international journal of the asian philosophical association

Transkript

IJAPA
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE ASIAN
PHILOSOPHICAL ASSOCIATION
IJAPA
An Interdisciplinar y Review Devoted to Asian Studies
Volume 6 • Issue 1 • January 2013
IJAPA is an international, multi-disciplinary, peerrefereed journal published by the Asian Philosophical
Association. We try to provide a platform of discussion
for the scholars from any country on issues related to
an interdisciplinary study of Asian civilizations. As such
comparative studies are also appreciated. The journal
welcomes original and scholarly investigations that pay
attention particularly to philosophical approach. The papers
may represent a variety of theoretical perspectives and
different methodological approaches. This journal may
publish articles that have already been published before
provided that there is no copyright infringement. Such
articles must be important for Asian studies and must have
a significant impact previously. This way we aim at bringing
these ideas to a wider reader circles in Asian countries.
ISSN ??????
An Interdisciplinary Review
Devoted to Asian Studies
Editors
Alparslan Açıkgenç and Woo Won Choi
IJAPA
3
IJAPA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume 6 • Issue 1 • Januar y 2013
A Biannual peer refereed Jour nal
From the Editors • 5
ARTICLES
EDITORS
Alparslan Açıkgenç
Yıldız Technical University
Istanbul, Turkey
Woo Won Choi
Pusan National University
Busan, South Korea
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Yasuhito Ishii Chikushi Jogakuen University
Dazaifu, Japan
Edward Moad
Qatar University
Doha, Qatar
Cultural and religious pluralism in the philosophy of Ikhwan as Safa and Contribution
of Asian Cultures to the idea of pluralism
Bayram Ali Çetinkaya
Şengül Çelik
Yıldız Technical University
Istanbul, Turkey
A Philosophical Interpretation of the Islamic Perspective on Religious Tolerance
Alparslan Açıkgenç
Sociological Functions of Religion and Crime
Kayhan Mutlu
EDITORIAL BOARD
Ernest Wolf-Gazo American University at Cairo Cairo, Egypt
D. Dashpurev
The Institute of Philosophy, Sociology, Political Science
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Asian Values and Emotions: Toward an Asian Community
Haksoo Bae
Myoung-Mi Park Saga University & Kyushu Sangyo University
Fukuoka, Japan
İbrahim Bor
Mardin Artuklu Universty
Mardin, Turkey
Ethnicization of Islam in Malaysia and its Effect on the Malaysian Chinese Muslims
Rosey Ma
Zarina Mukanova
Al Farabi Kazakh National University
Almaty, Kazakhstan
Masykuri Abdillah
Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University
Jakarta, Indonesia
Turkey, Japan and South Korea as Partners in International Relations:
New Perspective and Contributions to Global Peace
Ahmet Küçükaşçı
ADVISORY BOARD
Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud, University of Technology Malaysia, CASIS, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Muhammad Amin Abdullah, Sunan Kalijaga State Islamic University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Jin-Oh Lee, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
Nurten Gökalp, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey
Kenul Bunyadzade, National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan, Baku, Azerbaijan
Shahid Ahmed, Centre for Jawaharlal Nehru Studies, Jamia Millia Islamia
(Central University), New Delhi, India
Rev. Masanori Nakagawa, Chikushi Jogakuen University, Chief Priest of Buddhist Temple
Jun’ichi Asada, Chikushi Jogakuen University
Tran Dinh Lam, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
CORRESPONDENCE
Şengül Çelik [email protected]
Yazı İşleri Müdürü
OWNER ON BEHALF OF AsianPA: Alparslan AÇIKGENÇ
ISSN (online) 9999 XXXX ISSN (print)
9999 XXXX
Copyright © On behalf of AsianPA Alparslan Açıkgenç
Individual article copyrights belong to the authors themselves
DISCUSSIONS
Tolerance in Legal Context
Sarantuya Dagvadorj
National Identification and Globalization Issues in Kyrgyzstan
Mariam Edilova
The Nature and Space Combination in Traditional Kazakh culture
Akzharkyn Abuova
Editorial and Submission Guidelines
BOOK REVIEWS
Books should be sent to our associate editor:
Şengül Çelik c/o Alparslan Açıkgenç
Yıldız Technical University, Department of Philosophy, Room AZ10 Davutpaşa, Esenler - Istanbul, TURKEY
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION 3
FROM THE EDITORS
MA X WEBER AND ASIAN CIVILIZ ATION • ERNEST WOLF-GA ZO
FROM THE EDITORS
In our editorial note for the volume 3 (2010) of the International Journal of Asian Philosophical
Association (IJAPA) we indicated that during the 4th International Congress of Asian Philosophical
Association, held in Indonesia on 4-6 November 2009 the General Assembly of Asian Philosophical
Association (AsianPA) we decided to publish the journal biannually. Also we shall take the initiative
to facilitate the publication of papers from Asian scholars in their native languages. With this issue
beginning in 2013 we feel that we will be able to publish IJAPA biannually. We hope that as soon as
we arrange local editors we will be able to publish articles in Asian languages.
We also indicated that the guidelines for authors have been updated, and an extended set of
editorial guidelines is printed and will be printed in all issues in order to facilitate the editorial
work of the publishers. We have been applying both the Chicago Manual of Style and APA formats.
As we have indicated in earlier issues, the scope of our journal is not intended to be limited to that
of philosophy narrowly defined, but also to include and encourage rigorous interdisciplinary and
comparative work. Scholars working mainly in the humanities (loosely defined as philosophy,
literature, arts and history) may use the Chicago manual, while those working mainly in social
sciences may use the APA.
By now our readers must have noticed that our journal consists of mainly three sections:
The first part is reserved for full scholarly articles. The second section which is separated as
“Discussions” includes articles without an abstract and key words. These articles are supposed
to introduce some issues in Asian countries and/or discuss certain current issue in order to
illuminate our readers on these issues. These discussions are interesting for our members to
inform themselves on Asian communities and cultures. We may also print news related or relevant
to our association and information concerning conferences and important meetings held recently
in any Asian country. When you submit your work for publication in IJAPA please indicate to
which section it is relevant. The third section is devoted for book reviews. We indicated in IJAPA 3
(2010) that we will give priority to the books authored by our members. So far we have not received
any book reviews. Please bring your recently published books to our congress and conferences and
we will present them to our book review editor. Our associate editor Dr. Şengül Çelik of Yıldız
Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey is waiting for your books and also reviews of recent books
published in any country in any language. But please present your review in English so that it will
be widely available to us all.
Please be informed that any article presented for the first section will go through the process
of full peer review. Articles submitted for “Discussions” will be evaluated and recommended for
IJAPA by our Editorial Board. Book reviews submitted for the third section shall be evaluated and
recommended for publication by our book review editor.
We welcome opinions from our members to improve IJAPA and support our journal in any
way possible.
4 Volume 3 • Issue 1 • Januar y 2010
IJAPA
FROM THE EDITORS
MA X WEBER AND ASIAN CIVILIZ ATION • ERNEST WOLF-GA ZO
CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS PLURALISM IN
THE PHILOSOPHY OF IKHWAN AL-SAFA
AND CONTRIBUTION OF ASIAN CULTURES
TO THE IDEA OF PLURALISM
BAY R A M A Lİ ÇE TİNK AYA
BAYRAM ALİ ÇETİNKAYA*
ABSTRACT
Ikhwan al-Safa (read as ikhw’anus-safâ) is a community which aims to reconstruct
Muslim Community intellectually through philosophical and scientific studies and
moral and religious enthusiasm amid religious, philosophical, and political contentions
in the decline period of Abbasid State. Rasa’il-e Ikhwan as-Safa convey the philosophical
life of 10th century as if they reflect political atmosphere of the era. Islamic reason
in this era was aware of Ancient Greek philosophy, Hindu wisdom, and Persian and
Arabic literature. Thus, Rasa’il gathered all these ideas and cultures in a melting pot.
Ikhwan al-Safa, the members of a religious-political movement, helped Rasa’il to spread
by consciously hiding their identity. Thus, Rasa’il have become works everyone from all
sections of the society could reach. At the same time, Rasa’il are the first attempt to educate
society through philosophical and scientific ways. The effects of Rasa’il are beyond their
time and place. Rasa’il, an encyclopedia of religious and positive sciences, have the legacy
on Islamic intellectual life from Iran to Spain. Ikhwan as-Safa referred to prophets, to
ancient Greek Philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle and even to Hindu
wise men. Thus, it is unfair to engage Ikhwan as-Safa with a certain sect. In fact, Ikhwan
is over sects and factions. Ikhwan as-Safa has become a school which has consisted of
Greek philosophy, Persian, Hindu, Messiah and other ideas. Ikhwan as-Safa displays
an example of very inclusive eclecticism in philosophy while it is inclined to Mu’tazile
and Shia in terms of religion. It talks about Christianity, Sabian and other religions and
ideas as if it talks about Islam. Ikhwan as-Safa as a school means rationalism from many
perspectives, moral and mental idealism, and spiritualism as a return of spirits to Allah,
logical mysticism, monism, syncretism, and pluralism. Ikhwan al-Safa has become a
successful model for latter Muslim and Asian societies with its organizational structure
which employs these theoretical backgrounds. They have passed the borders of tenth
century with their religious-ideological project in the area of religion, philosophy and
culture. They have provided the prescription of a new millennium by struggling against
religious, ethnic, sectarian and cultural discriminations.
Keywords: Culture, Religion, Pluralism, Philosophy, Ikhwan al-Safa
* Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
[email protected]
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION
9
CULTUR AL AND RELIGIOUS PLUR ALISM IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF IKHWAN A S SAFA
I. INTRODUCTION
Tawhidi.6 Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi states the following anecdote that has been expressed for
centuries about Ikhwan al-Safa in Muqabasat and al-Imta wa al-Muanatha:
There is a general consensus on the idea that the movement of Ikhwan al-Safa, introduced
in Basra which is declared as the centre of free rational thought and Mu’tazilite movement in
He does not belong to any sect or group; he did not need such a belonging because of
addition to its being centre of Muslim idea.1 It is not a coincidence that the community has
the difference of the thing that is seen as simply commented and superficially explained.
been primarily emerged in Basra in South Iraq and tractates are composed of mathematical,
He had lived in Basra for a long time. He met there with various scientists and profession
political and religious doctrines because Basra in 10th century2 as a cosmopolitan city was
experts. Among these people, it could be mentioned about Abû Suleyman Muhammad
open to outer effects and it always communicated with external world. Although Ikhwan
b. Ma’sher al-Bustî, Abu’l-Hasan Ali b. Harun al-Zanjânî, Abû Ahmed el-Mihrijânî, el-
maintained its activities secretly, it is possible to claim that Basra was a freedom centre, which
Avfî and such. He spent time with them. He had a group of ten friends. Their friendship
gives the right of self-expression for every thought, ideology and school.3
was close. They met together very frequently. Eventually, they had a common idea and
The tractates proposed by Ikhwan al-Safa represents the philosophical life of 10th
they formed a sect. They supposed that they are becoming close on another in the way
century- even if is not too comprehensive- as it represents political life. Besides, the reflection
to reach the sake of Allah. They expressed this: “The Shari’a became dirty by being
of philosophical atmosphere of that period is seen obviously in tractates. Islamic mentality
painted with ignorance and composed with aberrations. The only way that will clean
of this century was aware of Ancient Greek, Indian wisdom, Arabic and Persian literature
Shari’a is philosophy because philosophy includes itikadi hikmet and itikadi maslahat”.
and other monotheistic and non-monotheistic religions and cultures. The tractates combined
They also supposed that maturity is formed via the regulation of Greek philosophy and
these ideas and cultures.4
arrangement of Arabic Shari’a. They wrote 50 tractates, which contain all branches of
philosophy. They separated these tractates, which include all scientific and practical
parts of philosophy, with respect to sciences and put an index for them. Then, they called
II. IKHWAN AL-SAFA AS A PHILOSOPHICAL
COMMUNITY
them “Ikhwan al-Safa and Hullani’l Wafa”. They did not express their (writers’) name.
They named these tractates with religious words, idioms about Shari’a and letters that
will reach them the way they select.7
Publishing and research concerning Ikhwan al-Safa have been emerged since the end of
19 century. Some of the tractates were translated into Latin in medieval Christian world.5
th
There are two authorities who provide us some reliable knowledge on Ikhwan al-Safa: the
The identity and works of this community is important in other way because it is thought
that the group of Ikhwan al-Safa8 originated from Basra emerged between the years of 946 and
philosopher of 4th and 5th century Abu Sulayman al-Mantiqi and his student Abu Hayyan al-
1055.9 The members of this community spread to various cities. According to the explanations
1 Hamdi Ragıb Atademir. “Tahlil ve Tetkikler Adel Awa: İhvan al-Safâ’nın Tenkid Kafası”, A.Ü. İlahiyat
Fakültesi Dergisi, 2: 1, Ankara 1953, 98; Ömer Ferruh, Ikhwân al-Safâ, 3rd edition (Beirut: N.p., 1981), 18;
Nâdiye Jamâluddîn, Falsafat al-Tarbiyya ‘inda Ikhwân al-Safâ (Kahire: N.p., 1983), 87-88.
2 R. Hartman, “Basra”, İslâm Ansiklopedisi (MEB) (Istanbul: 1986), II, 320-327.
3 Ârif Tâmir. Haqîqat Ikhwân al-Safâ wa Hullan al-Wafâ, 3rd edition, Beirut 1982, 72-73.
4 Taha Hüseyin, “Muqaddima”, Rasâil Ikhwân al-Safâ wa Hillân al-Wafa, ed. Khayruddin al-Ziriklî (Egypt:
1928), I, 10; Armand Abel, “Basra’da İhvân-el-Safâ Muamması ve Bunun X. Yüzyılda Halifeler Devletinin
Sosyal Tarihi Bakımından Manası”, translator: Nusret Hızır, Belleten, XXIX (1965), 613.
5 Nihat Keklik. Türk-İslam Felsefesi Açısından Felsefenin İlkeleri, 2. baskı (Ankara: İstanbul Üniversitesi
Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları, 1996), 99.
6 M. S. Stern, Studies in Early Ismâ’ilism, Leiden 1983, 155; M. Stern, “The Authorship of the Epistles of the
Ikhwân-as-Safâ”, Islamic Culture, 20 (1946), 368-369, 372.
7 Abu Hayyân al-Tawhidî, al-Muqabasât, Egypt 1929/1347, 45 (1st footnote), 46; al-Tawhidî, al-Imtâ wa’lMuânatha, ed. Ahmet al-Tuwaylî, Tunisisa 1982, 171-173; al-Qiftî, Akhbâr al-‘Ulamâ bi Akhbâr al-Hukamâ,
59.
8Al-Tawhidî, al-Muqabasât, 45 (1st footnote), 46; see also al-Imtâ, 171-173; al-Qiftî, Akhbâr al-‘Ulamâ bi
Akhbâr al-Hukamâ, 59.
9 Ian Richard Netton. Muslim Neoplatonists (New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002), 78.
10 Al-Qiftî, Ahbâru’l-Ulemâ bi Ahbâru’l-Hukemâ, 59.
of Kıtri, their activity centre was Basra. The community had branches in Egypt and Bagdad.10
11
It was claimed such theses that tractates addresses to many people in various social
copy of it exists in the important centers of Islamic world and in most of their libraries. The
statues, in various ages and having various jobs, their language includes the words originated
members of the community of Ikhwan al-Safa experienced the behavior, sect, belief, morality
from Greek and other languages in addition to philosophical and scientific expressions and
and custom of the people they can have close friendship with and they considered these
they have one or more writers.11 Ikhwan al-Safa was a secret philosophical community
people’s circumstance.17 People could attend this community, which maintained its activities
emerging in the last period of Abbasid Government when religious, philosophical and
secretly, via personal and faith-based contact.18 They advise their propagators to act among
political rivalry was widespread, and it aimed to reform intellectual side of Islamic society
young people because old people were not suitable for movement. Members of the community
by putting forward unity and solidarity, fraternity, assistance and cohesiveness. However,
were categorized in four degrees, which were selected according to their ages.19
12
it is interesting that this community was working like association of philosophy that tries
Their community is depicted as communal or fraternal. It was insistently explained to
to transfer its philosophical, scientific and cultural studies to the people in this age by
the people accepted for the membership of this community to help and support each other
saving its existence during one age in Hijri 4th century in Islamic geography. The works and
against the relationships with worthless people until they reach their target. The members of
struggles of this group are remarkable in terms of the idea that they indicate the progress of
this community were selected among young people who are lively, willing and tend to change
Islamic world in an intellectual area in that period. The doctrines of this community were
the minds rather than old people who are against of reform and all types of change.20
summarized in the study of Rasail Ikhwan al-Safa, which is anonymous. This study involves
fifty-one tractates and it reflects all of their ideas and the application of them to the religious
doctrines.13
III. THEIR SOURCES
There were people from various groups among the members of this community.14 Some
part of the members were the children of Amir, Queen, gentry or administrators, some parts
were children of artisan, tradesman or traders and some other parts were the children of
writer, reverend and scholars.
It should not be thought that the sources of Ikhwan are historical inscriptions. They
mentioned about the universality of their sources, which contain divine inspiration and
15
There is merely one important work transferred to us from this group, which lives in
Nature:
some of Muslim Indian areas like an alive literature. This work is “tractates” and at least one
16
We provided our information from four books.
11Abel, “Basra’da İhvân-el-Safâ Muamması ve Bunun X. Yüzyılda Halifeler Devletinin Sosyal Tarihi
Bakımından Manası”, 99; Muhammed Ferîd Hijâb, al-Falsafat al-Siyasiyya inda Ikhwân al-Safâ, Egypt, 1982,
65.
12 R, II, 140; Enver Uysal, İhvân-ı Safâ Felsefesinde Tanrı ve Alem, Istanbul 1998, 24; Uysal, “İhvân-ı Safâ” mad.,
T. D. V. İ. A., Istanbul 200, XXII, 1-2; Necip Taylan, Anahatlarıyla İslâm Felsefesi Kaynakları TemsilcileriTesirleri, Istanbul 1981, 148; Ömer Farruh, Tarîkh al-Fikr al-Arabî ilâ Ayyâm Ibn Khaldûn, IV. edition, Beirut:
1983, 379; Hannâ al-Fâkhûrî - Khalîl al-Jarr, Târîkh al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, 3rd edition, Beirut 1993, I, 224,
228; Antoine Kerem – Kemâl al-Yâzîjî, A’lâm al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, 4th edition, Beirut 1990, 400-403, 419.
13 Ignaz Goldziher, Klasik Arap Literatürü, trans. Azmi Yüksel, Rahmi Er (Ankara: İmaj Yayınları, 1993), 108;
Tawhidî, elMukabesât, 46; Ömer Ferruh, op. cit., 19, 27.
14 Yuhanna Kumayr. Ikhwân al-Safâ, 2nd edition (Beirut: 1986), 5.
15 R, IV, 165-166, 188-189; Koç, İhvân-ı Safâ’nın Egitim Felsefesi, 29-30; Tâmir, Haqîqat Ikhwân al-Safâ wa Hullan
al-Wafâ, 84; İsmail Râci Farûkî – Lâmia Farûkî, İslâm Kültür Atlası, trans. M. O. Kibaroglu, Z. Kibaroglu, 3rd
edition, Istanbul 1999, 334; Çubukçu, İslâm Düşünürleri, 33-34; İbrahim Agah, Çubukçu, “İhvân as-Safâ ve
Ahlâk Görüşleri”, AÜİFD, 12 (1964), 44; Ferruh, Ikhwân al-Safâ, 29-30; Kumayr, Ikhwân al-Safâ, 10.
Bakımından Manası”, 605.
First one is composed of
mathematical and natural sciences produced by philosophers and sages. Second one is
composed of Torah, Bible, Quran and other pages sent to prophets via seraphs. Third one
is books concerning nature in which there is movement of stars, the episodes of zodiac,
ideas of the shapes of celestial spheres, plant and animal kingdoms, and the production
of various human industries in Platonic point of view. Forth one is comprised of holy
17 İsmail Hakkı İzmirli, İhvân-ı Safâ Felsefesi ve İslam’da Tekâmül Nazariyesi, ed. C. İzmirli, Istanbul 1949, 7;
İzmirli, “İhvân-ı Safâ Felsefesi”, Sebilürreşad, volume: 29, Istanbul 1949, 54.
18 R, IV, 51-52.
19 Ömer Ferruh, “İhvân-ı Safâ”, İslam Düşüncesi Tarihi, trans. İ. Kutluer, ed. M. M. Şerif, Istanbul, 1990, I, 328;
İzmirli, “İslâm’da Felsefe Cereyanları (3)”, Darul-Fünun İiahiyat Fakültesi Mecmuası (February), 14 (1930),
8-39; M. S. Stern, “New Information About The Authors of The Epistles of The Sincere Brethren”, Islamic
Studies, c. 3, Karachi 1964, 421.
20 R, IV, 52.
13
books that are just sent to pure people. Merely angels are closed to these spirits that are
pure, privileged and noble.
IV. THEIR PURPOSES
21
Main doctrines in tractates about Judaism are indicated as the Jewish stories and
traditions transferred by Ikhwan.22 Ikhwan advised to his members to read Bible.23 He most
probably utilized from the copies of Ahd-I cedid. The main attitude of Ikhwan towards Islam
24
is shaped on the frame of being tolerable. The origins of this toleration are represented in
verses transported from Quran. Tractates include not only the effects of Greek, Jewish, and
25
Quran, but also the effects of Buddhist, Persia, Zoroaster and Maniheist ideas.
26
It can be inferred that while tractates had been forming, Ikhwan applied to various
sources and utilized from them. The most dominant point among these sources is the idea
and philosophy of Greek. Ikhwan was relied on Ptolemaeus in astronomy, Euclid , in
27
28
geometry, Hermes29 in magic and astrology, Aristotle30 in logic and physics, Pythagoreans31
in arithmetic and music, Plato and new Platonic ideas in metaphysics. The effects of Plato
and Porphyry32 from Neo-Platonian is felt strongly. In tractates, there are Babel and Indian
elements in astrology area, but at the same time there are stories from Buddhism and Persian
and transferences from Torah and Bible. Despite these different sources, the writers of tractates
were very successful in synthesizing them.
33
There are different claims about the aims and targets of Ikhwan al-Safa. According to
some researchers, their purpose and target is on one hand to help religion, to advise their
coreligionists and to get closer to Allah by understanding all sciences deeply, on the other
hand to explore the realities in philosophical and religious disciplines.34
Taha Husayn and other historians thought as him claimed that the purpose of Ikhwan is
to change existing political mechanism by developing a new philosophical system.35 According
to another researcher, their aim was to spread their views all over the Muslim world36 and to
combine all religions as one religion by philosophy of religion. Due to this idea, while they were
writing tractates, they used the ideas of all of existing religions in their age. Thence, Ikhwan
whose ideas are mostly relied on Islamic point of view, tried to compromise philosophy and
religion. However, according to our point of view, because of the reasons emerging from their
secret organization, they sometimes commented against Sunni Islamic doctrines. They were
followed by law enforcement and this caused them to work secretly.37
Some other researchers who explain the aims of Ikhwan in a different way claimed that
their purpose is to construct philosophical religion and spread their ideas to all over Muslim
world,38 then, to merge all regions into a single religion. Due to this reason, while writing
tractates, they used all religions.39
An ultimate goal of this philosophy group can be suggested as being liberal and finding
a teacher who searches for reality and who does not have just one idea dogmatically in religious
topics.40 Ikhwan comfortably mentioned about Christianity and Mandaeans as they talked
21 Seyyid Hüseyin Nasr, İslâm Kozmoloji Öğretilerine Giriş, trans. N. Şişman, İstanbul, 1985, 49-50; R, IV, 20.
22Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists, 72.
23 R, IV, 245.
24Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists, 54, 79; A. L. Tibawi, “Further Studies on Ikhwân as-Safâ”, The Islamic
Quarterly, II (1995), 66.
25 Netton, op. cit., 79; R, IV, 121.
26Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists, 89, 94; besides see. Marqet, “Ikhwân al-Safâ”, E.I., London, 1979, III, 1076;
Sheikh, Islamic Philosophy, London, 1982, 35.
27 R, I, 49, 138; III, 326; IV, 285, 361, 382.
28 R, I,106, 49, 440; III, 89, 207.
29 R, I, 138.
30 R, I, 138.
31 R, I, 35-36, 48-49, 208.
32 R, I, 266-269.
33 R, I, 266-269.
34R, III, 29; İzmirli, İhvân-ı Safâ Felsefesi ve İslam’da Tekâmül Nazariyesi, 6; Mustafa Çağrıcı, İslâm
Düşüncesinde Ahlâk (İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi, İlahiyat Fakültesi Vakfı Yayınları, 1989), 54.
35 Taha Hüseyin, “Mukaddime”, Rasâil İkhvâni’s-Safâ ve Hillân al-Wafa, ed. Khayruddin al-Zirikli, Egypt
1347/1928, I, 7-8; Nasr, İslâm Kozmoloji Ögretilerine Giriş, 44; al-Fâhûrî -al-Jarr, Târîhu’l-Felsefeti’l-Arabiyye,
I, 225, 230; al-Jundî, “Abû’l-Alâ al-Maarrî wa Ikhwân al-Safâ”, Majallât al-Majma al-Ilmî al-Arabî, Süleyman
Uludag, İslâm Düşüncesinin Yapısı, 4th edition, İstanbul 1999, 219.
36 İ. Agah Çubukçu, İslâm Düşünürleri, 2nd edition, Ankara 1983, 32.
37Çubukçu, ibid, 35; also see. Tevhidî, al-Imtâ, op. cit., 174. Ahmet Zeki Paşa, “Fasl fî Rasâil Ikhwân al-Safâ”,
Rasâil Ikhwân al-Safâ wa Hillân al-Wafâ, I, 24; Farruh, Tarîkh al-Fikri’l-Arabî, op. cit., 380; al-Fâkhûrî - alJarr, Târîkh al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, I, 228; Kerem – al-Yâzîjî, A’lam, op. cit., 412.
38 Çubukçu, İslâm Düşünürleri, 32.
39Çubukçu, ibid, 35; Kumayr, op. cit., 10.
40 R, IV, 51; Husayn al-Hamdânî, “Rasâil Ikhwân as-Safâ in the Literature of the Ismâ’îlî Taiyibi Da’wat”, Der
Islam, XXV, Berlin 1939, 291; Sarıkavak, Düşünce Tarihinde Urfa ve Harran, 126; Kerem –al-Yâzîjî, A’lâm, op.
cit., 401.
15
about Islam.41 Their real goal was to develop a spiritual doctrine which does not harm anyone,
Ikhwan opened their doors for the owners of science and knowledge without the importance
suits for everyone and takes other religions that are placed in history by the help of Islam and
of their religion, language and race and without any disturbance because of their religion,
Greek philosophy place. Saying that Ikhwan al-Safa was connected to one sect would be
language and race.
42
injustice for them. They were not in favor of the sects their members are included in. All views
see and reflect this community as a part from their view.
VI. THEIR INTELLECTUAL EFFECTS
V. THEIR SCIENTIFIC METHODS
Ikhwan al-Safa’s effect on the wide geographical area and their acceptance by huge
groups are the proofs of the idea that they obtained very strong idea structure.50 In addition to
It is seen that Ikhwan had a liberalistic attitude towards other religions. According
tractates’ being effective on divisions such as Bâtıniyye, İsmailiyye, Haşşaşîn, Dürzî, it is seen
to their view, differences in religions depend on incidental factors such as race, time and
that it was read by Ibn Sina (980-1037), Ghazali and Ibn Heysem (965-1040, it influenced Ibn
accommodation. Nevertheless, they considered that these factors do not influence universality
Arabi and Ibn Haldun (1332-1406) and it was adopted mostly by Ismailis.51
and unity of reality.43 The school of Ikhwan al-Safa as an uncommon religious satisfaction
This community did reforms in history of philosophy; it caused religious philosophy
attempt in Sunni customs44 did not adhere to neither one religion nor one philosophical
to develop and to enlarge philosophical life in Endulus.52 Ikhwan al-Safa community that
attitude; conversely they used all of the ideas that could be useful regardless of religious,
had a big role on the development of Islamic thought is always a topic for wonder because of
doctrinal, philosophical and sectarian differences.45
the eclectic side of their views and mystery of their identity. Ikhwan was popular in Middle
Awa thinks that the thought of Ikhwan is between syncretism and eclectics. Nonetheless,
East as Hegel, Kant and Voltaire in West. Their defining themselves as “sleepers in the cage
some researchers support the view that Ikhwan is not syncretic but it is eclectic because
of our father Adam”53 is indicated that they inspired from Ashab al-Kahf (People of the Cave)
syncretism is to combine different doctrines with non-critical manners. Due to this feature of
in Qur’an.54 Tractates had huge impressions on intellectuals and especially semi intellectuals
syncretism, it is supposed as the contrast of eclecticism. Therefore, eclecticism, as an opposite
and after that divisions such as Bâtınıyye, Haşşaşiyye, İsmâiliyye, Dürzî...imposed Ikhwan’s
of syncretism, is accepted as the prevention of all kinds of harmonization inclination that is
ideas. The philosophy of Aristotle was solely for the higher class but the philosophy of Ikhwan
against of natural.47 In the thought of Ikhwan, it is seen that there are signs of the preparation
al-Safa was turned into the philosophy of society.55
46
of point of view that is available to educate people with true and deep beliefs, of the moral
discipline as in new Pythgoreanism and of critical and lightener philosophy.48 Therefore, it
should be accepted that Ikhwan al-Safa is a system that follows chooser (eclectic) method.49
41 Al-Fâkhûrî - al-Jarr, Târîkh al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, I, 236, 240-241.b.
42 Ferruh, “İhvân-ı Safâ”, İslam Düşüncesi Tarihi, I, 329; see. R, II, 367.
43 Poonawala, “Ikhwân al Safâ”, 93.
44 Arthur Jeffery. “Eclecticism in Islam”, The Moslem World, XII (1922), 238.
45 Ömer Ferruh. Tarîkh al-Fikr al-Arabî ilâ Ayyâm Ibn Khaldûn, 4th edition (Beirut: 1983), 380.
46 Ahmet Koç. İhvân-ı Safâ’nın Eğitim Felsefesi (Istanbul: Marmara Ün. İlahiyat Fakültesi Vakfı Yayınları,
1999), 48.
47 Şahin Filiz. İlk İslâm Hümanistleri –İhvân-ı Safâ Topluluğu ve İnsan Felsefesi (Konya: 11 Eylül Yayınları,
2002), 53.
48 Abel, ibid, 611.
49 İsmail Yakıt. İhvan-ı Safâ Felsefesinde Bilgi Problemi (Istanbul: Üçdal Neşriyat, 1985), 20.
50 Atademir, “Tahlil ve Tetkikler Adel Awa: “İhvan al-Safâ’nın Tenkid Kafası’”, 97.
51 Koç, İhvân-ı Safâ’nın Egitim Felsefesi, 219; Stern, Studies in Early Ismâ’ilism, Leiden 1983, 173; Nasr, İslâm
Kozmoloji Ögretilerine Giriş, 47; Poonawala, “Ikhwân al Safâ”, 93; Yves Marquet, “Ikhwân al-Safâ”, DSB, New
York 1981, XV, 249; Sheikh, Islamic Philosophy, 35.
52 İzmirli, İhvân-ı Safâ Felsefesi ve İslam’da Tekâmül Nazariyesi, 9.
53 R, IV, 18. These expressions are designated in the inner cover of the book of Ian Richard Netton that is the
most important study done in West concerning Ikhwan See. Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists, London 1982.
54 Şahin Filiz, “İhvân-ı Safâ Felsefesinde İnsan”, Makâlât, Konya 1999, 25.
55 Cavit Sunar, İbn Miskeveyh ve Yunan’da ve İslâm’da Ahlâk Görüşleri, Ankara 1980, 18.
17
VII. TRACTATES
this encyclopedia of religious and positive sciences had a deep effect on Islamic idea life
from Persia to Spain.65
It is undeniable fact that tractates as systematic philosophical trials have a pure poetical
and eclectic feature.56 Abel explains that he obtained mere big work, which is living as an
alive literature in some of the Muslim Indian areas, firstly in Calcutta.57 It is mentioned about
Hermes, Pythagoras, Socrates and Plato frequently but Aristotle is taken into account as more
notable. Aristotle is represented as “logician” and besides as the writer of Plotinus’s Theology
and Kitabû’l-Tuffah.58
In general, also in this encyclopedia, there is an established eclectic agnosticism59 towards
natural science and there are political aims beyond this.60 Tractates of Ikhwan al-Safa reflects
Ikhwan had a rational point of view because mind has a huge place in their philosophy.
However, as a result of this, their trial of reconciling science and religion did not take a positive
reaction from Islamic countries. Other idea schools, which see religion and faith above mind,
had an opponent attitude towards Ikhwan. It was claimed that mind does not have a real
measurement and because it is depended upon senses that mislead people, it is always skeptical.
Nevertheless, these ideas did not prevent the spread of Ikhwan idea to the various parts of
society. The idea of Ikhwan, which is known by many rational philosopher and thinker in
latter centuries, was accepted as the fundamental method of rational point of view.66
the philosophical life of 10th century as it reflects the political life of that century. At the same
time, the effects of philosophical atmosphere in this period are seen obviously in tractates.
Islamic mentality of this century was aware of Ancient Greek, Indian wisdom, Arabic and
Persian literature and other monotheistic and nonmonotheistic religions and cultures. The
Tractates combined these ideas and cultures.61
Tractates that was formed the first known encyclopedia can be accepted as the
summary of the sciences of their times.62 Besides, tractates performed the unique feature
and affected elite Muslims deeply. It designates their popularity and their effect that there
are many copies of their manuscripts.63 Ikhwan as the members of religious-political
movement spread tractates to a wide area by hiding their identities and they provided
tractates to become works used by people from all parts of society.64 On the other hand,
56Fahri, İslâm Felsefesi, Kelâmı ve Tasavvufuna Giriş, 82.
Bakımından Manası”, 605.
58 R, IV, 271.
59 R, I, 138, 226; II, 42; IV, 287.
60 T. J. De Boer, İslâm’da Felsefe Tarihi, trans. Y. Kutluay, Ankara 1960, 60; Geo Widengren, “The Gnostic
Technical Language in The Rasâ’il Ihkwân Al-Safâ”, Actas, Leiden, 1971, 182-183.
61 R, II, 42; Taha Hüseyin, “Mukaddime”, Rasâil Ikhwân al-Safâ wa Hillân al-Wafa, I, 10; Abel, “Basra’da
İhvânel-Safâ Muamması ve Bunun X. Yüzyılda Halifeler Devletinin Sosyal Tarihi Bakımından Manası”, 613.
62 Hamid İnayet, Çagdaş İslâmi Siyasî Düşünce, trans. Y. Ziya, 3rd edition (Istanbul: 1995), 27; M. Saaed Sheikh,
Islamic Philosophy, A Dictonary of Muslim Philosophy (Lahore: 1981), 33; Hüseyin Merruh, al-Nezeât alMâddiyye fi’l-felsefeti’l-Arabiyyeti’l-İslâmiyye, 8th. Edition (Beirut: 1985), II, 434.
63 Poonawala, “Ikhwân al Safâ”, 95; Sheikh, Islamic Philosophy, 34.
64 Poonawala, ibid, 92; Ahmet Zeki Paşa, “Fasl fî Rasâil Ikhwân al-Safâ”, Rasâil Ikhwân al-Safâ wa Hillân alWafâ, I, 18; Ferruh, op. cit., 378; MArruh, Al-Naza’ât al-Mâddiyya fi’l-falsafat al-Arabiyyat al-Islâmiyya, II,
365; al-Fâhûrî - al-Jarr, Târîkh al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, I, 225.
VIII. RELIGION IN THE PROCESS OF SOCIAL EVOLUTION
According to Ikhwan al-Safa, from Adam to Muhammad, the main reason of Allah’s
sending many prophets and religions to humanity is to provide both social and psychological
evolution of humanity. For Ikhwan al-Safa, Allah designated the basic elements like faith to
Allah and Judgment Day as unchanging principles.67 All coming new religions change the
system, which is related to social life and ideas of the previous period, partly or completely.68
Since Ikhwan al-Safa relates social evolution with religious renewals, this question comes to
mind that if as they accepted, the last and the most perfect religion is Islam, isn’t it necessary
to come new prophet and new religion after the period of social evolution? Ikhwan al-Safa
answers these questions as: the social evolution of humanity will continue, at the same time,
after Islam, neither new religion nor new prophet will come. Due to the fact that Islam is the
most perfect and last religion, it has a capability to satisfy social evolutions in future and the
role of prophet will be maintained by imams, curators, scholars and judgers as inheritors of
Muhammad.69
65 Bernard Lewis, Haşîşîler Ortaçağ İslâm Dünyasında Terörizm ve Siyaset, trans. A. Aktan (Istanbul: 1995).
66“el-İhvan-üs-Safâ”, Encylopedia of Meydan Larousse, IV, 191-192.
67 R, IV, 180; Mehmet Bayrakdar, İslâm’da Evrimci Yaratılış Teorisi, 2nd edition, Ankara 2001, 70.
68 R, II, 239; III, 487-488; Bayrakdar, a. g. e., 70.
69 R, III, 347; IV, 16, 124-126, 148; Bayrakdar, a. g. e.,70-71; al-Fâkhûrî-al-Jarr, Târîkh al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, I,
242-244; Ferruh, Ikhwân al-Safâ, 119.
19
IX. THE POSSIBILITY OF RELIGIOUS MORALITY
AND
THE PROBLEM OF THE ORIGIN OF MORALITY
are composed of the combination of Greek philosophy, Indian and Christian ideas and other
ideas.76 Even if Ikhwan al-Safa did not completely reconcile religion and philosophy, they
supplied an important progress in this topic. They had Mu’tezili and Shiíte drift in religion
and display an eclecticism sample in philosophy.76
Ikhwan give a big importance to the notion of morality. They feel themselves as compulsory
to mention about morality in all topics.70 Ikhwan al-Safa gathered the characteristic features
of many nations and put forward the ideal model of person: “a perfect person in respect to
ideal and morality should be Persian in responsibility, should be Arabian in faith, should be
Iraqi in politeness, should be Jew in guile, should be Christian in behavior, should be Syrian
in worship, should be Greek in science, should be Indian in explaining secrets and in the end
They wanted to use religion as taqiyya by going out of its aim. The reason of their
preferring of Islam and seeing its value above other religions is not derived from their being
“Muslim” in all things. The main reason is that Islam came with Shari’a in order to complete
the missing of Judaism, Christianity and Magianism.77 As a result, Ikhwan al-Safa adhered to
principles and essences of Islam, needed to support with Quran and Hadiths. They accepted
Islam as a final religion and our prophet as a final prophet.
should be like a Sufi in all spiritual life.”71
According to Ikhwan, reality is in all religions but people put suspicion in it. The
thing should be done is not criticizing the ways of people and telling the shames of people
but revising the defects by self-criticizing.72 Ikhwan al-Safa combine the elements of the
Mu’tazilites and the Shi’ities, rules of Torah, Bible, Mazdaism with Greek philosophy.73
Their combining these elements from different origins indicates their intention to
universal sect. It means that they look all religious and humanistic views with solely
one measurement and want to collect all humans in a common belief. Tevhidi reaches
this result from their views in tractates: Ikhwan al-Safa accepted all religions as equal.
They accepted Noah, Ibrahim, Socrates, Plato, Zoroaster, Mohammed, Ali, Jesus and his
apostles as their prophets, considered Alawites as casualties of the faith to mind, and
because of this accepted them.74
Ikhwan was subject to internal principles in all inner and outer things. They combine
X. POLITICAL ACTIVITIES OF IKHWAN AL-SAFA
The ensemble of Ikhwan al-Safa is a religious, philosophical and political community
and their relatives were in the position of the members of this religious-political movement.78
Ikhwan had a liberal and indulgent attitude towards other religions. They based religious
differences on incidental factors like race, settlement and time. Nonetheless, they thought
that these religious differences do not influence universality and unity of reality.79 In Ikhwan
al-Safa, there are the majority of age’s tendencies in the area of political wishes like in the area
of philosophical ideas.80
These intellectuals from Basra were well-educated people developing a syncretistic
philosophy that is suitable for a social class in which people who have effective experiences
science with religion and philosophy with the Shari’a.75 They became a school whose sayings
concerning human world and who come from various kinds of origins live together.
70 Kerem – al-Yâzîjî, A’lam al-Falsafat, op. cit., 417.
71 De Boer, İslâm’da Felsefe Tarihi, 67-68; R, II, 376; Sheikh, Islamic Philosophy, 40; Jeffery, “Eclecism in Islam”,
239; Ferruh, Tarîkh al-Fikri’l-Arabî, op. cit., 398; al-Fâkhûrî-al-Jarr, Târîkh al-Falsafat, op. cit., I, 233.
72 R, III, 501; Koç, İhvân-ı Safâ’nın Egitim Felsefesi, 27; Tibawi, “Further Studies on Ikhwân as-Safâ”, 66.
73 See R, III, 218.
74 Muhammad al-Behiy, İslâm Düşüncesinin İlahî Yönü, trans. S. Hizmetli, Ankara 1992, 453. (39th footnote);
Kerem – al-Yâzîjî, A’lam al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, 414; Ferruh, Ikhwân al-Safâ, 117; Lootfy Levonian, “The
Ikhwân al-Safâ and Christ”, The Moslem World, Harford 1945 in Islamic Philosophy, ed. Fuad Sezgin,
Frankfurt 1999, XXI, 27; al-Hamdanî, Bahthun Tarikhiyyun fî Rasâil Ikhwân al-Safâ wa Aqâid Ismailiyya
fiha, 28; Abdülemir Şemseddin, al-Falsafat al-Tarbawiyye ‘inda Ikhwân al-Safâ min Hilâl Dirâsatihim, Beiut
1988, 32.
75Sheikh, Islamic Philosophy, 33.
Hence, one of the symptoms of pluralism was hate for despotic and cruel government. Then
Additionally, firstly in 10th century princes could live merely by mugging of rich merchants.
76 Muhammed al-Behiy, İslâm Düşüncesinin İlahî Yönü, op. cit., 453. (39th footnote); Kerem – al-Yâzîjî, A’lam
al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, 414; Ferruh, Ikhwân al-Safâ, 117; Lootfy Levonian, “The Ikhwân al-Safâ and Christ”,
The Moslem World, 1945 in Islamic Philosophy, ed. Fuad Sezgin, Frankfurt 1999, XXI, 27; el-Hamdanî,
“Bahthun Tarikhiyyun fî Rasâil Ikhwân al-Safâ wa Aqâid Isma’iliyya fih”, 28; Abdülemir Shamsuddin, alFalsafat al-Tarbawiyya inde Ikhwân al-Safâ min Khilâl Dirâsatihim, Beirut 1988, 32.
77 Farrukh, İkhvânu’s- Safâ, 21-22.
78 Ülken, İslâm Düşüncesi, 170; al-Fâkhûrî - al-Jarr, Târîkh al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, I, 228.
79 Poonawala, a. g. m., 93; Marquet, “Ikhwân al-Safâ”, DSB, XV, 250; al-Fâhûrî - al-Jarr, op. cit., I, 234.
80 Abel, ibid, 606.
21
there was a step towards a doctrine that considers decline of empires after their rising as
help his brother and does not want everything he wants for himself also for his friend.85 The
compulsory. This step was by faith and sincerity.81
school and life of Ikhwan means indicating mercy and benignity for all things86; hence, rich
but ignorant brother helps poor but scholar brother.87
My brother, - Allah will help you and us by his own spirit- know that we are the
XI. THE PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL STRATEGY
OF COMMUNITY
group of friends, valuable and pure brothers. We slept in the cage of our father Adam
during the time that gives us back the events of time and its disasters. After this spread
among various nations, it continued until the time we saw the rise of our town on heaven
Secrecy is the primary essence for Ikhwan. Both in their main centers and in their branch
by the meeting of universal religion’s owner with his hometown88… My brother, do you
offices, it should be necessary that place must be secret and the entry of foreigners must be
want to escape together with us by embarking Noah’s ark? Before sky will cover with
impossible. Ikhwan made a lot of recommendation to his members about this issue:
fume, you will get rid of the flood of fire; then do like this and escape. Be sure about
waves and material see, do not be from getting drowned people.89
In definite times, our members should come together in a special parliament, it
It is enough to know that the sect of Ikwan al-Safa is composed of Mu’tezili and Shiíte
should not be let for the attendance of others (people who are out of Ikhwan), sciences of
Ikhwan should be discussed and secrets should be talked in this place.82
sects, Christianity, the ideas of Torah, Greek philosophy and philosophy of nature.90 The group
of Ikhwan was aware of the fact that they live in a chaos. They explain this situation to their
Besides, they object to elitist education in their life and thoughts. They believe in using
all religions and all philosophical, intellectual movements.83 Ikhwan al-Safa wanted to
members like following: “Know that doctrines and religious beliefs of people are different from
each other’s like difference of their bodies”.91
construct a religious system relying on Quran and the ideas of philosophers. Accusations
Ikhwan al-Safa ownself believed in searching for peaceful moral principles on the ground
about the contradictions in their system are probably because of their eclectic ideal structure.
of government order by saying that “loyalty is essence for fraternity, fraternity is essence for
Their interpretation of religious laws is most probably changeable due to secrecy of their
conversation,, conversation is essence for rehabilitation of social order, rehabilitation of social
activities.
order is essence for restoration of cities and restoration of cities is essence for the permanence
The member of Ikhwan saves love of his brothers in community and tries to maintain
of the world and the continuity of generation.”92
their well relationships. He prefers his brothers in community to his most close friends,
In that case, in the political project of Ikhwan, it is undeniable in society that there is an
as well. Therefore, spiritual dependence connection is regarded in community. Spiritual
authority for people that will apply the order given by religion and the rules among people.
connection is the one that gives a feel of one conscious, one idea and even one spirit in
Ikhwan al-Safa who consider this as the reason of emergence of government93 believed in the
different bodies.84
Each member of Ikhwan al-Safa does not believe that he can rise in faith if he does not
81
82
83
84
Abel, ibid, 608-609.
R, IV, 41.
Al-Fâhûrî - al-Jarr, ibid, 234.
R, IV, 48, 170; Kerem –al-Yâzîjî, A’lâm al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, 407-408; Jamâluddîn, Falsafat al-Tarbiyya inde
Ikhwân al-Safâ, 172.
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
R, IV, 55, 126-127, 134.
See. R, IV, 44.
R, IV, 54-55, 167; Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists, 103.
R, IV, 18; and see. R, I, 324.
R, IV, 18; II, 183; al-Risâlat al-Jâmi’a, 288.
Al-Behiy, ibid, 453 (39th footnote); Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists, 95.
Netton, op. cit., 95; R, III, 401. 92 R, II, 328.
Çagrıcı, İslâm Düşüncesinde Ahlâk, 53.
Ferruh, Tarîkh al-Fikr al-Arabî ilâ Ayyâm Ibn Khaldûn, 394.
23
need of searching for peaceful moral principles on the ground of government order by saying
hereafter, who are informed of the states of the other world, who have an intellectual, wise and
that “fellowship is ground for fraternity, fraternity is ground for love, and love is ground for
perfect teacher.99
the rehabilitation of social order”.94
The expressions of Ikhwan on this issue are very plain: “know that the way is long,
XII. SPIRITUAL GOVERNMENT
devils wait like bandits in the place of observation. Therefore, think and draw a lesson.
The life you will live alone can even be a troublesome life. You can have a comfortable
life merely by depending on Shari’a and people’s helping each other. Hence, you should
Ikhwan al-Safa invite people to live in a spiritual government in which science and goods
think and learn that you need for the help of your loyal brothers whose intercessions
are common.95 Their spiritual government is the one that does not have geographical borders
assist you to escape from hell and you need their cooperation that supply you entering
and does not refer to a definite region but that is painted by a philosophical spiritual color.96
paradise beyond all questions and raising the top of heaven.100
According to Ikhwan, people are composed of various social classes because of the
fact that some of them are upper than each other’s since birth. Some of the people are
As a result, according to Ikhwan, the highest happiness is the happiness of eternity.101
children of sovereigns, some of them are children of merchants and some are children of
poor people. For Ikhwan, this differentiation in society is the result of a wisdom. Since
human is not able to do all jobs of society, difference in social classes makes easy for each
class to do a definite job properly. In the notion of the society’s salvation, all social classes
XIII. THE UNITY OF RELIGIONS AND SECTS
help each other.97
In one section of tractates, the group of Ikhwan while mentioning about spiritual holy
Ikhwan designate a definite attitude towards all religions, sects and divisions.102 Ikhwan
cities, tried to defend that they actually descended from the Hanif tradition developing after
had a liberalistic attitude towards other religions. According to their view, differences in
the coming of the final prophet and philosophical perennis:
religions depend on incidental factors such as race, time and accommodation. Nevertheless,
they considered that these factors do not influence universality and unity of reality.103
My brothers! Know that we are the community of Ikhwan al-Safa, we are generous,
Even if Ikhwan commemorated the names of the religions of dualists, Christianity,
pure and sincere people. We slept in the cage of our father Adam during the time that
Jewishness, naturists, materialists, Mazdean, Sabi, polytheists, Hinduism and the names of
gives us back the events of time and its disasters. . After this spread among various
the sects depended on them Samirî, Gıyabî, Câlutî, Nasturî, Yakubî, Malkanî, Manî, Hürremî,
nations, it continued until the time we saw the rise of our town on heaven by the meeting
Mazdekî, Disânî, Behramî, Şemsî, Hâricî, Râfizî, Nâsibî, Kaderîye, Cehmîye, Mu’tezilî, Sünnî
of universal religion’s owner with his hometown…98
ve Cebrîye’ and even if Ikhwan sometimes quoted from their expressions, they definitely
declared that they are not members of these movements and religions.104 In addition, they
According to Ikhwan, the happiest people are the ones who comprehend the realities of
define themselves like following: “... We are far from all of them. Our sect is one, our belief is
property, who believe in doomsday, who know the laws of religion, who realize the works of
94 Şahin, “İlk İslâm Hümanistleri –İhvân-ı Safâ Topluluğu ve İnsan Felsefesi”, 70.
95 R, IV, 18, 171-172; Ferruh, Tarîkh al-Fikr al-Arabî ilâ Ayyâm Ibn Khaldûn, 380.
96 Al-Risâlat al-Jâmia, 294-295; Ferruh, op. cit., 31; Jamâluddîn, Falsafat al-Tarbiyya ‘inda Ikhwân al-Safâ, 232.
97 Ferruh, Tarîkh al-Fikr al-Arabî ilâ Ayyâm Ibn Khaldûn, 394.
98 R, IV, 18; Nasr, İslâm Kozmoloji Ögretilerine Giriş, 43-44.
99 R, IV, 49-50.
100 R, II, 139-140; see, R, III, 308, 375.
101 R, III, 516; Jamâluddîn, Falsafat al-Tarbiyya ‘inda Ikhwân al-Safâ, 134, 147.
102 R, III, 516; Jamâluddîn, Falsafat al-Tarbiyya ‘inda Ikhwân al-Safâ, 134, 147.
103 Poonawala, “Ikhwân al Safâ”, 93; Ferruh, Ikhwân al-Safâ, 124-125.
104 R, I, 217; II, 367; III, 371-372.
25
one, all of us are Muslims, we are not polytheist, hypocrite, sinner, murtap, sceptic, hesitant
unwillingly they did not interfere with the universality and unity of reality that is not destroyed
and perverter. We know our Allah, our giver of livelihood, our creator, the one who provides
by these kinds of features and differences.112
us to live and die”.105
The members of Ikhwan al-Safa do not denigrate anybody and do not impose any
According to a rumor, in 390th year of hijra, in Bagdad, a visitor from Spain can see “the
prejudgment for any religion by relying on their doctrines combining all religions and
existence of some meetings in which from all sects, Muslim, Orthodox, Mu’tezile, Persian,
sciences. They were talking with universal intelligence language by going up to a higher ideal
or all kind of heathens, Jewish and Christian discuss among themselves liberally. It could be
level from narrow religious and sectarian point of view. Although their tractates imply that
said that this is not anything different from the meetings of Ikhwan which are like “religion’s
they tend to Shi’ism, they were liberal in their views. Besides, nevertheless, they were not
parliament.”106
satisfied with any religion or sect in their time, they suggest their followers to choose a religion
Ikhwan preferring the ideas suitable for their rational thoughts from all religions and
because according to them, even the worst religion is better than atheism. They did not have
sects107 reject constraints and prohibitions of ideas which are believed by mind owners.108 At
any suspicion concerning the idea that Islam is the best among the existent religious and
the same time, they separate their ideal systems to parts by taking Islam religion as a centre:
Muhammad is the last and the most perfect of prophets.113
non-Islamic systems, Islamic sects. They accept schools supporting broken beliefs as nonIslamic ideas.
According to Ikhwan, controversies between religions and sects, between prophets
and philosophers are emerged because of the mentalities of societies about time and
109
Ikhwan al-Safa combine the elements of Mu’tezile and Shi’a sects, rules of Torah, Bible,
accommodation.114 Although Ikhwan, who were mentioning about the benefits of the variety
Mazdaism with Greek philosophy. Their combining these elements from different origins
of sects and ideas in the controversy of scholars115 and were working for combining all religions
indicates their intention to universal sect. It means that they look all religious and humanistic
and sciences,116 tend to Mu’tezile and Shi’ism in religion, they have an eclectic structure in
views with solely one measurement and want to collect all humans in a common belief.
philosophy.117
Tawhidi reaches this result from their views in tractates: Ikhwan al-Safa accepted all religions
It is understood that while they were fulfilling the attempt of religious satisfaction, which
as equal. They accepted Noah, Ibrahim, Socrates, Plato, Zoroaster, Mohammed, Ali, Jesus
is not usual in Sunni tradition,118 they also rejected elitist inclination in their life and ideas. In
and his apostles as their prophets, considered Alawites as casualties of the faith to mind, and
this context, they believe in utilizing from all religions, philosophical and ideal movements.119
because of this accepted them.110
Ikhwan, who see adaptation as a key concept in their methodology, adapted ideas from other
Ikhwan al-Safa that follow an eclectic method while realizing their aims use all kind
religions and philosophical doctrines for their aims. The contradictions in tractates indicate
of religious, philosophical and scientific knowledge when it is necessary. The attitude and
that central features of Medieval Middle East ideas and all other foreign effects and notions
dialogue of Ikhwan towards religious groups have a special value for an idea historian. These
creating the pattern of tractates do not integrate successfully.120 Ikhwan, who did not content
encyclopedists thought that religious differences are arrived from incidental factors as race,
time and accommodation and even individual character factors.111 However, willingly or
105 R, II, 367.
106 Atademir, “Tahlil ve Tetkikler”; Adel Awa: “İhvan al-Safâ’nın Tenkid Kafası”, 98.
107 Emin, Zuhru’l-İslâm, I, 151; Jamâluddîn, op. cit., 115.
108 Ferruh, Ikhwân al-Safâ, 124.
109 R, II, 367; Ferruh, ibid, 124-127; Davidson, “The Brothers of Sincerity”, 442.
110 R, I, 363; IV, 34-35, 167; al-Bahiy, İslâm Düşüncesinin İlahî Yönü, 453 (39th footnote); Emin, Zuhru’l-İslâm,
I, 155; Ferruh, op. cit., 117; Kerem – al-Yâzîjî, A’lam al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, 420-421; Şemseddin, al-Felsefet
al-Tarbawiyya inde Ikhvân al-Safâ min Hilâl Dirâsatihim, 70; Jamâluddîn, Falsafat al-Tarbiyya inde Ikhwân
al-Safâ, 20, 105.
111 See. R, IV, 28, 53, 73, 74, 117; III, 72.
112 110 See. R, I, 49, 268-269, 440; III, 89, 94, 332, 424, 512; IV, 19, 25, 34-36, 42, 58, 117 167, 175; al-Risâlat
al-Jâmia, 135, 132; Uysal, İhvân-ı Safâ Felsefesinde Tanrı ve Alem, 25; Uysal “İhvân-ı Safâ” in the DIA, 2;
Koç, İhvân-ı Safâ’nın Egitim Felsefesi, 46; İzmirli, “İslâm’da Felsefe Cereyanları (3)”, 3; Netton, Muslim
Neoplatonists, 46-48; Ferruh, Tarîkh al-Fikri’l-Arabî, op. cit., IV. 390-391; Fuad, “Takdîm ve Dirâsah”, 16-17.
113 R, IV, 167; C. A. Kadir, “İhvân-ı Safâ”, İslâm’da Bilgi ve Felsefe, ed. M. Armagan (İstanbul: 1997), 111-112;
Kazım Sarıkavak, Düşünce Tarihinde Urfa ve Harran, Ankara 1997, 129-130.
114 Al-Fâkhûrî – al-Jarr, op. cit., 246.
115 R, III, 490.
116 Yakıt - Durak, İslâm’da Bilim Tarihi, 153; Hicâb, al-Falsafat al-Siyasiyya ‘inda Ikhwân al-Safâ, 219.
117 Sheikh, Islamic Philosophy, 33.
118 Jeffery, “Eclecism in Islam”, 238.
119 Al-Fâkhûrî – al-Jarr, op. cit., I, 234.
120 Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists, 106-107; Ferruh, Ikhwân al-Safâ, 43.
27
with the existing religions, suggest everyone to choose one of them. According to their point
XIV. SOCIAL OPINION
of view, a defective religion is better than atheism because in a religion there is a notion of
reality. Everybody should be free in choosing the religion he wants. Nonetheless, he should
avoid from contradictory ideas and defective beliefs. Scholar person cannot believe in two
opposite religions.121 According to Ikhwan al-Safa, who have a liberal attitude towards the
freedom of faith and speech, there should not be enforcement in religion. They supported the
idea that constraint is the job of laws by the guide of the principle “there is no enforcement in
religion”.
The verification of religion by heart is because of this. Adversely, the laws of religion
are social arrangements that should be obligatorily obeyed in order to maintain security and
prosperity of society.
122
When the above sayings are taken into an account, it can be said that
according to Ikhwan, if religion is a sincere problem and the rest of it depends on people’s
conceiving themselves, it is not the issue to mention about enforcement in religion.123
Ikhwan had a liberalistic attitude towards other religions. According to their view,
differences in religions depend on incidental factors such as race, time and accommodation.
Nevertheless, they considered that these factors do not influence universality and unity of
reality.124 Ikhwan as talking about Islam, mentioned about Christianity and other religions’
ideas, as well.
125
Therefore, the idea of Ikhwan could be seen as connected to world’s belief
environment rather the school of religious beliefs that has one idea in the centre of Islam and
the series of lines spreading light towards outside. Ikhwan have just one focus they infer from
revelation and support with a various beliefs they have a relationship. Nevertheless, this focus
is the universal concept of purity not of Islam.126
According to Ikhwan, a person cannot live alone. The life he will live alone can even be
a troublesome life because he needs various arts in order to go on a good life. It is impossible
to reach this alone because life is short but arts are various. Therefore, they make obligatory
for many people to deal with an art, for some people to deal with trade, for some of them to
deal with construction of cities, with politics, with science and teaching and for some of them
to deal with fulfilling society’s needs. The job sharing between father, mother and children in
a home is the same, as well. This job sharing among all people is to encourage people to work
and to produce arts. By this way, each person can remunerate.127
Their community is described as communal or fraternal. It is explained to people accepted
for the membership of this group that they should help and support each other until they
reach their objectives. The members of this community were selected among young people
who are lively, willing and tend to change the minds rather than old people who are against of
reform and all types of change.128
According to Ikhwan, people are composed of various social classes because of the fact
that some of them are upper than each other since birth. Some of the people are children of
sovereigns, some of them are children of merchants and some are children of poor people.
For Ikhwan, this differentiation in society is the result of wisdom. Since human is not able to
do all jobs of society, difference in social classes makes easy for each class to do a definite job
properly. In the notion of the society’s salvation, all social classes help each other.129
CONCLUSION
In Ikhwan al-Safa community emerging in the last period of Abbasid Government when
religious, philosophical and political rivalry was widespread, there is a scene that it aimed to
reform intellectual side of Islamic society by putting forward unity and solidarity, fraternity,
121 Ferruh, op. cit., İslam Düşüncesi Tarihi, I, 346.
122 R, IV, 460; Ferruh, op. cit., I, 346-347; Ferruh, Tarîkh al-Fikr al-Arabî ilâ Ayyâm Ibn Khaldun, 392.
123 R, IV, 460; Kadir, “İhvân-ı Safâ”, 112; see, Ian Richard Netton, Muslim Neoplatonists, 49; Farruh, Tarîkhu’lFikri’l-Arabî ilâ Eyyâm-i İbn-i Haldûn, 390; Ferruh, İhvânu’s- Safâ, 187-196.
124Poonawala, “Ikhwân al Safâ”, 93; Marquet, “Ikhwân al-Safâ”, DSB, XV, 250; al-Fâkhûrî – al-Jarr,
Târîhu’lFelsefeti’l-Arabiyye, 3rd edition, Beiut 1993, I, 234.
125 Al-Fâkhûrî – al-Jarr, Târîkh al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, I, 236.
126 Ibid.
assistance and cohesiveness. Tractates produced by Ikhwan al-Safa transfer the philosophical
127 R, I, 99-100; II, 140-141; III, 308, 375; Şahin Filiz, “İhvân-ı Safâ Felsefesinde İnsan Sorunu”, Makâlât, Konya
1999, 57; Merruh, al-Nazaâtu’l-Mâddiyye fi’l-Falsafati’l-Arabiyyat al-Islâmiyya, II, 378; al-Fâkhûrî – al-Jarr,
Târîkh al-Falsafat al-Arabiyya, I, 279; Ferruh, İhvânu’s- Safâ, 134; Jamâluddîn, op. cit., 233-234.
128 R, IV, 52.
129 Ferruh, Tarîkh al-Fikr al-Arabî ilâ Ayyâm Ibn Khaldûn, 394.
29
life although it is not very comprehensive as they reflect the general political atmosphere
philosophy with the Shari’a. They became a school whose sayings are composed of the mix of
of 10th century. The reflection of philosophical atmosphere of that period is seen obviously
Greek philosophy, Indian and Christian ideas and other ideas. Although they had Mu’tezili
in tractates. Islamic mentality of this century was aware of Ancient Greek, Indian wisdom,
and Shiíte drift in religion, they displayed an eclecticism sample in philosophy. Ikhwan as
Arabic and Persian literature and other monotheistic and non-monotheistic religions and
talking about Islam, mentioned about Christianity and other religions’ ideas, as well. Therefore,
cultures. The Tractates combined these ideas and cultures.
the idea of Ikhwan could be seen as connected to world’s belief environment rather the school
The effect of Ikhwan al-Safa went beyond the time and place in which they produced their
of religious beliefs that has one idea in the centre of Islam and the series of lines spreading
works. Their doctrines became a guide directing cosmological sciences during the history of
light towards outside. Ikhwan have just one focus they infer from revelation and support with
Islam by being kneaded in the general perspective and spirit of Islam. Thus, this encyclopedia
a various beliefs they have a relationship. Nevertheless, this focus is the universal concept of
of religious and positive sciences had a deep effect on the Islamic idea life from Persia to Spain.
purity not of Islam.
When tractates are evaluated from a scientific perspective, they present the picture
Finally, we can say that Ikhwan achieved a model for governments and societies after them
of mental life especially ideal side of 10 century. They are the first book gathering all
in Asia by its organization structure it transfers theoretical area to practical. Nevertheless,
subdisciplines. At the same time, tractates are the first attempt made for education by
unfortunately, Islamic geography has still troubles in the area of democratic attempts that
scientific and philosophical methods. Ikhwan designates that their aim is to struggle with
are pluralist, liberal, law and justice grounded and highlighting individuals/people. Besides,
bigotry, to clean religious idea, which is polluted by superstitions and wrong information, with
insistent high-pitched voicing of demands of societies for freedom and justice in Asia and
philosophy, to make philosophy dominant over their sciences, and to create an intellectuals
other regions shows the signs of “world” described by Ikhwan al-Safa and shows that new
class and morality that will reform community. In addition to this, it is possible to claim that
doors will open for shaping the order/system.
th
their aim is to construct a religion with philosophical ground and spread it to all parts of
Islamic society; then, to integrate all religions under one religion via philosophy of religion.
Thus, they utilized from the views of all religions while writing tractates.
While evaluating the community of Ikhwan al-Safa, it is a big injustice for them to accept
as they engage in a definite sect. Their place is not a sect the researchers who study for them
are connected to, as well. All political or religious groups, sects and schools claim that Ikhwan
al-Safa are from their groups and so Ikhwan al-Safa are the supporters and propagandists
of their ways. Therefore, all wings see and show that Ikhwan al-Safa are their parts. In real,
Ikhwan is the delegate of an organization over and above all sects. While they are saying that
knowledge starts with senses, they close to the ideas of naturists but while designating that
senses are deceptive, they direct to skepticism. While saying that, reality can be obtained
solely by cleaning spirit, they think like mystics. However, they see mysticism not as a system
but as a mental vehicle for reaching supreme knowledge.
Even though it is seen in Ikhwan’s program that there is domination of philosophy of
religion, they tried to reconcile intelligence and transferred sayings, wisdom and inspiration,
and, philosophy and religion in a spiritual atmosphere. In this frame, Ikhwan was subject
to internal principles in all inner and outer things. . They combine science with religion and
31

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