0.3, n=9) textbooks. The following
sentences, quoted from the Turkish textbooks, can be given as examples of the statements
related to right to protection.
•
If the basic rights of a child are disobeyed anywhere in the world, this must be
stopped with legal regulations (SS4, p.45)
•
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
The Social Services and Child Protection Agency (SHCEK) in Turkey performs
implementation and follow-up of the Convention of Children's Rights Treaty. (SS5,
p.22)
•
4.4.
I know that I have safety of life and property by the state (SS6, p.161)
Participation rights of children in Turkish social studies textbooks
As can be seen in table one, in Turkish social studies textbooks, the intensity scores related
to right to survival are given the utmost place in the SS4 (%7.8, n=170) textbook. SS5 is
followed respectively by SS5 (%6.0, n=146) and SS6 (%2.7, n=74) textbooks. The following
sentences, quoted from the Turkish textbooks, can be given as examples of the statements
related to right to survival.
•
I am a fourth grade student; I like school a lot, (including) my teacher and my
classmates. I participate in social activities in my school. (SS4, p.25)
•
The basketball team is one of the favorite groups in our school. I am a member of the
basketball team. (SS5, p.19)
•
I know that I have the right to vote and be elected. (SS6 p.161)
When the United States social studies textbooks for elementary education are examined for
fourth and sixth grades, as can be seen in table, the intensity scores related to children’s rights
are given the utmost place in the SS4 (%1.9, n=217) textbook, followed respectively by SS5
(%1.4, n=211) and SS6 (%1.0, n=146) textbooks. When examining sub-categories about
children’s rights as a whole, in United States social studies textbooks, the statements related to
right to development are given the utmost place (%1.9, n=249), which is followed respectively
by right to participation (%1.5, n=195), and the right to survival (%0.9, n=130). However, the
statements about protection rights are not given in United States textbooks.
18 Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
Table 2: Dissemination of all of the subcategories in the United States social studies
textbooks according to frequency (f), percentage (%), and intensity score (IS)
in the United States social studies textbooks
Scores
Categories
Social Studies 4
Social Studies 5
Social Studies 6
(21.750)*
(24.100)*
(27.245)*
Total
f
%
IS
f
%
IS
f
%
IS
f
%
IS
Survival Rights
50
23.0
0.4
45
21.3
0.3
35
24.0
0.2
130
22.6
0.9
Development Rights
105
48.4
0.9
76
36.0
0.5
68
46.6
0.5
249
43.4
1.9
Protection Rights
0
--
--
0
--
--
0
--
--
--
--
--
Participation Rights
62
28.6
0.6
90
42.7
0.6
43
29.4
0.3
195
34.0
1.5
217
100
1.9
211
100
1.4
146
100
1.0
574
100
4.3
Total
*Approximate total word numbers of the social studies student textbooks
4.3.
Survival rights of children in United States social studies textbooks
As can be seen in table one, in United States social studies textbooks, the intensity
scores related to right to survival are given the utmost place in the SS4 (%0.4, n=50) textbook.
SS4 is followed respectively by SS5 (%0.3, n=45) and SS6 (%0.2, n=35) textbooks. The
following sentences, quoted from the United States textbooks, can be given as examples of the
•
I ran away from slavery. I earn an honest living as a printer. (SS5, p.436)
•
Americans have the right to own property. They also have the right to privacy or to
keep secrets. (SS4, p.212).
•
Marisa chose to go to the store with lower prices. But once she arrived, she saw
only one maroon jacket. The clerk told her that there was a scarcity of them (SS6,
p.276).
4.3.
Development rights of children in social studies textbooks in the United States
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
scores related to right to development are given the utmost place in the SS4 (%0.9, n=105)
textbook. SS4 is followed respectively by SS5 (%0.5, n=76) and SS6 (%0.5, n=68) textbooks.
The following sentences, quoted from the United States textbooks, can be given as examples
of the statements related to right to development.
•
Today, 14 year old Jacob Fielding will learn how to place type into the printing
press at the print shop where he lives and works as an apprentice (SS5, p.200)
•
In the United States, however, children are free to go to public school. The freedom
to learn brings with it the duty to learn. (SS4, p.212)
•
4.4.
Six students from all across Canada are working together on a project (SS6, p.130)
Participation rights of children in social studies textbooks in the United States
scores related to right to survival are given the utmost place in the SS4 (%0.6, n=62) textbook.
SS4 is followed respectively by SS5 (%0.6, n=90) and SS6 (%0.3, n=43) textbooks. The
following sentences, quoted from the United States textbooks, can be given as examples of the
•
Whether you are voting for your favorite dessert or for class president, voting is
an important right and responsibility (SS4, p. 216).
•
I guess we can vote on that in the future. (SS4, p. 217)
•
We could hold a town meeting in the summer. (SS5, p. 172)
When all the textbooks are considered generally, tolay intensty scores for children rights
are quite far when the textbooks taught in Turkey (%86) and the United States (%4.3) are
20 Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
considered; therefore, it could be said that children rights issues are given at least place in the
United States socila studies textbooks.
Table 3. Total Intensity of the Issues of Children Rights in the Textbooks
Textbooks
Intensity Scores
(%)
Turkey
The United States
Social Studies Students 4
33.3
29.1
23.6
Total
86
1.9
1.4
1.0
Total
4.3
Discussion and Conclusion
The UNCHR is part of international law and states parties are bound by international
law to implement the rights of the child. Therefore, states parties have the obligation to bring
their law, policies, and practices in accordance with the standards of the Convention (Howe
and Covell, 2005). In the Convention, a number of article deals with education and children’s
rights education. We can divide the Convention’s provision on education into three categories.
First, there is the child’s right to education (Article 28 and 23). This category covers the rights
to free primary education, the right to accessible secondary and higher education and
providing the handicapped with appropriate education. Second category includes the rights of
education (Articles 2, 12, 13, 14, and 15). These are related to the rights to non-discrimination,
participation, and the fundamental freedoms such as freedoms of expression, thought, and
religion. Third category deals with education rights (Article 29, 42). These articles refer to
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
education in which children are able to know their rights and to develop respect for human
rights and fundamental freedoms (Verhellen, 1993; Cited in, Howe & Covell, 2005).
Children's rights education is a form of citizenship education that gives primary attention to
educating children on their basic rights and responsibilities under the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child (Howe & Covell, 2005, 2009; Johnny, 2005;
Krappmann, 2006; Osler & Starkey, 1998). According to 42nd articles of the Convention on
the Rights of the Child, “States Parties undertake to make the principles and provisions of the
Convention widely known, by appropriate and active means, to adults and children alike”.
This article emphasizes that it is required to actualize the convention. As this article states,
parties have responsibility to teach the children their rights. A person who does not know
his/her rights cannot be expected to have awareness of and skill to use rights. Integrating
knowledgeable and responsible children with developed skill to use rights into society depends
on providing children with a sound basic education. 28th article of the convention declares that
all children have right to education, with no discrimination, and a framework of education
quality is depicted. 29th article proposes a child-centered teaching and learning model, and
thus, it puts forward a structure where students actively participate in education process, solve
their problems on their own, and gain the self-confidence to learn lifelong and to make right
decisions (Aktürk, 2006).
Children informed of rights they have will be individuals with
awareness to use and protect these rights, and they will respect others’ rights (Karaman Kepenekçi, 2000).
In this comparison study, Turkish and the United States social studies student’s
textbooks are analyzed in terms of their level of children rights in line with “UNCHR.”
Accordingly, the most striking finding at the end of this study is that the number of children
rights references in Turkish textbooks is much more than in United States textbooks. This is
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
similar to comparison studies of human rights education. For instance; Karaman - Kepenekçi
(2005) obtained similar findings in their comparison of Turkey and USA citizenship and
human rights textbooks, and Aslan & Karaman - Kepenekçi (2008) found the same in their
comparison of Turkey and France Turkish language textbooks, and so did Merey (2012a) in
their comparison of The United States and Turkish curricula. These results are most likely
related to elementary education curricula. The most recently updated elementary curricula
have been implemented in Turkey since the 2004- 2005 school year, when it was implemented
in elementary schools. Inclusion of the human rights issues in each textbook as an
intermediary discipline was accepted as a principle; in other words, human rights education
issues are interspersed in elementary education curricula (Aslan & Karaman-Kepenekçi 2008;
Ceyhan & Yigit 2004; Gözütok & Senar, 2008; Primary National Education Program, 2005).
The most important reason for the Turkish social studies textbooks to have so much emphasis
on human rights and particularly on children’s rights is due to human rights intermediary
discipline, which was taken into consideration while social studies textbooks were being
written. Now, Social Studies subject has an important place in human rights education through
interdisciplinary relations in Turkish curricula. Another reason to have so much emphasis on
human rights issues is that Turkish social studies textbooks are being used as a tool to raise
awareness in students directly about children’s rights issues through contents of textbooks.
Turkish social studies textbooks focus on human rights issues, in particular children’s rights
issues. When studying textbooks, topics such as “Active Citizen” (TT, 4, P136), “How Can I
Express My Thought” (TT, 4 P.16), “I Respect others” (TT4, P.20), “People and Government”
(TT4, P.146), “I Learn My Rights” (TT5, P.12), “We Have Rights and Responsibility towards
Children’s Rights” (TT5, P.22), “Children’s Rights” (TT5, P.26), and “Living Democracy”
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
(TT6, P.202) are learned. This is consistent with social studies gains within curricula (MEB,
2011).
The intensity scores for the children’s rights issues in the United States social studies
textbooks are less than that of Turkish social studies textbooks. Reasons for the lesser
inclusion of children rights in United States textbooks may be summarized as follows: the
most important reason could be the fact that citizenship, democracy, and human rights subjects
are not generally included in elementary level curricula in the states except bigger ones such
as New York, California, and New Jersey. Human rights and citizenship are taught only within
Government and Civilization subjects on high school level (Chapin & Messick, 2002).
Another important reason could be that teaching basic human rights and freedoms as
democratic values takes place only as a suggestion in USA social studies curricula. Human
rights subjects as individual rights (e.g., right to liberty, right to dignity, right to security)
freedoms (e.g., freedom of worship, freedom of thought, freedom to participate in the political
process), and responsibilities (e.g., to respect human life, to respect the rights of others, to be
tolerant of different points of view) are suggested under the title of democratic values and
beliefs within social studies curriculum. In other words, human rights issues are recommended
to be taught as democratic values by National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) within
social studies curricula (NCSS, 1994; 2010). There is a very important place for values
education in the United States, with the Center for Civic Education establishing certain
standards for values education. Several values have been treated as basic values in social
studies teaching, and they have been recommended to be taught at the elementary level as
basic values. Individual rights are taught as fundamental values and principles of American
democracy in values education (Chapin & Messick, 2002; Chapin, 2009; Hoge, Field, Foster
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
& Nickell, 2004; Parker, 2009; Seefeldt, 1997; Sunal & Haas, 2005; Van Cleaf, 1991; Zarrillo,
2004).
The first remarkable finding when comparing two countries’ textbooks is that intensity
score on survival rights sub-category in Turkish textbooks is much more than that in the
United States textbooks. In addition, in Turkish textbooks, the survival rights sub-category is
given more place when compared to other subcategories. This result is not consistent with
earlier studies
Karaman - Kepenekçi & Aslan (2011), Merey (2012a), Karaman-Kepenekçi
(2010), and Özdemir Uluç (2008). In these studies, survival rights category was not found
more than others subcategories. For instance, Karaman-Kepenekçi’s (2010a) study determined
to what extent and how children's rights are allocated in the stories in the 100 Basic Literary
Works list recommended for children in Turkey”. This study found that the rate of statements
on development rights was higher than the others.
The second finding showed that the intensity score for the category of development
rights in Turkish social studies textbooks was almost double that in the United States
textbooks. In Turkey, there have been a number of studies by Özdemir Uluç (2008) about
children’s rights in elementary curricula, and Merey (2012a) added another study on
children’s rights in social studies curricula in elementary education. They obtained similar
findings. Along the lines of the present study, the intensity score of the development rights
subcategory in elementary curricula was found to be the most after participation subcategory,
in consistence with studies by Özdemir Uluç ( 2008) and Merey (2012a).
In this study, it was observed that the ‘Participation Rights’ subcategory was more
included in Turkish social studies textbooks than in United States textbooks. The result is not
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
consistent with previous research findings (Merey, 2012a). In the study by Merey (2012a) on
children’s rights in elementary social studies curricula, a comparative study was conducted
and in Merey’s (2012b) “Political Rights in Social Studies Textbooks in Turkish Elementary
Education”, the intensity score of the ‘participation rights’ subcategories in elementary school
textbooks is found to be much higher than the other subcategories. On the other hand, in the
United States intensity score of participation rights was the second most included subcategory.
This result can be explained by the basic purpose of social studies. Chapin and Messick
(2002) said that the main purpose for teaching the social studies is citizenship education. To
achieve citizenship education, there are four major goals. These are knowledge, skills, values
and participations. In the United States, participation plays the most important role, where
student participation in the government of their own school through student councils has long
been a tradition in middle and high school. Such participation allows some students to practice
democracy and gives students the freedom to initiate issues and solve problems (Sunal &
Haas, 2005). The same situation can be seen in Turkish social studies teaching goals. In fact,
when we examined the intensity scores, the subcategory “participation of rights” in Turkish
textbooks in Turkey was observed to be higher than in the United States textbooks. This
situation results most likely from social studies education curricula.
In Turkey, the
implemented curriculum has included many activities for children since Social Studies
Curriculum was prepared with a constructivist education approach in 2005. Turkish social
studies curriculum replaced textbook-based teaching with activity-based teaching, containing
many activities that encourage student participation (Safran, 2005; Şimşek 2009, Cited in,
Merey, 2012b) .
Another important finding is related to protection rights. They can only be found in
Turkish studies textbooks. In other words, statements about children’s rights to protection are
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
not found in the United States textbooks. This result in Turkish textbooks is not consistent
with research about that by Özdemir Uluç (2008), and Merey (2012a) who found no gains
about children’s protection rights in elementary education. In addition, Karaman- Kepenekci
& Aslan (2011) reached similar results, with the present study on children’s rights in early
childhood education books. In their study, protection rights were found emphasized less than
the other categories. This shows that textbooks and curricula are not parallel to each other and
children’s rights in elementary curricula are not distributed according to student class level.
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
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Taylor, M, and Percy-Smith, B. (2008). Children’s participation: Learning from and for
community development, International Journal of Children’s Rights, 16, 379–394
Thomas, N. (2007). Towards a theory of children’s participation, International Journal of
Children’s Rights, 15, 199–218.
Turner, T. N. (2004). Essential of elementary social studies, Perason Education.
Uçuş, Ş. (2009). Çocuk hakları sözleşmesi’nin ilköğretim programlarındaki yeri ve
sözleşme’ye yönelik öğretmenlerin ve okul yöneticilerinin görüşleri. Hacettepe
Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Yayınlanmamış Yüksek lisans Tezi Ankara,
2009.
Ulusavaş, M. (2008). In 2008 the state of children in Turkey with special reference to the right
of education, Online Submission.
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UNICEF. (2011). http://www.unicef.org.
Van Cleaf, D.W. (1991). Action in elementary social studies. New Jersey: Parentice Hall,
Englewood Cliff.
Yıldırım, A. ve Şimşek, H. (2005). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri.
(Güncelleştirilmiş Geliştirilmiş 5. Baskı). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.
Yurtsever, M. (2009). Ebeveyn Çocuk Hakları Tutum Ölceğının Gelıstırılmesı ve Anne
Babaların Çocuk Haklarına Yonelık Tutumlarının
Farklı Değışkenler Açısından
Incelenmesı, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezı, Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri
Enstitüsü, Istanbul.
Zarrillo, J.J. (2004). Teaching elementary social studies principles and applications. New
Jersey: Perason Merrill Parentice Hall,
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
Verhellen, E. (1993). Children’s Rights and Education, School Psychology International, 14
(3) 199-208.
APPENDIX A
The Textbooks used in this study
Turkish Textbooks
1. Koyuncu Kaya M.,Dag, O., Kocak, E., Yildirim, T,. Unal, M. (2010). Primary School
Social Studies Turkis Textbook 4 (in Turkish). (Ed, Ismail Hakki Demircioglu).
Ankara: Milli Egitim Yayinlari.
2. Bafiol, S., Unal, F., Azer,H., Yildiz, A. & Evirgen, O. F. (2010). Primary School
Social Studies Turkis Textbook 5 (in Turkish). (Ed, Ismail Hakki Demircioglu).
Ankara: Milli Egitim Yayinlari.
3. Genc, E., Polat, M. M., Basol, S., Kaya, N., Azer, H., Gokce, S., Koyuncu, M., Gok,
A., Yildiz, A., Yilmaz, D. & Ozcan, A. (2010). Primary School Social Studies Turkis
Textbook 5 (in Turkish). (Ed, Mustafa Safran). Ankara: Milli Egitim Yayinlari.
The United States Textbooks
1. Bacon, P., Bencloski, J., Buggey, J., Cunha, S., Fournier, E., Frank, R., Hardwick, S.,
Lanegran, D., Kaminski, J.P., Mancke, E., Manson, G., Meyer, M., Miyares, I.,
McKibben, C., Raboteau, A. & Strong, W. A. (2005). Primary School Social Studies
United States Textbook 4,(Ed:, Michael J. Berson),
Newyork.
35 Harcourt School Publishers:
Vol.1, No.1, 1-36
2. Bacon, P., Deans-Smits, S., Nichols, R., Johnson, J.W., Kaminski, J.P., Mancke, E.,
Banner, J. M., Egbo, C., Patrick , J.J., Frank, R., Giesburg, J., McKibben, C. &
Raboteau, A. A. (2005). Primary School Social Studies United States Textbook 5,(Ed:,
Michael J. Berson), Harcourt School Publishers: Newyork.
3. Gerberding, R.A., Sack, R.H., Caulker, P.S., O’Connor, D., Bast, R., B.Champion,
C.B., Ganz, m.a., Pierard, R., Reiter, K.D., Soergel, P.M., Treadgold, W., Matthew, R.,
Sabol, S., Chio, Y.J., Glosser, S., Peterson, M. & Talbot, Cynthia (2005). Primary
School Social Studies United States Textbook 6,(Ed:, Michael J. Berson), Harcourt
School Publishers: Newyork.
36 INTERNATİONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY CHİLDHOOD EDUCATİON RESEARCH
Vol.1, No.1, 37-47
The Reflection of Violence Perception on Drawings at Preschool Period Children
Assoc.Prof. Dr. Adalet Kandıra
Prof. Dr. Yücel Gelişlic
a
Assoc.Prof Dr. Fatma Tezel Şahinb
MA. Uzm Elçin Yazıcıd
c
Gazi University, Ankara,Turkey
b
Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey
d
Abstract
Children at preschool period could eyewitness the violence experienced at their
families of the community they live in or be directly exposed to it. The way children
are affected by violence or how they will react to it could reveal itself in various
forms. It is likely to see that there happen some emotional, mental, behavioural and
social disorders at children exposed to violence or witnessing to it, it might cause
some psychological and physical damage and that it might also cause some
behavioural disorders, such as aggression, at various levels. Due to its traumatic
effects in its nature, violence could lead to some ill-effects on different functional
domains and cause a threat on child’s mental health. Therefore, violence at preschool
period is an issue that should be assessed in a multidimensional way. The purpose of
the current study was to determine the perception of violence (the reflection of it on
their drawings) at preschool period children. Study group consisted of 50 children
attending a kindergarten within a primary school in the city of Ankara in the academic
year of 2011-2012.
The research is a descriptive study based on a quantitative analysis. The data of
the study were collected through the solution of the depictive expressions children
drew in their pictures over the perception of violence. Their perception of violence
was assessed through the pictures they drew by making a descriptive analysis.
Keywords:Preschool period, child drawings, violence
d
Correnpendant Author: [email protected]
37
INTERNATİONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY CHİLDHOOD EDUCATİON RESEARCH
Vol.1, No.1, 37-47
Violence may occur in the character of physical, sexual, emotional and
negligence owing to a variety of reasons at interpersonal, self-oriented or societal
levels (Barter, Renold, Berridge and Cawson, 2004: 31; Margolin and Gordis, 2004:
152; Işıkhan and Yıldırım, 2006: 73). Children are the ones affected most and in the
most vulnerable positions. Acceptability of violence and physical punishment towards
children depends upon the values, attitudes and perceptions of societies. Besides, it is
suggested that violence and physical punishment towards chldren should be handled
with respect to human rights (Deveci, Karadağ and Yılmaz, 2008: 353; Yurtal and
Artut, 2008: 149).
Children eyewitness violence sometimes at school, sometimes in friend circle
or they are directly exposed to violence. The children eye witnessing and exposed to
violence are influenced by this at every age and especially in the early childhood, they
may exert some negative behavior. While the way children are affected by violence
depends on age and cognitive development, there have been some somatic symptoms
observed in the studies such as behavior disorders like aggressiveness and guilt,
depression, emotional or psychological disorders, over-fear, post-traumatic stress
symptoms (emerging in cases causing severe stress) like nightmare , sleep disorders,
academic and cognitive disorders (Jaffe, Baker and Cunningham, 2004: 9; Rossman,
Rea, Graham-Bermann and Butterfield, 2004: 30; Goddard and Bedi, 2010: 7; Ayan,
2011: 138; Kalkan and Karadeniz- Özbek, 2011: 35-36).
Emerging itself in such dimensions as emotional, physical, verbal, sexual,
political and many more, violence has become a case so frequently encountered in
school settings as it was in every sphere of society (Allen, 2009: 177). The concepts
of violence and school, which should never accompany each other, have gradually
entered into the school life. There are a lot of reasons for violence; however, such
38
Vol.1, No.1, 37-47
factors as the features of children and directors at schools, the size of the school, and
the location of the school are among the most important causes of violence children
face at schools (Barter, Renold, Berridge and Cawson, 2004: 9; Demirtaş and Ersözlü,
2007: 180).
Violence at school creates a threatening atmosphere, causes physical and
emotional injuries, thus hampering the success of the children involved. Through the
effective educational programs, event of violence could be prevented (Deveci,
Karadağ and Yılmaz, 2008: 352; Ayan, 2011: 139).
Violence, along with the psychological, social cultural and social economic
dimension, take place in mass communication of media and especially in movies,
series, cartoons broadcast on television channels. Fear, sadness, and emotional
responses of adults towards the catastrophes and crises broadcast in mass
communication of media such as the internet and television lead children to be seized
with fear about the safety of the family. As a result, there might appear some problems
in the sleep, eating and toilet habits of children as well as leading to isolation from
play and social settings, showing more aggressive behavior and restlessness in the
relations with others (Ayrancı, Köşgeroğlu and Günay, 2004: 134; Erwin and Morton,
2008: 107; Yurtal and Artut, 2008: 150).
This study sets out to examine the reflection of violence perception on
drawings at preschool period children.
Method
The study is a descriptive one based on a quantitative analysis. The study group
is comprised of the 50 children attending kindergarten at an elementary school in
2011-2012 educational terms in Ankara.
39
Vol.1, No.1, 37-47
When the demographic features of the group is examined, it is seen that 54.0%
is male, 46.0% is female, as for the age distribution of mothers, 60.0% is between 3039, 20.0% between 40-49, and below 29 years of age, and as for the fathers, 68.00%
between 30-39, 14.0% Between 40-49, 10% 50 and above and 8.0% 29 and below
years of age. When their education level is considered, 40.0% of the mothers are high
school graduates, 28.0% are elementary , secondary school and university graduates,
4.0% is literate , considering the educational level of their fathers, 42.0% of them are
university graduates, 34.0% are high school graduates, 20.0% are primary-secondary
school graduates and 4.0% are literate. On the other hand, when it comes to the
employment status of the parents it is seen that 68.0% of the mothers are housewives,
22.0% are state employees, 2.0% are self-employed, while 42.0% of the fathers are
workers, and 22.0% are self employed.
The data of the study was obtained through the analysis of the drawings of the
children on the perception of violence. Children were interviewed through asking
questions such as what violence is, whether they eyewitnessed any event of violence,
and whether they were exposed to violence. Then, children were requested to draw a
picture about violence and they were asked to narrate what they drew. What they
narrated was written at the back of the paper on which they drew pictures. The
perception of children on violence over the pictures were assessed through a
descriptive analysis.
40
Vol.1, No.1, 37-47
Table 1. Distribution of Violence Cases by Children’s Drawings
Person Resorting
n
%
to Violence
Mother
10
17,0
Father
12
20,4
Sibling
6
10,1
Friend
13
22,0
Other People
10
17,0
Irrelevant Drawing
8
13,5
Total
59
100
Table 1 reports the findings of the answer to the question “who resorts to
violence?” by children at kindergarten. According to the table, in the first place comes
friends with 22.0%, the follows father with 20.04, next mother with 17.0 and lastly
other people with 17.0%. The percentage of the cases of violence among siblings were
found to be 10.1%.
The table suggests that the people resorting to violence, according to the
reflections of violence on drawings, are in the family with 47.5%.
Bayındır (2010) investigated the responses by children to intra-family
violence. In accordance with the findings obtained from mothers exposed to violence,
it was found out that a majority of the children (68.2%) eye-witnessed the intra family
violence and were aware of the cases of violence.
A majority of the USA citizens and at least 750.000 children in the United
Kingdom exposed to intra-family violence (Sterne, Poole, Chadwick, Lawler and
Dodd, 2010). When the studies into violence are examined closely, it is observed that
a majority of children in Turkey and worldwide witness violence or are exposed to
41
Vol.1, No.1, 37-47
violence for the first time in family. Hence, it is possible to say that the findings
reported in Table 1 match up with the results of previous studies.
Table 2. Distribution of who resorts to and is exposed to violence by the drawings
Who to Whom
Intra-family
n
Mother-Father to each other
5
21,7
Mother to child
5
21,7
Father to child
7
30,5
Among Siblings
4
17,4
Child to Father
2
8,7
23
100
Total
At School
%
Among Friends
13
100
13
100
Among People
11
91,6
People to Animals
1
8,4
Total
12
100
Grand Total
48
100
Total
Around
%
48
27
25
Table 2 reports the distribution of who resorts to and is exposed to violence by
the drawings of children. According to Table 2, the intra-family violence is in the first
place with the percentage of 48%, then follows violence among friends with 27% and
lastly comes violence around children with 25%.
When we take a close look at, the intra-family violence rates given in Table 2,
violence from father to child is in the first place with 30.5%, mother to child with
21.7%, among siblings with 17.4% and child to father with 8.7%.
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Vol.1, No.1, 37-47
Ayan and Kocacık (2009) found out in their study that off all the family
members, children are scared of father more compared to mother. It can be said that
this result supports the finding, given in Table 2, that mostly fathers resort to violence
to children.
When the distribution of violence given in Table 2 is examined, there is the
view that violence is among the friends with the percentage of 100%.
In studies by Kapcı (2004), Özcebeci, Çetik and Üner (2006), and Bozkurt,
Akbıyık, Yüzük, Gördeles Beşer and Sağkal (2011), it was found out that both in
preschool period and at higher education levels, the rate of violence among children is
high and as for the content and the type of violence, it is usually in the shape of
physical and verbal. This result is in harmony with the finding that violence is
common among friends.
When the views on the violence taking place around, it is seen that violence
among people takes the first place with 91.6%, and then follows violence from people
to animals with 8.4%.
Çetinkaya-Yıldız and Hatipoğlu Sümer (2010) found out in their study that the
rate of violence in house, school and neighborhood settings is high.
When the literature in the field is examined, it is seen that violence to animals
is common, and among the reasons of violence to animals are intra-family violence,
adaptation challenges to school and peer-related problems. In particular, the intrafamily violence is shown to be a major source of violence to animals (Merez-Perez,
and Heide, 2001: 556). Considering this, the result of their study and the related
literature support the findings given in Table 2.
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Vol.1, No.1, 37-47
Table 3. Expression of Violence based on the reflections of drawings by children
Expression of Violence
n
%
Hitting, fighting, beating
26
57,8
Ear pinching, hair gripping, nipping
3
6,7
Using a weapon (Knife-gun)
4
8,9
Shouting, distressing, reproaching
12
26,6
Total
45
100
The Table 3 reports the views on expression of violence based on the
reflections of drawings by children. According to the table, hitting, fighting, and
beating takes the first place with the rate of 57.8, then comes Shouting, distressing,
reproaching with 26.6%, following this comes using a weapon with 8.9% and lastly
ear pinching, hair gripping and nipping with 6.7%.
In their studies into violence at elementary schools, by Deveci et al. (2002),
Kapçı (2004), Çankaya (2011), Bozkurt et al. (2011), it was found out that hitting,
slapping, punching, hitting, scratching, tripping, spitting, pushing, hair gripping,
scaring, insulting, threatening, swearing and mugging as expression of violence
behavior among students. These results support the findings in Table 3.
Conclusion and Suggestions
The results of the study reveal that nearly half of the cases of violence happen
within the family, the one resorting to violence in the family is usually father, the
events of violence at school take place among friends, the events of violence which
children eyewitness in their environ are among people, a small rate of violence is
towards animals. It has also been found out that the majority of the children reflected
events on violence on their drawings.
44
Vol.1, No.1, 37-47
• Based upon the results, awareness of parent on child development and education,
communication with children and discipline could be enhanced.
• They could be encouraged to participate in the educational programs developed by
preschool education institutions.
• In particular, programs on the negative effects of violent behavior broadcast in the
visual media and parent should be made aware of this.
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Çankaya, İ. (2011). İlköğretimde Akran Zorbalığı Uludağ Üniversitesi, Eğitim
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Davranışları Arasındaki İlişkiler. Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2,
178-189.
Deveci, H., Karadağ, R. ve Yılmaz, F. (2008). İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Şiddet
Algıları. Elektornik. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, C.7, S. 24 (351-368).
Erwin, E. J. and Morton, N. (2008). Exposure to Media Violence and Young Children
with and Without Disabilities: Powerful Opportunities for FamilyProfessional Partnerships. Early Childhood Educ J, 36:105–112.
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Kapcı, E. G. (2004). İlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Zorbalığa Maruz Kalma Türünün ve
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An Examination of Creative Thinking Skills of Gifted and Talented Preschool Children
in Terms of Various Variables
Çağlar Çetinkaya1
Sakarya University Faculty of Education
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine creative thinking skills of gifted and talented
preschool children according to socio-demographic characteristics like the age, gender, and
parental education. The research was conducted by descriptive model. The study is based on
47 gifted and talented preschool students who attend the summer programs in Istanbul in the
year 2010. The figural forms of the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT) have been
used to measure the creative thinking skills of students. TTCT was one of the most popular
scales which can measure creativity; the fifth year validity study had been conducted by
Runco, Miller, Acar, Cramond (2010). To determine socio-demographic characteristics,
personal information form was used which was developed by the researcher. The data was
analyzed in social science statistics program by using parametric and nonparametric test and
descriptive statistics. Research findings have been evaluated in terms of sub-dimensions of
TTCT and socio-demographic characteristics. There found to be a significant difference in
terms of age, gender, father-mother’s socio-economic situation. Average scores of students
who were males, from private schools, and students whose parents were civil servants were
higher than females, public school, and other occupations respectively. According to research
findings, a previous research finding of TTCT which was examined in terms of different
variables was investigated and suggestions were given.
Introduction
In recent years creativity has been valued more in different fields including education,
management, arts and sciences. The concept of creativity and intelligence are used together in
different areas. In the past creativity was considered to be related to only for fine arts or
music. Creativity is much more prevalent in our lives and fortunately the opinion is changing
(Matthews and Foster, 2005). Nowadays, importance of creativity in science and technology
1
E mail: [email protected]
48
Vol.1, No.1, 48-61
is emphasized as much as creativity in fine arts. Intelligence and creativity which can be
developed, was examined relational. Especially creativity has an important role for the
theories which consider intelligence in a multi-dimensional structure.
In most of the 20th century, Giftedness was considered a single dimension structure.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is the most commonly used criterion in order to measure this
dimension. Using of this criterion stems from the idea that is “intelligence is unique and IQ is
the tremendous way of measuring intelligence”. Nonetheless, during the same period,
academic success was used for identifying gifted and talented children. This situation has
changed later. Sternbergs’ successful Intelligence theory puts forward the idea that intellectual
giftedness should be expressed by a more comprehensive definition that it is beyond an ability
which can be measured by IQ scores and achievement tests. Especially, the criticism about
environmental factors cognitive abilities which measured by intelligence tests, don’t include
intelligence (Köksal, 2007).
Gifted and talented children who differ especially cognitively from their peers, has
high creative thinking. High creative thinking plays a crucial role in this difference. For the
emergence of outstanding talent, one of the target areas which were aimed to develop by
many models and theories is creativity. As a matter of the fact, creativity is in the main
dimensions of theories of gifted and talented (Renzulli ,1986).
Renzulli (1986) stated that gifted and talented individuals have three basic clusters
which are interrelated. These clusters are above-average general and/or specific abilities, high
levels of task commitment (motivation), and high levels of creativity. Above-average general
and/or specific abilities: verbal and numerical reasoning, abstract thinking, spatial relations,
memory, and word fluency. Specific ability; abilities in technical areas like music, theatre,
mathematics, science, chemistry. Motivation is the capability to undertake superior tasks.
Creativity is producing new ideas and applying these ideas to solving problems. Interactions
among the three clusters were necessary for outstanding success. An individual should be
%85 more successful than his peers in each cluster. Moreover, they can be accepted as gifted
in case they show %98 success at least one of these clusters (Renzulli, 1998, 1986, 1978).
Stenberg mentioned three different types of giftedness in The Triarchic theory of intelligence.
These are analytical, practical and creative giftedness (Sternberg, 1999).
There is creativity in each study which was formed by human beings. Although
creativity is as old as human history, especially in the list five centuries. It was accepted as
phonemeon in the area of fine arts. Nevertheless, nowadays, there is a focus on creativity in
science and technique as much as creativity in arts (Matthews and Foster, 2005). There are a
49
Vol.1, No.1, 48-61
lot of definitions of creativity as the concept of gifted and talented. The broadest definition of
creativity was done by Torrance. Torrance (1974) defined creativity as; a process of becoming
sensitive to problems, deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies, and
so on; identifying the difficulty; searching for solutions, making guesses, or formulating
hypotheses about the deficiencies: testing and retesting these hypotheses and possibly
modifying and retesting them; and finally communicating the results. According to Morris
(2002) creativity is generating new and original ideas which are valuable socially. Again
creativity is an ability that exists in every individual and shows itself in the every part of
human life. It is a whole process includes a large area in our life and is an attitude and
behavior style (San, 1979). Apart from Barlett, Wallach and Kogan’s definitions, Ömeroğlu
(2001) handles creativity as getting rid of the molds, generating many and original ideas
without ignoring the essence, flexibility, originality, fluency and unusual thinking.
Creative thinking is designed according the interest indexes of students. These areas
rely on Guilford’ thinking different ideas. Indexes which are the basic component of Creative
problem solving and problem based learning, include fluency, flexibility, elaboration and
originality.
Fluency; ability of thinking and remembering
Flexibility; switching from expecting ideas to other different kinds of ideas
Elaboration; detailing the subject, developing idea, giving a concept special for life
Originality; making relations and synthesis independent new original ideas from
known ideas (Baska & Stambaugh, 2001; Perkins, 1981; Torrance, 1966).
Intelligence and Creativity
Intelligence and creativity were investigated by many researches throughout years.
Literature suggests different results about the studies on intelligence and creativity. While
people with a normal intelligence level may have a high creativity potential, people with high
intelligence level may also have lower creativity potential than they are expected. It is
generally thought that intelligent people have always creative ideas. The point that should be
paid attention here is that these two relational concepts should not be evaluated by using the
same meanings for these two. There are different ideas about the relation between intelligence
and creativity. According to the results of many studies, there is not always a high correlation
between high intelligence and creativity (Barron, 1961; Guilford, 1967). There must be a
certain level of intelligence for creativity. The most concrete knowledge about the relationship
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between intelligence and creativity are suggested by “Threshold Theory”. Threshold theory
claims that a certain level of intelligence is necessary for creativity; but after this certain level,
there is a moderate correlation between creativity and intelligence (Yıldırım, 2007; Runko and
Albert, 1986).
As mentioned above highly intelligent people are not necessarily highly creative (Roe,
1952). Most of the studies show that highly creative children have 120-130 intelligence
quotients (IQ). According to Çağlar (2004), creativity and IQ scores of students whose IQ
scores are 130 or more are not strongly correlated. Guilford, claim that creative peoples’
thinking abilities that leads to multiple results, cannot be measured by standard IQ test are
very strong. Other researches defends that thinking abilities that leads to multiple results is
independent from IQ.
Sternberg and O’Hara (1999) suggested five different situations in which creativity
and intelligence related. 1. Creativity is a subset of intelligence 2. Intelligence is a subset of
creativity 3. Creativity and intelligence are overlapping sets. 4. Creativity and intelligence is
essentially the same thing. 5. There aren’t any relation between creativity and intelligence,
they are disjoints sets. The most powerful view is they are overlapping sets generally
giftedness identified by intelligence cannot ignore creativity
It has been seen that most of the people who are highly creative cannot be successful
in the school. Gifted underachievers and creative gifted students have some similar
characteristics (Kim, 2008). In accordance with idea that the intelligent person should be
successful, there is an idea people with creative ability should be academically successful.
There are misconceptions about the situation we always come up with in the educational
environment. The idea that if students have higher academic scores, they will be more
creative is not true (Öztuna and Gürdal, 2004). There is not always a linear relation between
intelligence and creativity. Some students, who are gifted and talented, are sometimes
unsuccessful. One of the factors, school performance of students which have an impact on
students’ academic success, was perceived as important for gifted and talented students as
well as normal students. As mentioned in several studies (Cramond 1994; Davis 1997)
behavioral characteristics of creative individuals counter with the behaviors that accepted in
school environment. Torrance mentioned that the academic achievement of highly creative
gifted and talented students in Georgia Military College High School. When creative teaching
techniques had used in the students who are academically underachieved, had learned two
times faster than their peers (Torrance, 1984).
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Creativity and intelligence are not only innate characteristics limited genetically.
These characteristics are not stable. People can develop the creativity and intelligence
(Sternbeg and Grigorenko, 2002). Many theory of giftedness suppose that they can develop
giftedness by developing creativity. One of the most valid theoretical models used for the
development of creativity is Amabile’s theory of creativity view consists of abilities related to
learning area, abilities related to learning area, abilities related to creativity and work
motivation (Baska and Stambaugh, 2001; Amabile, 1983).
Guilford’s The Structure of Intellect Model focused on the research about creativity
and problem-solving research is focused on thinking (Guilford, 1967). Guilford argued that
intelligence cannot be measured literally by traditional IQ test. However, The Structure of
Intellect Model is designed in a three dimensional classification system. This system is
designed to encompass and organize 120 possible abilities according to: 1.The types of mental
operations employed in the act of thinking (evaluation, convergent production, divergent
production, memory, cognition) 2. The types of content (figural, symbolic, semantic,
behavioral). 3. The types of products that result from the act of thinking (Units, classes,
relations, systems, transformations, implications).
This study intends to examine the creative thinking skills of gifted and talented
preschool children according to socio-demographic characteristics like the age, gender, and
parental education. It is important to note that the studies that examine the creative thinking
skills of preschool children are very limited. Thus, this study fills an important void in gifted
and talented education.
METHODOLOGY
The research was conducted by scanning model. Scanning model is a research model
which aims to describe a situation under its own condition that was exist in the past or still
have been existed. An event, an individual or an object which is a subject of the research, was
tried to identified in its own conditions and as it exist (Karasar, 1995).
The study is based on 47 gifted and talented preschool students who attend the
programs at Istanbul in the year 2010. There were a total of 47 students enrolled in the
institute at the time of the study and the researcher was able reach the whole population. 29 of
these students were male and 18 were female. The students were between 4 and 7 years old.
“Torrance Test of Creative Thinking” (TTCT) figural forms have been used to measure
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Vol.1, No.1, 48-61
creative skills of students. “Personal Information Form”, which was developed by the
researcher, was used to determine socio-demographic characteristics.
Instruments
Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT): Torrance Test of Creative Thinking is
one of the most commonly used tests of creativity. The test consists of Figural forms A-B and
Verbal forms A-B. The main objective of using this test is measuring the effectiveness of
creative thinking. Although Torrance Test of Creative Thinking is used for identification of
gifted and talented children, the original purpose of the tests was create the basis of individual
educational planning (Torrance, 1966, 1974; Kim 2006). The test which was developed by
Torrance in 1966 is seen as the most popular instrument tools that measure creativity. There
are two forms of the verbal and two forms of the figural. That is, four different forms can be
used to measure creative skills of students. Validity studies have been conducted in 1974,
1984, 1990, 1998 and 2010 (Runco, Miller, Acar, Cramond, 2010). Those studies reported
predictive validity of the test after 7th, 12th, 22th, 40th, and 50th years.
Aslan (2001) adapted to Turkish version of TTCT figural and verbal versions. Aslan
(2001) indicates the general framework of TTCT as an intelligence and creativity relation,
creativity and school achievement, developing creativity with educational experience. TTCT
uses two parts; a Verbal test and a Figural test. Verbal part has seven subtests; asking
questions, guessing causes, guessing results, product improvement, unusual uses, unusual
questions, and just suppose. The Figural test has three subsets - Picture Construction (from a
marked cue), Picture Completion (again with cues), and Parallel Lines. In total the test was
formed by ten subtests. TTCT which was published as its current form in 1984 has been
administered to 10.271 people in verbal form, and to 37.814 people in figural form.
Personal Information Form: The form which has been developed by the researcher
includes questions about gender, age, school type, mother’s age, father’s age, mother’s
occupation, father’s occupation.
Data Analysis
The data was analyzed in social science statistics program by using parametric and
nonparametric test and descriptive statistics. Kruskal Wallis, Mann Whitney U was used in
this study. The Kruskal Wallis test is used when you have one independent variable with more
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Vol.1, No.1, 48-61
than two dependent variables. This is the non-parametric type of ANOVA and a generalized
form of the Mann-Whitney test method since it permits more than two groups. Also use t test
because of assumes that within each group are normally distributed in the two groups.
FINDINGS
Creativity scores of students who attend the programs were evaluated. These scores
were investigated through different variables. Sub-dimensions of creativity scores of gifted
and talented children are fluency (n=47, X =16.47), flexibility (n=47, X =13.43), elaboration
(n=47, X =7.66), resistance to premature closure (n=47, X =4.98), originality (n=47, X =5.13).
Table1.
Analysis of Creativity Score According to Gender
Gender
N
Mean
Sum of
U
p
Rank
Rank
Creativity
1.Male
29
1,13
8,98
4,29
>.05
2.Female
18
1.02
9,34
Table 1 shows a significant difference between creativity scores of gifted and talented
U=4,29 p>.05 students by gender . The scores of male students were higher than those of
females. Most of the literature (Aslan,1994; Atay, 2009;Lee, 2005; Özben and Argun, 2005)
reflects results that are contrary to our findings. These differences were explored in the
discussion section of this study.
Table 2.
Analysis of Creativity Score According to School Type
Gender N Mean Rank Sum of Rank U
p
School Type 1.Private 30
1,19
9,55
2,54 .05
2.Public 17
1.05
11,45
Table 2 shows a significant difference between creativity scores of gifted and talented
U =2,54 p<.05 on school type. The scores of private schools were higher than public schools.
Most of the literature (Çetingöz, 2002; Kuhn and Holling, 2009) reflects results that are
similar to our findings. These similarities were explored in the discussion section of this
study.
Table 3.
Analysis of Creativity Score According to Father’s Occupation
Score
Father’s
N X
S
Sd X2
p Significant Difference
Occupation
Creativity 1. Military
8 4,15 ,01 1-5, 2-5, 3-5, 3-8, 4-5, 54 1,14 6,87
Personnel
6, 5-7, 5-8, 6-8.
2.Academician
3 1,14 3,78
3.Banker
7 1,14 11,06
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4. Law business 4 1,14 9,66
5.Goverment
6 1,45 5,43
Official
6.Health
9 1,16 7,24
Personnel
7. Self4 1,09 10,81
employment
8.Teachers
8 1,04 9,38
9.Others
2 1,04 9,89
There is a significant difference between creativity scores of student’s father’s
occupation. X2=4,15 p<.01. The scores of government official were higher than others. Most
of the literature (Çetingöz, 2002) reflects results that are similar to our findings. These
similarities were explored in the discussion section of this study. The analysis of Mann
Whitney-U was executed in order to understand the difference between groups. The
difference was between the 1-5, 2-5, 3-5, 3-8, 4-5, 5-6, 5-7, 5-8, 6-8 groups.
Table 4.
Analysis of Creativity Score According to Mother’s Occupation
Score
Mother’s
N
S
Sd X2
p Significant
X
Occupation
Difference
Creativity 1. Military
8
2,59 ,05 3-5, 3-4, 3-9, 5-4, 5-8,
2 1,12 2,12
Personnel
6-9
2.Academician
2 1,04 17,67
3.Banker
4 1,19 12,78
4. Law business
10 1,1 7,93
5.Goverment
4 1,25 5,50
Official
6.Health Personnel
11 1,15 8,65
7. Self-employment
3 1,05 9,53
8.Teachers
5 1,12 8,17
9.Others
6 1,03 12,27
There is a significant difference between creativity scores of student’s mother’s
occupation X2 =2,59 p<.05. The scores of government official were higher than others. Most
of the literature (Çetingöz, 2002) reflects results that are similar to our findings. These
similarities were explored in the discussion section of this study. The analysis of Mann
Whitney-U was executed in order to understand the difference between groups. The
difference was between the 3-5, 3-4, 3-9, 5-4, 5-8, 6-9 groups.
Table 5.
Analysis of Creativity Score According to Father’s Age
Score
Father’s age N
S Sd
X2
p Significant difference
X
Creativity 1.18-24
7 1,72 4,92 3
75,83 ,01 1-2, 1-3,1-4, 2-3, 2-4, 3-4
2.25-34
9 1,01 4,00
55
3.35-44
4.45-54
Vol.1, No.1, 48-61
22 1,12 4,84
9 1,23 5,94
There is a significant difference between creativity scores of student’s father’s age
2
X =75,83 p<.01 The scores of first group (18-24) were higher than others. The analysis of
Mann Whitney-U was executed in order to understand the difference between groups. The
difference was between the 1-2, 1-3,1-4, 2-3, 2-4, 3-4 groups.
Table 6.
Analysis of Creativity Score According to Mother’s Age
Score
Mother age N
S Sd
X2
p Significant difference
X
Creativity 1.18-24
7 1,14 5,42 3
40,72 ,01 1-3,1-4, 2-3, 2-4, 3-4
2.25-34
7 1,28 5,73
3.35-44
23 1,11 5,52
4.45-54
10 1,22 6,04
There is a significant difference between creativity scores of student’s mother’s age
X2=40,72 p<.01. The scores of second group (25-34) were higher than others. The analysis of
Mann Whitney-U was executed in order to understand the difference between groups. The
difference was between the 1-3,1-4,2-3,2-4,3-4 groups.
RESULTS and CONCLUSION
The study revealed significant differences between gender and creativity (p<.001). The
scores of male students were higher than those of females. This result differs from finding of
Aslan (1994), Atay (2009), Naderi, Abdullah, Aizan, Sharir and Kumar (2009), and Özben
and Argun (2005).
The studies showed that there is no significant difference between
creativity and gender (p>.05). Another study showed that there is a difference in creative
ability between boys and girls. Boys are more creative than girls in the preschool years (Lee,
2005). On the other hand some statistical data analysis shows that there is no difference in the
overall creativity scores between boys and girls (Naderi, Abdullah, Aizan, Sharir and Kumar,
2009). In the research significant differences among the genders were not expected. But
research results showed a significant difference so; it might be thought a shortage of number
of students may have caused that result.
The study revealed significant differences between school type and creativity (p<.05).
The scores of private schools were higher than public schools. This result similar to finding of
Çetingöz (2002), Kuhn and Holling (2009). Çetingöz (2002) examined creativity in terms of
high school type and found a significant difference (p<.05). Also, Kuhn and Holling (2009)
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Vol.1, No.1, 48-61
found that the creative potential of students was significantly affected by school-related
factors. Creativity can be enhanced and a capability from birth. This potential is required to
ensure that proper environment for the development. Çakmak (2005) in his research stated
that in an enriched environment children feel much more free them and at the same time
environment can arrange stimulants so children can put forward their creative forces. It might
be thought that depending on the level of income, free from environmental factors and culture
will provide a free learning environment can provide as a result of this.
The study revealed significant differences between mother’s and father’s occupation
and creativity (p<.05). The scores of government official were higher than others. Çetingöz
(2002) classify parental occupations as housewife, officer, self-employment, worker, teacher,
army officer, farmer and engineer in his study. In his study, creativity of the students shows
significant difference according to mother’s profession.
Çakmak’ study (2005) shows
significant difference according to mother’s and father’s occupation (p<.05). These results
similar to finding of the study. In the research significant differences among the occupation’
salaries were not expected. Economic level in terms of low and middle level income and
creativity showed a significant difference. Şen’s (1999) study which examined the creativity
levels of students who has a middle and high level income is more significant than the
creativity levels students who have lower level income. Economic situation has an impact on
creative thinking. Excessive stimuli in the environment an effect on the development of
creativity (Süzen, 1997).
The study revealed significant differences between mother’s and father’s age and
creativity (p<.01). The scores of age of between 18-34 were higher than others. Lee (2005),
found that the creative potential of students was significantly affected by parents age. There is
a significant difference between creativity scores of student’s parents age (p<.05). Young
couples can provide an enriched environment for their children, by doing this it might be
thought that creative capability of children is going to enhance. According the our finding we
can suggest that;
Parental support is an important element in student development (Davaslıgil, 2004).
To better support their children, parents should be able to identify their children’s, strengths
and weaknesses. This consciousness will aid parents in selecting better support and guidance
services for students. Thus, parents should be educated and informed of techniques to better
identify abilities of their children. Seminars, workshops, and trainings could improve the
awareness of such parents of the importance of teaching strategies and techniques that might
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Vol.1, No.1, 48-61
enhance the creativity of students. Also parent should be good council and guidance contact
with their school administration.
This research helps educator, parents or researcher to gain a different point of view
about how important creativity is and why it should be investigated by various variables.
Creativity is a significant dimension in the identification of gifted children since in the
developing and rapidly changing world besides gaining the knowledge, producing many;
original, useful and applicable ideas have an important role in daily life situation. Because of
its importance study examine creativity in terms of different variables to identify the externals
factors which have a related to creativity of our children. With the help of this research
external factors like parental influence or school factors have an impact on children
creativities. So, research show that
parents education; parents point of view, behaviors
attitude, school factor; education programs, teachers activities and so on, family income; the
opportunities is given to the children effects children’s creativity. In the light of these finding
educators and parents should be more careful in their behaviors toward children.
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61
Vol. 1, No. 1, 62-75 THE COMPARISON OF TOY PREFERENCES OF TEACHER CANDIDATES IN
FIRST AND FOURTH GRADES OF PRESCHOOL EDUCATION
Gönül ONUR SEZER*
Ömür SADİOĞLU**
*Res.Asst, Uludag University Education Faculty Elementary Education,
[email protected]
**Res.Asst.Phd.Uludag University Education Faculty Elementary Education,
[email protected]
SUMMARY
This study has been carried out in order to investigate and compare understanding of
toy selection of teacher candidates in first and fourth grade of preschool education. In order to
achieve this, a survey that has been developed by the researcher after the literature review has
been applied to 52 preschool teacher candidates in first and 52 preschool teacher candidates in
fourth grade who study in Uludag University, Faculty of Education Preschool Education
Program. Differences between groups have been investigated with "chi square test". Findings
indicated that fourth grade teacher candidates pay much more attention than first grade
teacher candidates to criteria of reading label information when choosing a toy, checking CE
conformity mark and producing company information, if the toys are harmful or not, have
allergenic effects, consist of carcinogenic material or not, toy's ease of cleaning,
attractiveness, toy’s price and choosing the toy they saw on commercials and they have more
confidence that every toy on sale has been inspected.
Key Words: Preschool, teacher candidate, toy selection.
Vol. 1, No. 1, 62-75 INTRODUCTION
During early childhood period, game is necessary for the child to learn and toys are the
tools that ensure this process. Toy is in close relation with child's self representation,
imagination, interests, discovery, description, education, cognitive development, awareness of
gender roles. The fact that Piaget considers interaction with objects as an important part of
cognitive development also supports this point of view (Glassy & Romano, 2003). Owen
Blakemore and Centers (2008) who accept that toy has an important place in child's life, argue
that toy is rather effective in development of cognitive skills and in the increase of social
games played with other children and role playing. Toys played with a group help the child
gain skills such as ability to cooperate and ability to obey the rules (Mangır & Aktaş 1993;
Öztürk, 1997; Poyraz, 1999; Başal, 2005). According to Peretti and Sydney (1984), who
researches the effects of toys on children, children are able to describe their worlds and
feelings when they play with toys. Moreover, toys played with groups also create an
environment for use of language in addition to their attribution to the social and emotional
development of child.
For example, sentence forming, questioning, answering and
storytelling skills of children who communicate with each other through games develop
(Spodek & Saracho, 2005). Moreover, toys that address psychomotor development of children
improve hand-eye coordination, and have an effect on development of big and small muscles
(Isenberg & Quisenberry, 2002).
Even though there are various toys made of different materials, with different colors
and features, ideal toy is the one that makes children want to play with it again and again; it
presents opportunity to play more, and amuses more. Toys should arouse curiosity in children,
work the muscles, promote experimenting and imagination, encourage children to solve
problems (Galigan, 2000; Russ, 1998). A playroom arranged to arouse children's interest will
Vol. 1, No. 1, 62-75 keep children's perception on alert and stimulate their senses systematically and constantly.
But this arrangement should never restrain children's freedom in their rooms; it should not
prevent them from creating their own world. Buying new toys make children happy. But
buying new toys is not more important than making the existing toys draw their attention
(İlhan 2004). Primary factor to keep in mind while choosing the toy is the age of the child.
Children of early ages like toys such as a colorful rattle, which will stimulate all of their
senses, and toys like these have a great role in development of their senses that have yet to
mature. Children who just started walking like to play games where they place or remove
cube that are in different shape and size. Using their newly acquired wrist movement skills
children around the age two prefer simple legos that they can build up to other toys. Children
of preschool age like all kinds of objects that support their creative characteristics. With this
point of view it can be seen that children are naturally more inclined to toys which will
improve their skills that they have gained in their current age. Each new skill that children
develop is a game for them (Uluğ, 1997). Simple but entertaining toys create the opportunity
for a creative and active stimulation. For example all pots, reels and dough in houses set a
game environment that children can shape as they will. In fact, children shape their own
personalities in this environment. Water, sand, soil, mud and paints help children to get to
know outside world and gain experience. As children grow up, tools that serve as toys also
become varied. For example books and reading, when selected according to subjects they love
and are interested in, become the most amusing toys and games. Moreover, drawing scenes
and characters from the book teach children to create images in their minds and reinforce their
memory. Also, encouraging children to talk about subjects they like will both improve their
vocabulary and reinforce their speaking skills (Sarı, 2002).
When buying toys, those that have safety warnings on them should be preferred and
they should have a certain level of quality, standard and safety so that the pieces and parts of
Vol. 1, No. 1, 62-75 the toys do not pose any threat for children of their age (Telep 1997, Glassy & Romano 2003,
İlhan, 2004). According to the regulation about toys prepared by Ministry of Health
designating procedures and principles related to design, production and supervision of toys,
risks related to use of the toy and steps to prevent them should be shown on toys or on labels
on their packages and in user manual in a manner that will attract attention. As required by
this regulation, CE Conformity Marking, Name and/or Business Name or Brand and Address
of Producer or Importer, Age Appropriate Warning, Information related to Certain Risks That
Toys Could Carry and User Manual should be present on the toy or on its label. When buying
toys, those factors should be taken into account, user manual and warning should be read,
given information should be heeded (Toy Safety Factsheet, 2001). CE Conformity Marking is
a sign indicating that the product has minimal safety requirements and granting quality
assurance (Official journal dated May 17 2002 RG: Issue: 24758; European Commission,
2004; Approval Marks CE Mark, 2005). Age Appropriate Warning indicates for which age
group the toys are suitable. The statement "Not safe for children under 3" has been written on
toys since 1995 (Langlois & Wallen, 1991). Dangers (inflammableness, heating, disassembly,
etc.) that may be caused by toys' physical, chemical and electrical features should be
indicated. User manual should contain information about correct and safe use of the toy
(Official journal dated May 17 2002 RG: Issue: 24758)
For these reasons, every child should play with toys suitable for their development and
needs. At this point it is important for teachers and parents to know the children well and to
be conscious in selecting the right toys (Glassy & Romano, 2003).
Aim of the Study
This study has been carried out in order to investigate and compare understanding of
toy selection of teacher candidates in first and fourth grade of preschool education. Even
though there are many sources on the importance of toy selection, studies on the subject is
Vol. 1, No. 1, 62-75 very few in our country. This study is important for being a resource for parents,
academicians and researchers about things to look out for in toys and during toy selection.
METHOD
Research Model
This descriptive study has been carried out in order to investigate and compare
understanding of toy selection of teacher candidates in first and fourth grade of preschool
education. In order to achieve this, a survey which had been developed by the researcher was
applied to teacher candidates who study in Uludag University's Department of Preschool
Education in Faculty of Education.
Research Group
52 from first, 52 from fourth grade, a total of 104 preschool teacher candidates who
are studying in Department of Preschool Teacher of Uludag University form the sample of
this research.
Data Gathering Tools
Survey questions have been developed by the researchers after the literature review
(Arıcan & Karaca 2004; Çamur et al., 2008; Doğanay, 1998) about teacher candidates’
criteria (toy’s suitability for children’s skill, intelligence, imagination development, violencefree, risk-free (safe), easy-to-clean, gender and age appropriate nature, being cheap or
expensive, appearance, being liked by children) when choosing a toy. In the survey, 8
questions in section “Presence of warnings related to safety”, 7 questions in section “In order
to determine toy’s safety…”, 14 questions in section “Mark the most suitable one to you from
the criteria to consider when buying a toy”, and 9 questions in section "When children are
harmed by the toy…” were directed at teacher candidates and they were asked to answer
either yes or no and sometimes choose one of the options.
66 Vol. 1, No. 1, 62-75 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION RESEARCH
Data Analysis
The survey has been applied by the researcher to teacher candidates from first and
fourth grades. The research data has been analyzed using descriptive statistics such as
frequencies and percentages, and "chi square analysis" has been used by utilizing SPSS 13.0
program in order to find the significance of the difference between groups.
FINDINGS
Table 1. Chi Square Test Results of Comparison between First and Fourth Grade
Preschool Teacher Candidates’ Opinions on the Presence of a Safety Warning on Toys
1st Class
Conditions of Safety Inscriptions
I read the warnings on the toy
I read the inscriptions
I look for the CE Mark
I look for the producing company information
I look for the age suitability phrase
I look for the security warning
I read the user’s manual
I look for all of the above
TOTAL
4th Class
TOTAL
f
%
f
%
f
%
Yes
31
29,81
38
36,54
69
100
No
2
1,92
2
1,92
4
100
Sometimes
19
18,27
12
11,54
31
100
Yes
28
26,92
41
39,42
69
100
No
2
1,92
3
2,88
5
100
Sometimes
22
21,15
8
7,69
30
100
Yes
23
22,12
42
40,38
65
100
No
1
0,96
1
0,96
2
100
Sometimes
28
26,92
9
8,65
37
100
Yes
19
18,27
38
36,54
57
100
No
2
1,92
2
1,92
4
100
Sometimes
31
29,81
12
11,54
43
100
Yes
21
20,19
25
24,04
46
100
No
1
0,96
3
2,88
4
100
Sometimes
30
28,85
24
23,08
54
100
Yes
22
21,15
31
29,81
53
100
No
4
3,85
2
1,92
6
100
Sometimes
26
25,00
29
27,88
55
100
Yes
24
23,08
29
27,88
53
100
No
2
1,92
2
1,92
4
100
Sometimes
26
25,00
21
20,19
47
100
Yes
35
33,65
42
40,38
77
100
No
2
1,92
1
0,96
3
100
Sometimes
15
52
14,42
50
9
8,65
24
100
52
50
104
100
2
X =.535
P=.231
2
X =3.506*
P=.002
2
X =2.654*
P=.00
2
X =2.408*
P=.001
2
X =.643
P=.543
2
X =.328
P=.122
2
X =.987
P=.054
2
X =.659
P=.548
*p<.05
Results of chi square test, which had been prepared in order to compare the opinions
of first and fourth grade teacher candidates on the presence of safety warnings on toys, can be
seen in Table 1. The point averages indicate that there is a significant difference in favor of
fourth grade teacher candidates in the items of “I read the inscriptions” (p=.002; X2=3,506), “I
look for the CE Mark” (p=.00; X2=2,654) and “I look for the producing company
information” (p=.001; X2=2,408). The point average of other items examined indicates that
there is no significant difference between the answers of first and fourth grade preschool
teacher candidates.
Preschool Teacher Candidates’ Opinions on Safety of Toys
1st Class
In order to know if the toy is safe…
I look at the information on the toy
I debrief the seller
I look at the price
The advices of the ones who bought the toy before are
important
The choice of my child is important
I choose the toys which I saw in an advertisement
Every toy which is sold is has been checked, I trust them
4th Class
TOTAL
f
%
f
%
f
%
Yes
34
32,69
41
39,42
75
100
No
2
1,92
3
2,88
5
100
Sometimes
16
15,38
8
7,69
24
100
Yes
28
26,92
26
25,00
54
100
No
4
3,85
2
1,92
6
100
Sometimes
20
19,23
24
23,08
44
100
Yes
24
23,08
39
37,50
63
100
No
4
3,85
3
2,88
7
100
Sometimes
24
23,08
10
9,62
34
100
Yes
21
20,19
27
25,96
48
100
No
4
3,85
1
0,96
5
100
Sometimes
27
25,96
24
23,08
51
100
Yes
25
24,04
39
37,50
64
100
No
2
1,92
2
1,92
4
100
Sometimes
28
26,92
11
10,58
39
100
Yes
29
27,88
41
39,42
70
100
No
1
0,96
-‐
-‐
1
100
Sometimes
22
21,15
11
10,58
33
100
Yes
34
32,69
44
42,31
78
100
No
5
4,81
-‐
-‐
5
100
Sometimes
13
52
12,50
50
8
7,69
21
100
52
50
104
100
TOTAL
2
X =.657
P=.058
2
X =.654
P=.128
2
X =1.760*
P=.001
2
X =.652
P=.165
2
X =.765
P=.217
2
X =2.654*
P=.02
2
X =1.564*
P=.001
*p<.05
In Table 2, first and fourth grade preschool teacher candidates’ opinions related to
safety of toys have been compared. Chi square analysis showed that there is a significant
difference in favor of fourth grade preschool teacher candidates in the items of “I look at
price”( p=.001; X2 =1,760), "I choose the toy which I saw in an advertisement” (p=.02; X2
=2,654), “Every toy which is sold has been checked, I trust them” (p=.001; X2 =1,564). The
point averages of other items show that there is no significant difference between the answers
of first and fourth grade preschool teacher candidates.
Preschool Teacher Candidates’ Criteria When Buying Toys
1st Class
The Criteria When Buying a toy
Developing skills
Developing mind
Developing imagination
Not supporting violence
Being assuring
Being easy clean
Appropriate to the gender of the
child
Appropriate to the age of the child
The price of the toy
Toy being interesting
The child liking the toy
The toy having an advertisement
Being of high quality
Being sanitary
TOTAL
4th Class
TOTAL
f
%
f
%
f
%
Yes
32
30,77
36
34,62
68
100
No
4
3,85
2
1,92
6
100
Sometimes
16
15,38
14
13,46
30
100
Yes
28
26,92
24
23,08
52
100
No
12
11,54
5
4,81
17
100
Sometimes
12
11,54
23
22,12
35
100
Yes
21
20,19
25
24,04
46
100
No
18
17,31
4
3,85
22
100
Sometimes
13
12,50
23
22,12
36
100
Yes
42
40,38
38
36,54
80
100
No
3
2,88
9
8,65
12
100
Sometimes
7
6,73
5
4,81
12
100
Yes
26
25,00
25
24,04
51
100
No
16
15,38
6
5,77
22
100
Sometimes
10
9,62
21
20,19
31
100
Yes
15
14,42
27
25,96
42
100
No
5
4,81
8
7,69
13
100
Sometimes
32
30,77
17
16,35
49
100
Yes
34
32,69
27
25,96
61
100
No
5
4,81
3
2,88
8
100
Sometimes
13
12,50
22
21,15
35
100
Yes
32
30,77
32
30,77
64
100
No
4
3,85
2
1,92
6
100
Sometimes
16
15,38
18
17,31
34
100
Yes
19
18,27
22
21,15
41
100
No
2
1,92
3
2,88
5
100
Sometimes
31
29,81
27
25,96
58
100
Yes
21
20,19
32
30,77
53
100
No
7
6,73
2
1,92
9
100
Sometimes
24
23,08
18
17,31
42
100
Yes
35
33,65
25
24,04
60
100
No
3
2,88
4
3,85
7
100
Sometimes
14
13,46
23
22,12
37
100
Yes
12
11,54
16
15,38
28
100
No
10
9,62
15
14,42
25
100
Sometimes
30
28,85
21
20,19
51
100
Yes
37
35,58
38
36,54
75
100
No
2
1,92
1
0,96
3
100
Sometimes
13
12,50
13
12,50
26
100
Yes
32
30,77
43
41,35
75
100
No
6
5,77
-‐
-‐
6
100
Sometimes
14
52
13,46
50
9
8,65
23
100
52
50
104
100
2
X =.748
P=.554
2
X =.034
P=.432
2
X =.642
P=.340
2
X =1.760
P=.320
2
X =.698
P=.986
2
X =1.702*
P=.001
2
X =.650
P=.347
2
X =.620
P=.558
2
X =2654*
P=.002
2
X =2.605*
P=.04
2
X =.675
P=.876
2
X =.438
P=.763
2
X =843
P=.669
2
X =889
P= .552
*p<.05
Chi square analysis of first and fourth grade preschool teacher candidates’ criteria
when buying toys show that there is a significant difference in the items of “Being easy clean”
(p=.001; X2 =1,702), “The price of the toy” (p=.002; X2=2,654) and “Toy being interesting”
(p=.04; X2 =2,605) in favor of fourth grade preschool teachers. No significant difference has
been found between two groups in the other items.
Preschool Teacher Candidates’ Opinions on Whether Toys Can Harm Children
1st Class
The situation of toys harming the children
It won’t harm
It may harm
It may cause accidents (falling, drowning, hurt by
sharp toys, cut, inflame, bursting)
Carcinogenic effect
Intoxication
Allergy
Having negative habitudes
Not suitable to the age of the child
The price of the toy
TOTAL
4th Class
TOTAL
f
%
f
%
f
%
Yes
23
22,12
19
18,27
42
100
No
3
2,88
2
1,92
5
100
Sometimes
26
25,00
31
29,81
57
100
Yes
25
24,04
30
28,85
55
100
No
4
3,85
2
1,92
6
100
Sometimes
23
22,12
20
19,23
43
100
Yes
28
26,92
26
25,00
54
100
No
6
5,77
6
5,77
12
100
Sometimes
18
17,31
20
19,23
38
100
Yes
24
23,08
37
35,58
61
100
No
3
2,88
1
0,96
4
100
Sometimes
27
25,96
14
13,46
41
100
Yes
19
18,27
28
26,92
47
100
No
7
6,73
2
1,92
9
100
Sometimes
26
25,00
22
21,15
48
100
Yes
18
17,31
25
24,04
43
100
No
4
3,85
1
0,96
5
100
Sometimes
30
28,85
26
25,00
56
100
Yes
21
20,19
22
21,15
43
100
No
8
7,69
5
4,81
13
100
Sometimes
23
22,12
25
24,04
48
100
Yes
27
25,96
28
26,92
55
100
No
12
11,54
3
2,88
15
100
Sometimes
13
12,50
21
20,19
34
100
Yes
29
27,88
26
25,00
55
100
No
4
3,85
7
6,73
11
100
Sometimes
19
52
18,27
50
19
18,27
38
100
52
50
104
100
2
X =.765
P=.438
2
X =.789*
P=.02
2
X =.943
P=.978
2
X =3.659*
P=.001
2
X =2.548*
P=.02
2
X =1.546*
P=.001
2
X =.236
P=.689
2
X =.428
P=.945
2
X =1.439*
P=.00
*p<.05
According to the results of chi square test on the opinions of teacher candidates on
whether the toys can harm children, a significant difference has been found in the items of “It
may harm”, (p=.02; X2=.789), “Carcinogenic effect” (p=.001; X2=3,659), “Intoxication”
(p=.02; X2=2,548), “Allergy” (p=.001; X2=1,546), “The price of the toy” (p.00; X2=1,439) in
Vol. 1, No. 1, 62-75 favor of fourth grade preschool teacher candidates. When point averages of other items are
examined no significant difference has been found between the answers of first and fourth
grade preschool teacher candidates.
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
In this study which was carried out in order to make a comparison between toy
selections of preschool teacher candidates in first and fourth grade, it is seen that fourth grade
teacher candidates pay much more attention than first grade teacher candidates to criteria of
reading label information when choosing a toy and checking CE conformity mark and
producing company information. Moreover, in order to determine toy's safety, fourth grade
teacher candidates pay more attention than first grade teacher candidates to toy’s price and
choose the toy they saw on commercials and they have more confidence that every toy on sale
has been inspected.
Also, during toy selection, fourth grade teacher candidates pay more
regard than first grade teacher candidates to toy's ease of cleaning, prices and attractiveness.
Similarly fourth grade teacher candidates pay more attention than first grade teacher
candidates to the fact that the toys are harmful or not, have allergenic effects, consist of
carcinogenic material or not. When other answers are evaluated, it is seen that there is no
significant difference between fourth and first grade teacher candidates.
The fact that fourth grade teacher candidates earn more points than first grade teacher
candidates in some questions related to toy safety, toy selection and toys' harmfulness gives
rise to the thought that teacher candidates become more conscious during education process
and thus it is considered a positive finding.
Studies made show that toy sellers have more awareness than buyers about CE
Conformity Mark, producing company information, age appropriate warning, safety warning
and user manual on toys, but sellers’ guidance in the subject is not mentioned (Çamur et al.,
2008). However in a study that was carried out with the help of toy vendors in US it was
Vol. 1, No. 1, 62-75 determined that 44.0% of the vendors stated that they could sell toys with “suitable for
children above three year old” label to children of two-three of age (Teret et al., 1991).When
safety of children is considered, a ratio of 44% cannot be regarded as too little.
Studies about mothers’ toy selection show that they pay attention (Doğanay, 1998) to
the fact that whether the toy is suitable for children's development level, age and interests or
not (Erden, 2001), whether children like the toy they will be buying or not, its attractiveness
(Arıcan & Karacan, 2004), whether it has TSI stamp or not, it is durable or not, it poses any
threat or not, and it is easy to clean or not. In a study done by Fallon and his friends (1989)
73 people in US with children of preschool age stated that the two most important factors that
affect their choices when buying toys are toy's safety and potential to teach new skills.
(Çamur et al., 2008)
It is also known that some toys, which are bought to make children learn and entertain,
carry certain risks. In a research done by Çamur and his friends (2008) with toy vendors and
buyers, it has been determined that 78,9 % of the buyers and 87,8 % of the vendors stated that
toys can be harmful to children's health and this harm comes in the form of “accidents”. It is
also stated in the literature that toys that promote violence should not be purchased (Glassy &
Romano, 2003).
One of the preschool teacher's role in the classroom requires decisions to be made
about the play materials (Spidell, 2006). It should be known that choosing the right and
proper toy has direct impacts on the physical and psychological development of the child and
so the toys should not be chosen radomly but with caution (Arıcan & Karacan, 2004). When
the criteria that teachers hold when they buy toys are considered, it can be said that they
become more conscious when they reach fourth grade. This situation shows that there is a
need for guidance in order to increase the awareness on toy safety. It is a noncontestable fact
that teachers who choose the right toys that children tend to interact with, will be successful in
Vol. 1, No. 1, 62-75 raising healthy individuals. Hence, it is thought that knowing the understandings of teacher
candidates when buying toys would be helpful in increasing the importance given to the
subject in the process of undergraduate education.
SUGGESTIONS
Following suggestions can be made for further researches;
•
Giving more detailed information about toy selection and safety as well as the
importance of games and toys in preschool teaching education will be useful for
teacher candidates to choose the most beneficial toys for children.
•
In-service trainings can be organized for preschool teachers on the subject and they
can be encouraged to give advices to the families about it.
•
Conducting studies including parents and people around children, preschool teachers
and educators from other fields can be made for further researches.
REFERENCES
Arıcan, D. & Karaca, E. (2004). Annelerin Oyuncak Seçimi ile İlgili Bilgi ve Uygulamaları.
Uluslar arası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi. www. insanbilimleri.com. 10.11.2004.
Başal, H. A.(2005). Okul Öncesi Eğitim. Bursa: Morpa Kültür Yayınları.
Çamur, D., Vaizoğlu, S. A., Akbaş, M., Başaran D., Batmaz, A. G., Bilgin, E. & Bulam, M.
H. (2008). Oyuncak alıcı ve satıcılarının oyuncak güvenliği ve yönetmeliği
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Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 The Development of Empathy in Early Childhood Period
and The Role of The Family
Assist. Prof. Dr. Güneş Salı1
Bozok University, Faculty of Education, Departmen of Educational Sciences
Abstract
Being a social entity, humans are in constant communication with each other. An
individual’s communication with others is also one of his essential needs. His success in
these relationships depends on his ability to understand and acknowledge himself and
others. Empathy is one of the important concepts for achieving healthy interpersonal
communication. Empathetic skills, which are known to have a very significant place in
human relations, are stated to have been observed in children from very early ages.
Empathy can be developed and various opinions have been put forward about which
circumstances and approaches are more suitable for this and about the role of domestic
interactions. This work dwells on the term empathy, the development of empathy in early
childhood period and the role of the family institution in empathy’s development. Several
recommendations are proposed for parents and teachers, so as to improve the empathetical
skills of children who are in their early childhood.
Key words: Empathy, early childhood period, empathetical development, family role.
1
Address correspondence to Assist. Prof. Dr. Güneş Salı Bozok University, Faculty of Education, Departmen of Educational Sciences
66100 Yozgat Turkey. Email: [email protected]
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 Erken Çocukluk Dönemde Empatinin Gelişimi
ve Ailenin Rolü
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Güneş Salı2
Bozok Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Bölümü
Özet
Sosyal bir varlık olan insan, diğer insanlarla sürekli iletişim halindedir. İnsanın
başkalarıyla iletişim kurması aynı zamanda temel gereksinimlerden birisidir. Bireyin
ilişkilerinde başarılı olabilmesi kendisini ve başkalarını anlayabilmesine ve kabul etmesine
bağlıdır. Empati kişilerarası iletişimin sağlıklı olmasında önemli olan kavramlardan biridir.
İnsan ilişkilerinde çok önemli bir yere sahip olduğu bilinen empatik becerinin, çocuklarda
çok küçük yaşlardan itibaren gözlenebildiği ifade edilmekte, empatinin geliştirilebileceğine
ve bunun için hangi koşulların, hangi tutumların daha uygun olduğuna, aile içi etkileşimin
rolüne ilişkin çeşitli görüşler ortaya atılmıştır. Bu çalışmada empati kavramı, erken
çocukluk dönemde empatinin gelişimi ve empatinin gelişiminde aile olgusunun rolü
üzerinde durulmuştur. Erken çocukluk döneminde olan çocukların empatik becerilerinin
geliştirilmesine yönelik anne babalara ve öğretmenlere çeşitli önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
Anahtar kelimeler: Empati, erken çocukluk dönemi, empatinin gelişimi, ailenin rolü.
2
Sorumlu Yazar: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Güneş Salı Bozok Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Eğitim Bilimleri Bölümü 66100 Yozgat Turkey. Email:
[email protected] [email protected]
Giriş
Bireyin yaşamında kişilik, yaşam boyu devam eden bir gelişim içerisindedir. Bu
süreçte, erken çocukluk yılları kişiliğin temelini oluşturması nedeniyle ayrı bir öneme
sahiptir. Bu dönemdeki etkenler, kişilik yapısının oluşmasında çok önemli bir yeri vardır.
Gelişim sürecinde bireylerin edindikleri yetenek ve beceriler tüm hayatlarında olumlu
veya olumsuz etkin rol oynar. İletişim ve iletişim kurma süreci de bireylerin gelişiminde
önemli bir beceridir. İletişim sürecinde kullanılan önemli yetenek ve becerilerden biri,
kişinin empatik becerisidir. İnsanların empatik beceri düzeyi onları birbirlerine
yaklaştırma özelliği ile iletişimin kalitesinde oldukça önemli olmaktadır. Başkalarıyla
empatik iletişim kurma becerisi gelişmiş olan kişiler, çok daha iyi bir iletişim kurabilirler.
Bu nedenle, empatinin gelişimini bilmenin, erken çocukluk döneminden itibaren
çocukların
empatik
iletişim
becerilerinin
desteklenmesine
yönelik
çalışmaların
yapılmasını kolaylaştıracağından, önemli olduğu düşünülmektedir.
Bireyin, vermeye çalıştığı mesajın aynı zamanda nasıl algılanabileceğine ve
anlaşılabileceğine dair bilgisi olması ve bunu dikkate alarak iletişim kurma çabasında
bulunması o iletişim sürecini daha kaliteli kılar. Bu nedenle kişilerin empatik beceri
düzeyleri iletişim sürecinin kalitesinde çok önemli bir yere sahiptir. İnsanın karşısındaki
kişinin duygu ve düşüncelerini anlamasına yardımcı olan empatik beceri, genel iletişim
becerisinin bir parçası olarak kabul edilmektedir. Empatik anlayış günlük yaşamın hemen
her kesiminde insanları birbirine yaklaştırma, iletişimi kolaylaştırma özelliğine sahiptir.
İnsanlar kendileriyle empati kurulduğunda, anlaşıldıklarını ve kendilerine önem verildiğini
hissederler. Diğer insanlar tarafından anlaşılmak ve önem verilmek ise bireyi
rahatlatmakta ve kendisini iyi hissetmesine yardımcı olmaktadır. Bu da kişiler arasında iyi
bir ilişki biçiminin oluşmasını, kişilerarası ilişkilerde empatik beceriyi kullanan bir bireyin
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 zamanla karşısındaki kişiye model olabilmesini sağlamaktadır. Dolayısıyla empatik beceri
kişilerarasında sağlıklı iletişimin kurulmasında önemli bir role sahiptir. Nitekim
kişilerarası ilişkilerde empati düzeyi yüksek ya da düşük bireylerin kişilik özelliklerini
karşılaştıran araştırma bulguları, empati düzeyi yüksek kişilerin olumlu kişilik
özelliklerine sahip olduklarını ortaya koymaktadır. Empatik becerisi yüksek kişilerin
sevecen, hoşgörülü, kendini olduğu gibi kabul eden kişiler oldukları tespit edilmiştir.
Bunların yanı sıra empatik becerisi yüksek kişilerin olumlu ruhsal gelişime sahip
oldukları, özsaygı düzeylerinin yüksek olduğu da bulunmuştur (Kalliopuska, 1992;
Woolfolk, 1993; Dökmen, 1994; Köksal, 2000; Yüksel, 2004).
Feshbach’a göre, empati bireye sosyal uzlaşma, ileri düzeyde farkındalık, iletişim
becerisi ve duygusal beceri kazandırırken, ileri düzeyde acıma, önemseme, sinirlilik ve
kızgınlık gibi diğer antisosyal davranışların da kontrol altına alınmasına yardımcı
olmaktadır (Barnett, 1987). Empatik beceriden yoksun bireylerin girdikleri iletişimlerde
birbirlerini yanlış anlamaları ve incitmeleri olasıdır. Aynı durum çocuklar için de
geçerlidir. Empatik becerisi düşük olan çocuk arkadaşlarını, ailesini ve öğretmenlerini
anlamada güçlüklerle karşılaşabilir; bu da onun çevresi tarafından dışlanmasına neden
olabilir (Yılmaz Yüksel, 2003). Çocuklar sosyal yaşam içinde yer alırken kabul etmeyi,
uyum sağlamayı, nerede nasıl davranmaları gerektiğini öğrenirler. Bu aşamaların ardından
kabul görmeye de başlarlar. Çocuk ancak sosyal olarak kabul gördüğünde sosyal iletişim
içinde yer alabilir. Kabul görmenin en önemli koşullarından biri de empatidir. Kendi
ihtiyaçları ve duyguları kadar grup içindeki diğer bireylerin de duygularını ve ihtiyaçlarını
fark etmek önemlidir. Başkalarının davranışlarının altında yatan duyguları fark etmek, bu
duyguların hangi tepkilere neden olduğunu anlayabilmek, uyum için çok önemlidir.
Empatik düşünebilen çocuklar çevrelerinde olup bitenleri daha iyi yorumlayabilirler,
başkalarının problemlerini daha kolay anlayabilirler ve ilişkileri içindeki problemleri daha
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 kolay çözebilirler. Bu özellikleri de diğer çocuklar tarafından kolayca kabul görmelerini
sağlar. Empatik düşünebilen çocuklar kendi duygularının farkında oldukları ve
duygularını da ifade edebilmeyi başarabildikleri için ilişkilerinde daha az sorun yaşarlar
(Temur, 2012).
Empatinin ilk belirtileri bebeklik dönemine kadar uzanmakla birlikte diğer gelişim
alanlarında olduğu gibi süreç içinde gelişmektedir. Çocukların normal gelişimlerini devam
ettirebilmeleri için empatik eğilim düzeylerinin erken dönemde fark edilmesi ve uygun
müdahalelerde bulunulması oldukça önemlidir (Hunter, 2003).
Ailenin yapısının ve çocuğa karşı tutumlarının çocuğun kişilik gelişimi üzerinde
büyük rol oynadığı konusunda yaygın bir görüş birliği bulunmaktadır. Yaşamın en
başından itibaren anne-baba tutumları bireylerin kişiliğinin gelişiminde önemli bir temel
taşıdır. Bu temel taşı, insan gelişiminin birçok yönünü olumlu ya da olumsuz
etkilemektedir. Bunlardan biri de empatik beceridir.
Empatik beceri ve empatik becerilerin gelişmesi, aile içinde anne-baba tutumları ile
yakından ilişkilidir ve anne-baba tutumlarından etkilenerek şekillenir. Çocuğa empatik
davranmanın yanı sıra, çocuğun yanında başkalarına empatik davranan anne-baba modeli
oluşturmanın çocuklarda empati ve prososyal davranışların gelişiminde güçlü bir etkiye
sahip olduğu bilinmektedir (Kalliopuska & Titinen 1991; Cotton, 2001). Feshbach, (1987)
empatik becerisi düşük olan ebevenlerin çocuklarının da empatik becerilerinin düşük
olduğunu vurgulamıştır. Geçtan (1999)'ın da belirttiği gibi çocuğun dünyaya gelmesinde
ve yetişmesinde etkin rolü bulunan ve çocuktan birinci derecede sorumlu olan anne ve
baba çocuğa karşı sergiledikleri tutumlarla çocuğun çok yönlü gelişimini olumlu ya da
olumsuz yönde etkilemektedirler. Anne ile çocuk arasında kurulan sağlıklı iletişim,
çocuğun sağlıklı bir kişilik geliştirmesini sağlar ve başkaları ile olumlu ilişki kurması için
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 temel oluşturur (Schneider, 1993; Cotton, 2001). Aynı şekilde empatik beceriler ve aile
içindeki iyi bir iletişim yöntemi, çocukların gelişim süreçlerinde önemli bir yer
tutmaktadır.
Erken çocukluk dönemi yaşamın temelidir. Kişiliğin büyük ölçüde şekillendiği bu
dönem, insan yaşamının en hızlı en değişken olduğu yılları kapsar. Bu dönemde çocuğun
gelişimi çok boyutlu bir bütünlük arz eder. Gelişimin bir bütün olan farklı boyutları
birbirini etkiler. Bu nedenle çocuğun bir bütün olarak gelişimi hedeflenmelidir. Ülkemizde
erken çocukluk dönemini konu alan pek çok araştırma yapılmıştır. Empati üzerine de pek
çok araştırma yapılmıştır. Ancak, bu dönemdeki çocuklarda empatinin gelişimi ve ailenin
rolü konusunda sınırlı sayıda araştırma yapılmıştır. Kişiliğin bir değişkeni olarak
empatinin bu dönemdeki gelişiminde ailenin rolü şüphesiz çok önemlidir.
Erken çocukluk dönemindeki çocukların okul çağına gelene kadar kişilik
gelişiminde temel etkileşime girdiği çevresel öğelerden en önemlisi genellikle ailedir, anne
babadır. Çocukların kişilik gelişimlerinin sağlıklı bir süreçte ilerlemesinde empatik beceri
çok önemlidir. Epatik becerinin gelişiminde de anne-baba tutumunun çok önemli bir yere
sahip olduğu bilinmektedir. Bireyin kişilik yapısındaki temel öğelerinden olan “empati”
nin bu dönemdeki çocukta anne-baba tutumlarıyla nasıl bir etkileşim içinde olduğunun
bilinmesi oldukça önemlidir. Bu evredeki çocukların kişiliklerindeki gelişim sürecinde
anne-baba ile olan ilişkilerinin ve etkileşimlerinin sonuçlarının bilinmesinin eğitim
açısından önemli katkılar sağlayacağı düşünülmekte, bu çalışmanın bu konuda önemli bir
kaynak olması beklenmektedir. Bu nedenle bu çalışmada erken çocukluk döneminde
empatik becerinin gelişimi ve ailenin önemi üzerinde durulmuştur.
Empati
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 Yaşamın hemen her alanında empati kavramından sıkça söz edilmektedir. Psikiyatri,
psikoloji ve gelişim alanlarında önemli bir yere sahip olan empati gittikçe yaygınlaşan
kullanım alanları ile araştırmacıların ilgi odağı olmuştur. Empati kavramı, ilk olarak 1897
yılında Theodor Lipps tarafından Almanca “Einfühlung” sözcüğünün karşılığı olarak
kullanılmıştır. Lipps Einfühlung’u şöyle tanımlamıştır: “Bir insanın kendisinin
karşısındaki bir nesneye yansıtması, kendini onun içinde hissetmesi ve bu yolla o nesneyi
içine alarak/özümseyerek anlaması sürecidir”. Bu kavram, 1909’da Edward B. Titchener
tarafından, diğer bir kişinin duygusal deneyimini aktif bir şekilde anlamak olan Yunanca
“empatheia” kelimesinden İngilizce’ye “Empathy” olarak çevrilmiştir (Dökmen, 2004).
Empati kavramının 1900’lü yıllardan itibaren bu şekilde başlayan serüveni,
1950’lerin sonlarına doğru, bilimsel nitelikli bir kavram olarak kabul edilmesiyle devam
etmiştir. Bu yıllarda empati, bir insanın karşısındaki insanı tanıması, kendini onun yerine
koyarak onun özellikleri hakkında bilgi sahibi olması anlamında kullanılmıştır. 1960’lı
yıllara gelindiğinde, empatinin bilişsel yönünün yanında duygusal yönü üzerinde de
durulmuştur. Bu dönemde, çeşitli bilim adamları empatiyi “karşıdaki kişinin algılanan
duyuşsal yaşantısına katılarak verilen duygusal tepki olarak” nitelendirmişlerdir. 1970’li
yıllarda ise empati, 1960’lara oranla daha dar anlamda kullanılmaya başlanmış, “birinin
belirli bir duygusunu anlama ve bu duyguya ilişkin karşılık verme” şeklinde algılanmıştır.
Bu yeni algıya göre, empati kuran insan kendinden çok karşıdaki insana odaklanır
(Dökmen, 1988).
Omdahl (1995), empatinin farklı şekillerde tanımlandığını; bazı yazarların empatiyi
yüksek mental işlevler gerektirmeyen, paylaşılan duygular olarak tanımladığını belirtmiş,
kendisi ise empatiyi iletişimde alıcının hedef olarak karşıdaki kişiyle aynı şeyi yaşaması,
benzer şeyi hissetmesi olarak tanımlamıştır. Cohen ve Strayer (1996) empati kavramını,
genellikle karşıdaki kişinin duygusal durumunun anlaşılması ve paylaşılması olarak
tanımlamaktadırlar. Mehrabian ve Epstein, empatiyi başkasının duygusal deneyimine
karşılık verebilme diye tanımlamışlarken, Hogan ise empatiyi karşıdakinin durumunu
zihinsel ve imgesel olarak anlamak ya da o kişinin duygularını birebir yaşamaksızın onun
ne hissettiğini anlamak olarak tanımlamıştır (Caruso & Mayer, 1998).
Empatinin
bu
kadar
tanımının
yapılması,
çok
boyutlu
doğasından
kaynaklanmaktadır (Lawrence, at. al., 2004). Empatiyi, empatik beceri ve empatik eğilim
olmak üzere iki boyutta ele almak, kavramın tanımlanmasını kolaylaştırmaktadır. Empatik
beceri daha çok diğer kişinin duygusunun anlaşıldığının ve hissedildiğinin karşıdaki kişiye
aktarılması, hissettirilmesi ile ilgilidir. Empatik eğilim, bireyin başkalarının yaşantılarını
ve duygularını anlama ve hissetme potansiyelidir. Empatik eğilim, bilişsel empati ve
duygusal empati olmak üzere iki boyutta ele alınmaktadır (Kaya ve Siyez, 2010).
Empatinin bilişsel boyutu diğer kişinin duygusunun anlaşılmasına işaret etmektedir, ancak
bu boyutta kişinin diğer kişiyi anladığını paylaşması gerekli değildir (de Wied, at. al.,
2005; de Kemp, at. al., 2007). En basit düzeyde diğer kişinin duygusal durumunu doğru
olarak değerlendirme, daha karmaşık düzeyde ise olayları diğerinin bakış açısından
değerlendirebilme anlamına gelen bilişsel empati, bireylerin sosyal işlevselliğinde etkili
olmaktadır (Smith, 2006). Empatinin duygusal boyutu, diğer kişinin yaşadığı duyguyu
hissedebilme ve diğerinin duygusal durumuna en uygun tepkiyi verebilme anlamına
gelmektedir (de Wied, at. al., 2005; de Kemp et al., 2007). Mehrabien ve Epstein, Berger,
McDougall ve Freud empatinin duygusal boyutuna vurgu yapmışlardır (Pecukonis, 1990).
Duygusal empati, bireylerin ailelerine, arkadaşlarına ve yabancılara karşı fedakarca
davranışlarda bulunması için bireyleri güdülerken ahlaki gelişim açısından da oldukça
önemlidir. Hatta duygusal empatinin şiddetin bastırılmasında anahtar bir mekanizma
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 olabileceği açıklamaları da literatürde yer almaktadır (Kaya ve Siyez, 2010). Bilişsel
empatiden farklı olarak da bir günlük bebeklerin bile duygusal empati duyarlılığına sahip
olduğu bilinmektedir (Smith, 2006). Genellikle kişinin ses tonu ya da yüz ifadesi gibi bazı
uyarıcılar, karşıdaki kişinin duygusunu doğru bir şekilde hissedebilmesinde ve duruma
uygun tepkiler verilmesinde yardımcı olan ipuçlarıdır. Ancak bu ipuçlarının yeteri kadar
belirgin olmadığı durumlarda, kişinin duygusunu hissetmekte ve duruma uygun tepkiyi
vermekte zorlanılabilinir. Bu durumda da devreye perspektif alma, yani olaylara diğerinin
bakış açısından bakabilme becerisi devreye girmektedir (Kaya ve Siyez, 2010).
Günümüzde en yaygın kabul gören görüş ise empatinin hem bilişsel hem duygusal
öğelerden oluştuğu ve bu öğelerin birbirleri ile etkileşim içerisinde olduğu görüşüdür
(Chlopan, at. al., 1985). Empatinin çok boyutluluğuna vurgu yapan ilk isim Feshbach’dır
(Feshbach, 1987; Gini, at. al., 2007). Feshbach dışında çok sayıda uzman da empatinin
bilişsel ve duygusal öğelerden oluştuğunu ve duruma göre bilişsel ya da duygusal boyutta
tepki verilebildiğini belirtmektedir (Eisenberg & Strayer, 1987; Brems, 1988). Genel
olarak empati, olaylar ve durumlar karşısında bireyin, kendini karşıdaki kişinin yerine
koyarak onu anlaması olarak tanımlanabilir. Literatür incelendiğinde, empatinin
günümüze kadar değişik şekillerde tanımlandığı görülmektedir. Günümüzde empatinin en
çok kabul gören tanımlarından biri Rogers tarafından yapılmıştır. Rogers’a göre, empati;
“bir kişinin kendisini karşısındaki kişinin yerine koyarak olaylara onun bakış açısı ile
bakması, o kişinin duygularını ve düşüncelerini doğru olarak anlaması, hissetmesi ve bu
durumu ona iletmesi” sürecidir (Dökmen, 1988).
Erken Çocukluk Dönemde Empatinin Gelişimi
Çocukların diğer bireylerin duyguları ile ilgilenmeleri yaşla birlikte değişmektedir. Yedi
yaşında olan bir çocuk, okul öncesi çocuklarına oranla diğer insanların duygularını
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 anlamada ve üzüntüler ile ilgilenmede daha yeteneklidir. Büyük çocuklar üzüntülü olan
bireyi rahatlatmada ya da onlara yardım etmede daha başarılıdırlar (Eisenberg 1982,
Gander ve Gardiner 1995).
Empatinin nasıl geliştiğine ilişkin çeşitli kuramsal açıklamalar yapılmıştır.
Psikoanalitik görüşü benimseyenler empatinin erken çocukluk döneminde çocuk ve annebaba arasındaki ilişki biçimine göre geliştiğini ileri sürmektedirler (Geçtan, 2000; Marcia,
1987). Empatinin ilk belirtileri bebeklik dönemine kadar uzanmaktadır. Bazı
araştırmalarda sinir sisteminde öncelikli olarak belli başlı duygusal ifadelere cevap veren
nöronlar olduğu bulunmuştur. Hoffman, yaşamın ilk haftasında bebeklerin bir diğerinin
ağlamasına karşı üzüntüyle ve ağlayarak karşılık vermesinin diğer bebekler karşısında
sergilenen duygusal uyumun ve empatinin ilk habercisi olduğunu ifade etmektedir
(Barnett, 1987; Goleman, 1999). Bilişsel gelişimin ilerlemesi ile birlikte çocuklardaki
empatik iletişimin de geliştiği gözlenmektedir. Bilişsel gelişim aşamalarının her birinde
bireylerin gösterdikleri empatik tepkiler farklı olmaktadır. Çocukların başkalarının
rollerine girebilmelerinde onların ben merkezcilikten uzaklaşmalarının etkisi büyüktür. Bu
da bilişsel gelişime bağlı olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır (Köksal Akyol, 2003). Sullivan,
bebeğin,
kendisine bakan kişinin kaygısını farkında olmadan hissetmesini “kavrayış”
kavramıyla tanımlamıştır. Çocuğun kişiliği, kendisine bakan kişinin kaygısına olan
tepkisini düzenleyen “kavrayışlar” ile kısmen biçimlenmektedir. Sonuçta, çocuğa bakan
kişinin, çocuğun ihtiyaçlarına karşı göstermiş olduğu empatik anlayış onun kavrayışlarını
etkilemektedir. Ailenin duyarsızlığı çocuğun kaygısını artırmaktadır.
Sullivan’a göre
kişilik, çocuk ve ona bakan kişi arasındaki etkileşim ile biçimlenmektedir. Empati, ikisi
arasındaki sözlü ve sözsüz iletişimi kolaylaştıran önemli bir kanaldır. Empati, çocuk-ona
bakan kişi çiftinden meydana gelen bir sosyal çevre içerisinde gelişmektedir (Geçtan,
2000; Marcia, 1987).
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 Sosyal öğrenme kuramcıları ise çocuk ve ona bakan kişi çiftinin etrafındaki
çevresel etkileri de kapsam içerisine almışlardır. Çocukta empatinin model alma,
gözlemleme, taklit, pekiştirme gibi yollarla geliştiğini ileri sürmektedirler. Örneğin
Aronfeed, koşullanma ilkeleri içerisinde prososyal (özellikle başkalarını düşünen olumlu
sosyal davranış) davranışta empatinin rolü ve gelişmesini ortaya koymuştur. Aronfeed,
çocuğun empatisinin, bir bireyin karşısındaki kişinin duygusal ifadeleri hakkında nasıl
bilgi elde ettiğini gözleyerek geliştiğini söylemektedir. Böylece, çocuk başkalarının belirli
davranışlarına, kendine özgü duygusal tepki göstermeye şartlanacaktır. Çocuk ayrıca diğer
kişinin içinde bulunduğu duygusal durumdan etkilenerek kendine has davranışlar
öğrenebilir. Böylece diğer kişinin içinde bulunduğu duygusal duruma göre tepki olarak
belirli bir davranış üretebilir. Örneğin, yüz ifadesi sinirli olan bir anne, baba (ya da bakıcı)
çocukta kızgınlık ya da korku duyguları geliştirebilir. Çocuk anne ve babanın kızgınlığını
sözel ya da sözsüz ipuçlarından öğrenebilir. Bandura da, empatinin sosyal öğrenme ilkeleri
içerisinde geliştiğini belirtmiştir (Eysenc 1960, Bandura 1969, Grusec and Redler 1980;
Yılmaz-Yüksel, 2003).
Sosyal- duygusal yaklaşım, çocuğun kendi çevresindeki figürlerle etkileşim
kurmasında ve kendi gelişiminde empatinin rolünü anlamaya yer verir. Bu yaklaşıma göre
bebeklerin doğdukları andan itibaren sosyal- duygusal tepki verebilme kapasiteleri vardır.
Hatta bu yaklaşım çok küçük bebeklerin empatik tepki verebileceklerini savunmaktadır
(Thompson, 1990). Sosyal- duygusal yaklaşımını benimseyen Hoffman (1975) empatinin
erken bebeklikte bile gözlenebileceğini ileri süren ilk araştırmacıdır. Sagi ve Hoffman
(1976)’nın araştırmaları yalnızca birkaç günlük bebeklerin diğer bebeklerin ağlama sesine,
yapay bir ağlama sesine ya da sessizliğe göre daha anlamlı bir ağlama tepkisi verdiklerini
göstermiştir.
Çocukların empati gelişimiyle ilgili yapılan ilk çalışmalarda empatiyi geliştirmek
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 için gerekli olan belirtiler incelenmiştir. Empatinin gelişimi konusunda çalışan Simner
tarafından yapılan araştırmada, yeni doğan bir bebeğin, teybe kaydedilmiş diğer bebeğin
ağlama sesine verdiği tepkiler incelenmiştir. Simner, yeni doğan bebeğe dinletilen bebek
sesinin kendisiyle benzer yaşta olması durumunda daha fazla ağlayarak tepki verdiğini
bulmuştur. Yeni doğan bebeklerin kendilerine beş buçuk aylık bir bebeğin sesi
dinletildiğinde ortamda şiddetli bir gürültü olursa anlamlı olarak daha az tepki verdikleri
saptanmıştır (Eisenberg & Lennon, 1983; Köksal, 1997).
Küçük bir çocuk bazen annesi, kardeşi ya da başka bir çocuk incindiğinde
Hoffmann’ın empatik acı adını verdiği bir acıyla ağlamaya başlayabilir. Bu, empatinin
basit bir biçimidir, çok az bilişsel etki taşıyan, büyük ölçüde koşullu, duygusal bir tepkidir.
Hoffman’a göre bebekler ilk yıl içinde kendilerini başkalarından ayırt edemezler ve birini
acı çekerken ya da güçlük içinde gördüklerinde sanki bunu kendileri yaşıyormuş gibi
rahatlatılmak isteyebilirler. Empatik acı ilkeldir. Bunu yaşayan çocuklar gerçekte diğerinin
ne hissettiğini hayal etmeye çalışmazlar. Ancak, bu yine de bir başlangıçtır. Çocuklar iki
yaş dolaylarında nesne sürekliliği ve kişi sürekliliği kavramlarını geliştirmektedirler.
Hoffman bunun çocukların kendi acılarını diğerlerinden ayırt etmelerine olanak
sağladığına inanmaktadır. Çocuklar biraz empatik acı yaşayabilirler ve üzüntülü kişiyi
rahatlatmaya çalışabilirler. Hoffman, bir oyuncak yüzünden çıkan kavgada oyun arkadaşını
üzen on beş aylık bir bebek örneğini vermektedir. Arkadaşı ağladığında çocuk oyuncağı
ona verir. Bu da yetmeyince arkadaşının battaniyesini bularak ona getirir. Sonunda
arkadaşı ağlamayı keser. Hoffman’a göre bu çocuk geribildirimi uygun bir biçimde
kullanmaktadır. Bu olay, bu çocuğun arkadaşının gereksinimlerini bir dereceye kadar
bilişsel olarak değerlendirdiğini ve bunu yalnızca arkadaşının duyguları ve istekleri
kendininkilere benzediği için yapabildiğini göstermektedir. Küçük çocuklar, üzüntülü olan
başka bireyleri gördüklerinde sıklıkla empatik tepki göstermektedirler. Çocukların
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 gösterdikleri empatik tepkinin öğrenilmiş olduğu ileri sürülmektedir. Gerçekten de, bir ya
da iki yaşlarındaki çocukların empatik tepkilerinde bireysel farklılıklar görülmektedir; bazı
iki yaş çocukları çok sevecendirler, bazıları diğerlerinin üzüntüsüne tepki vermezler,
bazıları ise diğerlerinin üzüntüsüne karşı hoşgörüsüzdürler. Diğer insanların duygusal
durumlarına karşı gösterilen bireysel tepkilerdeki farklılık, ebeveynlerinin çocuklarına
gösterdikleri tutumlardan, çocukların kendilerine model aldıkları anne, baba ve diğer yakın
çevredeki bireylerden kaynaklanmaktadır. Empati düzeyi yüksek olan ebeveynlerin
çocukların, empati düzeyi düşük olan ebeveynlerin çocuklarına oranla empati düzeylerinin
daha yüksek olduğu, yapılan çalışmalarda ortaya konulmuştur (Eisenberg 1982, Gander ve
Gardiner 1995).
Empatik becerinin nasıl geliştiği konusunda literatürdeki kuramsal açıklamalardan
biri de psikodramanın kurucusu sayılan Moreno’ya aittir. Moreno’nun sosyometri ile ilgili
kuramsal görüşleri arasında, rol alma ve rol gelişimi çok önemli bir yere sahiptir. Özellikle
psikodramada rol değiştirme, yani karşısındakinin rolünü alma -buna bir anlamda empati
de denilebilir- en temel tekniktir (Dökmen, 1988). Moreno’ya göre rol gelişimi ya da
empati gelişimi beş aşamada gerçekleşir: İlk aşamada çocuk anneyi kendisinin bir parçası
olarak algılar, dış dünya ile kendisi arasında bir ayırım yapamaz, dış dünya ile özdeşim
içindedir. Özdeşim bütünlüğü adı verilen bu dönemde çocuk, rollerini, bu rollerin
kendisine ait olduğunu bilmeksizin oynar. İkinci aşamada dikkatini, kendisinin özel bir
parçası olarak algıladığı anne üzerinde odaklaştırır. Üçüncü aşamada, annesini başlı başına
bir varlık olarak görür, çocuk artık kendisini diğer insanlardan ayırt edebilir, rolleri
tanıyabilir. Dördüncü aşamada, kendisini annesinin yerine koyabilir, günlük yaşamda
annesinin rolünü oynayabilir. Beşinci aşamada ise, annesinin rolünden hareketle,
kendisinin dışına çıkıp, kendisini yaşayabilir (Dökmen, 1988; Köksal, 2000).
Hoffman da, temelde Moreno’nunkine benzeyen dört gelişim basamağı
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 oluşturmuştur (Dökmen, 1988). Hoffman’a göre bir çocuğun empatik olma yeteneği
Piaget’in bilişsel gelişim kuramına benzer bir aşamayı izlemektedir. Ben- sen ayrımının
olmadığı küçük çocuklarda empatik oluşum bu biliş olmadan ortaya çıkmaktadır. Hoffman,
bir çocuğun Piaget’in bilişsel gelişim aşamalarında ilerledikçe empatik olgunluğunun
kalitesinin artmakta olduğunu belirtmektedir (Yılmaz Yüksel, 2003).
Hoffman’ın dört empati gelişim aşamasından ilk iki aşamanın (sıkıntı reaksiyonu
0-1 yaş) ve (bireyin sürekliliği 1-2 yaş) tamamen, üçüncü aşamanın (rol alma 2-10 yaş)
ise kısmen erken çocukluk dönemine denk geldiği söylenebilir. Dördüncü aşama (empati)
ise yetişkin döneme denk gelmektedir. Aşağıda bunlardan erken çocukluk dönemine denk
gelen aşamalar üzerinde durulacaktır.
1- Sıkıntı reaksiyonu (0-1 yaş)
Bu aşamada, bebekler diğer bireyin üzüntüsüne tepki verirler. Ancak o bireyin
üzüldüğünün farkında olduklarını belli etmezler (Dworetzky, 1990). Global empati olarak
da isimlendirilen bu dönem ilk yıl boyunca gözlenir. Piaget’in ilk bilişsel gelişim aşaması
olan duyusal-motor döneme benzemektedir. Bebekler bu aşamada basit, refleksif
aktiviteler sergilerler. Kendini diğerlerinden ayırt edemediği için başkalarına olan şeyleri
kendine olmuş gibi algılar ve tepkide bulunur (Hoffman, 1987). Bazen bebekler annesi,
kardeşi ya da başka bir çocuk incindiğinde, Hoffman’ın empatik acı adını verdiği bir acıyla
ağlamaya başlar. Bu, empatinin basit bir biçimidir; çok az bilişsel etki taşıyan, büyük
ölçüde koşullu, duygusal bir tepkidir. Birini acı çekerken ve güçlük içinde gördüklerinde
sanki bunu kendileri yaşıyormuş gibi rahatlatılmak isteyebilirler. Hoffman, başka bir
çocuğun düşüp ağladığını görerek kendisi ağlamak üzere olan on aylık bir bebekten söz
eder. Bu çocuk sanki kendi ağlayacakmış gibi görünür; başını annesinin kucağına saklar ve
baş parmağını emer (Dworetzky, 1990; Gander & Gardiner, 2001; Goleman 1999; Köksal
Akyol, 2003). Gelişim psikologları, bebeklerin henüz kendilerini başkalarından ayrı bir
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 varlık olarak kavramadıkları dönemde bile başkalarının sıkıntısından rahatsız olduklarını
saptamışlardır. Doğumdan birkaç hafta sonra bebekler, yanlarında başka bir bebek
ağladığında kendileri de ağlamaktadırlar. Bir yaş civarında, sıkıntının kendilerinde değil de
başkasında olduğunun farkına varmaktadırlar (Goleman, 1999). Bu aşamada bebeklerin
empatik kaygıyı, en basit düzeydeki harekete geçirici yöntemler aracılığıyla yaşamalarının
mümkün olduğu belirtilmektedir. Yaşamın ilk yılında sıkıntılı bir insanı gözlemenin
evrensel empatik bir tepkiye yol açabileceği ifade edilmektedir ve bu olay Hoffman
(1994)’a göre bebeklerin, diğer insanları kendilerinden bağımsız birer fiziksel varlık olarak
algılamalarından çok önce gerçekleşmektedir (Köksal Akyol, 2003). Bu aşamada bulunan
çocukların, aslında tam olarak kendilerinin mi, yoksa başkasının mı sıkıntıyı yaşadığından
emin olmadıkları gözlenmiştir. Hoffman (1994), bu olumsuz duygu paylaşımını “empatik
kaygı” olarak tanımlamaktadır. Hoffman’a göre burada çocuğun yaşadığı üzüntü durumu
pasif, istemsiz sadece en alt düzeydeki bilişsel işlevleri gerektirir. Ancak empatik kaygı
olarak adlandırılan ve çocukta ilk izlenilen bu tepkilerin, daha karmaşık empatik tepkilerin
kurulabilmesi için bir temel oluşturduğu belirtilmektedir (Köksal Akyol, 2003).
2- Bireyin sürekliliği (1-2 yaş)
Bir yaşın sonuna doğru çocuğun kişi sürekliliğini kazandığı gözlenmektedir.
Hoffman bunun çocukların kendi acılarını diğerlerininkinden ayırt etmelerine olanak
sağladığına inanmaktadır. Fakat hala biraz empatik acı yaşarlar ve üzgün olan birisini
rahatlatmaya çalışabilirler (Gander & Gardiner, 2001; Köksal Akyol, 2003). Egosentrik
empati aşaması olarak da adlandırılan bu dönemde, kişi sürekliliğinin kazanılması sonucu
çocuk, kendisi ve başkaları arasındaki kalıcı fiziksel ayrımın farkına varır. Ancak çocuk
hala kendi iç dünyasıyla karşısındakinin iç dünyasını tam olarak ayırt edememektedir.
Çocuk, diğer bir bireyin üzüntülü olduğunu anlayabilir, ancak diğer bireyin kendisinden
farklı gereksinimlerinin olabileceğinin farkında değildir. Aynı iç dünyalara sahip
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 olduklarını düşünerek, uygun olmayan tepkiler verebilirler. Örneğin, bir çocuğun
düştüğünü gören başka bir çocuk, diğer çocuğun annesi yanında olsa bile onu rahatlatmak
için kendi annesini götürür (Dworetzky, 1990; Köksal Akyol, 2003). Kişi sürekliliğinin
kazanılması sonucu çocuğun kendisi ve başkaları arasındaki kalıcı fiziksel ayrımın farkına
vardığı, ancak ayrı fiziksel varlıkların içsel durumlarında da farklılık gösterdiğini
kavrayamadıkları, bu yaştaki çocukların bu nedenle başkalarının kendilerinden ne zaman
farklı düşündüklerini ve hissettiklerini tam olarak sezemedikleri belirtilmektedir (Davis,
1996; Köksal Akyol, 2003). Hoffman’a göre, kişi sürekliliğinin kazanılması merhamet,
acıma, şefkat duygularıyla karakterize olan “sempatik kaygı”nın ortaya çıkmasına fırsat
vermekte, ancak bu sempatik kaygı tepkisi hiç bir şekilde empatik kaygının yerini
alamamakta, başkalarının acısını gözleme sonucu hala empatik kaygı ortaya çıkmaya
devam etmektedir (Köksal Akyol, 2003). Hoffman, çocukların nesne sürekliliği ve kişi
sürekliliği kavramlarını geliştirmelerinin, onların kendi acılarını diğerlerinden ayırt
etmelerine olanak sağladığına inanmaktadır. Çocuklar halen biraz empatik acı
yaşayabilirler ve üzüntülü kişiyi rahatlatmaya çalışabilirler. Hoffman, bir oyuncak
yüzünden çıkan kavgada oyun arkadaşını üzen on beş aylık bir çocuk örneğini
vermektedir. Arkadaşı ağladığında çocuk oyuncağını ona verir. Arkadaşının ağlamaya
devam ettiğini görünce kendisini sakinleştiren battaniyesini bularak ona getirir. Sonunda
arkadaşı ağlamayı keser. Hoffman’a göre bu çocuk geribildirimi uygun bir biçimde
kullanmaktadır. Bu olay, bu çocuğun arkadaşının gereksinimlerini bir dereceye kadar
bilişsel olarak değerlendirdiğini ve bunu yalnızca arkadaşının duyguları ve istekleri
kendininkilere benzediği için yapabildiğini göstermektedir (Goleman, 1999; Gander &
Gardiner, 2001). Goleman, bir yaşındaki bir çocuğun diğerinin sıkıntısını belki de onun ne
hissettiğini daha iyi anlayabilmek için hareket taklidini kullandığını ifade etmiştir.
Örneğin, bir bebeğin parmakları acıdığında bir yaşındaki başka bir çocuk kendi
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 parmaklarını ağzına götürüp acıyıp acımadığına bakmıştır. Annesinin ağladığını gören bir
bebek ise hiç gözyaşı olmadığı halde gözyaşını silmiştir. Bu örneklerde görülen hareket
taklidi çocuklar iki buçuk yaşına geldiklerinde ortadan kalkmaktadır. Böylece başkasının
acısının kendilerininkinden farklı olduğunu anlamakta ve diğerlerini daha iyi rahatlatacak
hale gelmektedirler (Köksal Akyol, 2003).
3-Rol alma (2-10 yaş)
Yukarıda da belirtildiği gibi rol alma aşaması kısmen erken çocukluk dönemine
kısmen de orta çocukluk dönemine denk gelmektedir. Çocuklar iki yaşın sonlarına doğru
diğerlerinin yaşadıkları duyguları taklit etmeye başlar ve prososyal (gönüllü yardım etme,
destek verme) davranışlarda bulunurlar (Zahn-Waxler at al., 1979). Yaklaşık iki-üç
yaşından başlayarak ve orta çocukluk dönemi boyunca devam ederek artan karmaşıklıkta
gelişen rol alma yeteneğinin devreye girmesiyle birlikte, çocuk diğer insanların
duygularının kendi duygularından farklı olduğunu anlamaya ve kendi ihtiyaçlarını
belirleyerek olaylara kendi yorumlarını katmaya başlarlar (Davis, 1994; Köksal Akyol,
2003). Bunun sonucunda çocuğun, sosyal çevreye uygun şekilde, karşısındakinin gerçekten
neler düşündüğünü ortaya koyan ipuçlarına karşı daha duyarlı olmaya başladığı gözlenir.
Çocuk bu dönemde birbirleriyle karşıt olabilen pek çok sayıda duyguya aynı anda empatik
cevaplar verebilirler. Ayrıca bu sırada dil yeteneğinin hızlı gelişimi sonucu daha karmaşık
sembolik ipuçlarının kullanımının bu süreci güçlendirdiği ve çocuğun gelişen olaylar
karşısında duygularını daha iyi bir şekilde ifade edebildiği, başkalarının durumuna hangi
yardımın daha uygun olduğunu anlayabildiği belirtilmektedir (Davis, 1996; Köksal Akyol,
2003). Altıncı yaşın, empatinin yani olayları başkasının açısından görme ve uygun bir
şekilde davranabilme evresinin başlangıcı olduğu belirtilmektedir (Shapiro, 2000; Köksal
Akyol, 2003). Altı yaşından sonra çocuk kendisini karşısındaki bireyin yerine
koyabilmekte ve artık onu dahi iyi anlamaya başlamaktadır. Bu da empatinin gelişimi için
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 çok önemli olmaktadır (Köksal Akyol, 2003). Diğerinin duyguları için empati aşaması
olarak da adlandırılan bu dönemin sonuna doğru, çocuk artık herkesin kendi iç dünyası
olduğunu ayırt edebilmektedir. Artan yaşla birlikte, başkalarının aynı olaya farklı duygusal
tepkiler verebileceğini anlamaya başlamakta ve başkasının bakış açısından bakma yeteneği
gelişmektedir. Piaget’e göre de başkasının bakış açısından bakma becerisi somut işlemler
döneminde (7-11 yaş) ortaya çıkmaktadır. Hoffman, çocuğun empati yapısını
anlayabilmesi ve çocuğa empatik becerilerin öğretilmesinden önce somut işlemleri mutlaka
başarması gerektiği görüşündedir. Hoffman’a göre yedi yaşından önceki empatik davranış
sadece tepkisel ya da taklit etmedir (Hoffman, 1987). Görüldüğü gibi rol alma evresinin
sonları orta çocukluk dönemine başka bir ifadeyle okul çağının başlangıcına denk
gelmektedir. Hoffman (1987)’ın dördüncü aşaması (empati 10 yaş-yetişkin) aşaması
olarak adlandırılmaktadır. Soyut empati olarak da adlandırılan dördüncü aşama okul çağına
ve sonrasına denk geldiği için, bu dönemin özelliklerine burada yer verilmemiştir.
Empatinin Gelişiminde Ailenin Rolü
Yapılan araştırmalar empatinin gelişiminde çocuğun sağlıklı aile ortamında yetişmesinin
önemli olduğunu göstermektedir (Zahn-Waxler at al., 1979; Hasdemir 2007; (Önder ve
Gülay 2007). Empatinin erken temellerinden biri bebek ve ona bakan kişi arasındaki yoğun
duygusal ilişkiyle ilgilidir. Sullivan, çocuğun başkalarının duygularına empatik
yaklaşımının, annenin duygu ve ruh hali ile erken bir birliktelikten doğduğunu ifade
etmiştir (Barnett, 1987). Güvenli bağlılığın da empatik çocukların gelişmesine katkıda
bulunabileceği belirtilmiştir. Çocuğa bakan kişinin çocuğa karşı olumlu duygusal tepkileri
güvenli bağlılık oluşmaktadır. Güvenli bağlanan çocuklar, kendisine bakanlara sıcaklıkla,
severek yaklaşmakta, duygusal gereksinimlerini doyurmaktadırlar. Güvenli bağlanan
çocukların duygusal gereksinimleri karşılandığı için böyle çocuklar kendi ihtiyaçlarıyla
daha az meşgul olurken, diğerlerinin ihtiyaçlarına karşı daha duyarlı olabilmekte ya da
böyle çocuklar sevecen davranış gösteren yetişkin modellerini gözleyerek diğerlerine tepki
verirken benzer davranışları gösterebilmektedirler (Barnett, 1987). Eğer bir çocuk böyle bir
çevrede yetiştirilmemişse Rogers ve Truax ve Rogers’ın çalışmalarında önerdikleri gibi,
terapötik ilişki gibi uygun bir sosyal çevre sağlanırsa çocuğun ya da yetişkinin empatisinin
(ve kişiliğinin diğer yönlerinin) potansiyel olarak gelişmesi söz konusudur (Eisenberg &
Lennon, 1983; Köksal, 1997).
Empati üzerinde çalışan Psikoanalistler arasında Kohut, çocuğun büyütülmesi
sırasında annenin empatik becerilerinin çok önemli olduğunu, annenin empatik
tepkilerindeki yetersizliğin bebeğin ihtiyaçlarının karşılanmasını etkileyebileceğini
belirterek
çocukta
empatik
becerilerin
gelişiminde
anne-babanın
empatik
olup
olmamasının büyük ölçüde etkili olduğunu, empatik becerisi düşük ailelerin çocuklarının
da empatik beceri düzeylerinin düşük olduğunu ifade etmiştir (Feshbach, 1987).
Anne-baba ve çocuk arasında sıcak ve güvenli bağlanma ilişkisi olduğunda ailenin
duyarlılığı empatik ilginin uyanmasını arttırabilmektedir (Van Ijzendoorn & De Wolff,
1997). Duyarlı davranış sergileyen aileler, bebeklerine empatik ilgi için ilk ve çok güçlü
model olmaktadır (Robinson, at. al., 1994). Barnett, empatinin gelişiminin büyük ölçüde
aile çevresi içinde oluştuğunu belirtmiştir. Barnett’e göre aile çevresi; çocuğun kendi
duygusal ihtiyaçlarını doyurmakta, çocuğu değişik duygular yaşaması ve hissetmesi için
desteklemekte ve çocuğun duygusal duyarlılığı ve istekliliği destekleyen kişileri gözlemesi
ve iletişime girmesi için seçenekler sağlamaktadır (Barnett, 1987). İlk güvenli bağın
oluşmasındaki en önemli katkı maddesi çocuğa verilen koşulsuz sevgi ve bakımdır.
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 Böylece çocuğun kendi duygusal ihtiyaçları karşılanmış olur. Ebeveynlerin ya da onların
yerine geçen kişilerin sevgisi ve şefkati bu şekilde empatinin gelişiminde önemli bir rol
oynar. Güçlü bir bağın kurulması ilk olarak bir başkasına karşı ilgi duyma konusundan
daha önce gelir ve bu durum empati gelişiminde daha sonra gerekli bir ön şart olarak
ortaya çıkar. Yani çocuk önce kendi güvenliğini garanti eder, daha sonra başkasına ilgi
duymaya başlar. Güçlü bir güven ve koruma duygusuna sahip olan çocuklar, güvenli
bağlar içeren ailelerden gelirler, güven bağları zayıf olan çocuklara göre başkalarının
hislerine ve ihtiyaçlarına daha çok cevap verebilirler.
Çocuğun empati gelişiminde ailenin samimiyeti de önemlidir. Aile samimiyeti
genellikle anne ve babanın çocukla iletişiminde ona gösterdiği tutumun bir yönü olarak
görülmektedir (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Samimiyet, anne ve babanın çocuğun
ihtiyacına destekleyici, sevecen ve duyarlı olan genel eğilimlerinin yansımasıdır ve aynı
zamanda çocuğa karşı direkt olarak olumlu duygu ve davranışların gösterilmesidir.
Hoffman (1982)’a göre, ailenin samimiyeti çocuğun kendi duygusal ihtiyaçlarını
karşılayarak çocukta empatinin gelişiminde önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. Ailenin
destekleyici ve samimi olmasıyla çocukların empatisi arasında olumlu ilişkinin olduğu
bulunmuştur (Rigby, 1993; Robinson, at al., 1994). Ailenin samimiyetiyle ailenin empatisi
arasında bir ilişki olması da söz konusudur. Empatik olmayan, samimi ve duyarlı ailelerin
olmasını düşünmek oldukça güçtür. Ayrıca ailenin empatisiyle çocukların empatisi
arasında da olumlu yönde bir ilişki olduğu söylenebilir (Fabes, at al., 1990).
Çocuğun empati gelişiminde diğer önemli aile faktörü, ailenin çocuğa duygularını
açıkça ifade etmesidir. Genelde duygularını ifade eden ailelerden gelen çocuklar, kendileri
de duygularını ifade etme eğilimindedirler. Bunun nedeni, aile üyeleri tarafından biyolojik
devamlılık olabilir ya da çocukların anne ve babalarıyla etkileşimlerinde anne ve babalarını
taklit etmeleri ve duygusal bulaşma olabilir. Dolayısıyla olumlu ya da olumsuz duyguları
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 daha fazla yaşayabilen ve ifade edebilen çocuklar muhtemelen diğerlerinin duygularını
daha iyi hissedebilirler ve duygularını daha az ifade eden çocuklardan daha fazla
empatiktirler (Roberts and Strayer, 1996; Yüksel, 2009). Roberts, and Strayer, J. (2004)’in
yapmış oldukları bir araştırmada, aile içinde duyguların ifade edilmesi ile çocukların
empatisi arasında olumlu ilişki olduğu bulunmuştur. Ayrıca anne-babaları ve
çevrelerindeki yetişkinler tarafından duyguları anlaşılan, ifade edilen çocuklar empatiyi
daha kolay öğrenirler. Çünkü empati becerisinin gelişimi için öncelikle kişinin kendi
duygularının farkında olması, duygular arasındaki farkları hissedebilmesi önemlidir
(Evliçoğlu, 2007).
Çocuğun empatik olmasında etkili olabilecek aileyle ilgili bir başka unsur, anne –
babanın çocuğa karşı kullandığı disiplin yöntemidir. Yapılan araştırmalarda, anne-babanın
uyguladığı disiplin yöntemiyle çocuğun empatisi arasında güçlü ilişkiler olduğu
bulunmuştur (Krevans and Gibbs, 1996). Anne-babanın, çocuğun değiştirilmesi gereken
davranışıyla ilgili gerekli açıklamayı yapmasını, nedenleri açıkça belirtmesini içeren
disiplin tekniğinin çocuğun empatik eğilimlerini desteklediği ifade edilmiştir. Hoffman
(1975) da, çocuğun hareketlerinin bir başkasına zarar verdiği durumlarda zarar gören
kişinin sıkıntısına dikkat çeken ve çocuğun kendini onun yerine koyması için
cesaretlendiren bu tekniğin çocukta empatiyi arttırabileceğini belirtmiştir. Yapılan
araştırmalarda anne-babaların davranışlarını değiştirmede bu şekilde açıklayıcı disiplin
yöntemi uyguladığı çocukların empati düzeyinin, anne-babalarının baskıcı, cezalandırıcı
disiplin yöntemi uyguladığı çocukların empati düzeyinden daha yüksek olduğu
bulunmuştur (Krevans & Gibbs, 1996). Benzer şekilde, baskıcı ve otoriter anne–baba
tutumuyla çocukların empatisi arasında olumsuz yönde ilişki olduğu bulunmuştur (Çetin,
2008). Görüldüğü gibi, anne baba disiplin yöntemi de çocukta empatinin gelişmesinde
olumlu veya olumsuz etki edebilmektedir.
Çocuk yetiştirme yöntemleri genel olarak çocuk ile anne-baba arasındaki tüm
etkileşimleri kapsar. Bu etkileşimler anne-babanın tutum, değer ve inançlarının ifadesiyle
bakım
ve
eğitim
davranışlarını
içerir.
Bu
davranışlar
çocuğun
davranışlarını
biçimlendirmeyi gerçekleştirirken, gelecekteki davranışları üzerinde de etkili olur. Bu
nedenle anne- baba ve çocuk ilişkileri kişiliği belirleyen etkenlerden en önemlisi olarak
görülmektedir (Yeşilyaprak, 1993).
Sonuç ve Öneriler
Bireyin kişiliğinin büyük ölçüde erken çocukluk döneminde şekillendiği konusunda büyük
bir görüş birliği bulunmaktadır. Kişiliğin bir değişkeni olarak empatik becerinin de çok
erken yaşlarda ortaya çıktığı ve geliştirilebileceği belirtilmektedir. Bu dönemde çocuklarda
empatinin geliştirilebilmesi, ilerideki daha karmaşık ve olgun empatinin geliştirilmesinin
ve dolayısıyla sağlıklı kişiliğin, sağlıklı kişilerarası ilişkilerin, sağlıklı iletişimin ve sağlıklı
etkileşimin kurulmasının temel koşuludur. Empati kurma becerisinin bireyin yaşantısında
önemi büyüktür. Empatik anlayış iletişim çatışmalarını engelleyerek daha olumlu
ilişkilerin kurulmasını sağlamaktadır. Empati kurma becerisini kazanmış bireylerin sosyal
çevreleri, okul yaşamları, iş yaşamları ile kuracakları ailelerdeki yaşamlarının, toplumu
olumlu yönde etkileyeceği açık bir gerçektir. Böyle bireyler iletişim çatışmalarını
engellemek ve daha olumlu ilişkiler kurabilmek açısından da farklılıklar gösterirler. Bu
nedenle empatik bir toplum oluşturulabilmesi için bireylerin empatik becerilerini
geliştirmeye yönelik çalışmaların yapılmasının gerekli olduğu düşünülmektedir. Özellikle
okulöncesi dönemden itibaren çocukların diğer tüm becerilerde olduğu gibi empatik
becerilerinin de geliştirilmesi oldukça önemlidir.
Toplumun en küçük sosyal grubu olan aile, bireyin yaşantısında çok önemli bir yer
tutmaktadır. İlk çocukluk yıllarından itibaren birey pek çok şeyi ailesinden öğrendiği gibi,
empatinin temelleri de ailede atılır. Çocuk ile annesi ya da ona bakan kişi arasındaki güçlü
duygusal ilişkinin yeri; empati gelişiminde varlığı kabul edilen ilk olgudur. Diğerlerinin
hislerine çocuğun empatik tepkisi, annenin ruhsal durumu ve duygularıyla ortaya çıkan ilk
empatik bağ ile gelişir. Çocuğun ilk bağı ile duygusal tepkisi arasında açık bir bağlantı söz
konusudur. Çocuğa başlangıçta temel güven duygusunun verilmesi, sağlıklı bağlanmanın
güvencesi; sağlıklı bağlanma, sağlıklı ayrılmanın güvencesi ve sağlıklı ayrılma bağımsız
kişiliğin güvencesi olabilir. Aile ortamındaki samimiyet, anne babanın çocuğun
ihtiyaçlarına doğrudan sıcak, sevecen tepkiler vermesi, ailenin çocuğa duygularını açıkça
ifade etmesi, anne babanın empatik modeller olması, anne babanın çocuğa karşı kullandığı
disiplin yöntemi, çocuğun empati gelişiminde önemli aile faktörleri olarak kabul
edilmektedir. Bu bilgilerden hareketle, aşağıda bazı önerilere yer verilmiştir;
• Erken
çocukluk
döneminde
çocukların
empatik
becerilerinin
gelişimini
desteklemeye yönelik çalışmalar yapılabilir.
• Anne babalar ve aile empatinin gelişiminde önemli olduğu için onların empatik
becerilerinin geliştirilmesine yönelik çalışmalar yapılabilir, aynı zaman da olumlu iletişim
becerileri, çocukların gelişim özellikleri, çocukların empatik becerilerinin gelişimi
konularda eğitim programları hazırlanabilir.
• Aile dışında okul ortamında da uzun zaman geçiren çocukların eğitiminde rol alan
öğretmenlerin empatik becerilerini geliştirmeye yönelik çalışmalar yapılabilir. Böylece,
hem empatik bir iletişimin olduğu bir eğitim ortamı sağlanmış hem de yüksek empatik
becerileri olan öğretmenler iyi birer model olacakları için çocukların da empatik becerileri
gelişmiş olacaktır.
• Çocuk gelişimi ve eğitimi ile ilgili alanlarda çalışan uzmanların empatik
Vol. 1, No. 1, 63-92 becerilerini geliştirmeye yönelik çalışmalar yapılabilir.
• Okul öncesi eğitimi öğretmeni yetiştiren eğitim kurumlarında uygulanan eğitim
programlarında öğretmen adaylarının empatik becerilerinin gelişimine yönelik kuramsal
bilgilere ve uygulamalara yer verilebilir.
•
Öğretmenlere hizmet içi eğitim programlarında empatik becerilerinin gelişimini
desteklemeye yönelik planlamalara yer verilebilir.
•
Okul öncesi eğitimi öğretmenleri ve öğretmen adayları empatik becerilerini
yükseltmeye yönelik seminerler, drama, müzik ile ilgili etkinliklere katılabilirler.
• Araştırmacılar erken çocukluk döneminde çocukların empatik becerilerinin
gelişiminde ailenin etkisini ortaya çıkarmaya yönelik çalışmalar yapabilir.
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