HİBRİD ARAÇLAR - Abdullah Demir

HİBRİD VE ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR
TEMEL BİLGİLER
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
SERİ, PARALEL, SERİ-PARALEL VE KOMPLEKS HİBRİD
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Abdullah DEMİR
«Her tercih bir vazgeçiştir»
SEKTÖRÜN DURUMU
Toyota’nın 1997 yılında ilk seri
üretim hibrid otomobilini piyasaya
sunmasının ardından 2014 yılı
sonuna kadar geçen süre içinde
hibrid otomobil satışlarının da
yaklaşık 7 milyon 339 bine ulaştığı
bildirilen açıklamada, bugün itibari
ile 90 ülkede 27 farklı hibrid binek
otomobil ve 1 adet Plug-in Hybrid
modele sahip olan Toyota'nın 2015
yılı sonuna kadar 15 yeni hibrit
aracın daha lansmanını planladığı
kaydedildi.
2015
yılında
en
öncelikli
konularımızdan
biri
devrim
niteliğinde bir yenilik olan hibrid
teknolojisi olacaktır. Bugün dünyada
7 milyondan fazla hibrid otomobil
satışı gerçekleştiren marka olarak
dünyanın çoğu ülkesinde bilinen ve
tercih edilen bu teknolojinin
ülkemizde de yaygınlaşması için 2015
yılında hibrid teknolojisine ağırlık
verilecek. B segmentinin ilk ve tek
hibrit otomobili Yaris Hybrid
olacaktır.
http://www.fortuneturkey.com/toyota-satislarini-yuzde-25-artirdi-7537;
30.01.2015
http://www.aksam.com.tr/futureandtrends/hibrit-satislari-2015te-dahada-artacak/haber-366816 - 29 Aralık 2014
SEKTÖRÜN DURUMU
Ocak-Aralık 2014 döneminde, 85 kW
altı 22, 121 kW üstü ise 25 adet
olmak üzere toplam 47 elektrikli
otomobil satışı gerçekleştirildi.
Bu rakam 2013 yılında ise 85 kW
altında
31
adet
olarak
gerçekleşmişti. 85 kW altı satışlarda
yüzde 29'luk gerileme olsa da 121
kW
üstü
elektrikli
otomobil
satışlarıyla birlikte bu pazardaki
toplam
büyüme
geçen
yıl
51,6'lık artış gösterdi.
http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/yerel-haberler/Izmir-Haberleri/elektrikliotomobil-satisi-yuzde-51-artti_38897 - 13.01.2015
2015 yılı Ocak ayında, 85kW altı 3
adet ve 121kW üstü 2 adet olmak
üzere, toplam 5 adet elektrikli
otomobil satışı gerçekleşti.
2015 yılı Ocak ayında otomobil
pazarı ortalama emisyon değerlerine
göre incelendiğinde, en yüksek paya
yine yüzde 43,13 oranıyla 100-120
gr/km
arasındaki
otomobiller
(10.567 adet) ve ardından yüzde
29,92 pay ile 120-140 gr/km
arasındaki otomobiller (7.331 adet )
sahip oldu.
http://www.fortuneturkey.com/otomobil-ve-hafif-ticari-arac-pazari-2015ocakta-yuzde-6-artti-7773 - 04.02.2015
YAKIT/ENERJİ VE TAHRİK SİSTEMLERİ
Tahrik Sistemleri
Sıvı
Yakıtlar
Konvansiyonel ICE:
Benzin / Dizel
Kömür
Doğal Gaz
Gaz ICE
Gaz
Yakıtlar
ICE Hibrid
Plug-In Hibrid ICE
Biokütle
Elektrik
Diğer Kaynaklar
(Güneş, Rüzgar, Hidro)
Nükleer
Elektrikli Araç
Electric Vehicle
Hidrojen
Yakıt Hücresi/Pili
Elektriklenme
Petrol (petrol, gaz)
Enerji Taşıyıcıları
Pil / Akü
Enerji Kaynakları
EKOLOJİK SORUNLAR
KAYNAKLARIN TÜKENMESİ
İKLİM DEĞİŞİMİ VE KURAKLIK
OZON OLUŞUMU
ASİT YAĞMURLARI
CO2 emisyonu [g/km]
• 1996 184
• 1997 182
• 1998 179
• 1999 174
• 2000 170
• 2001 166
• 2008 140
• 2012 130
• 2015 120 ACAE (European
Automobile Manufacturers
Association) hedefi
Okuma Parçası: KÜRESEL ISINMA VE İKLİM DEĞİŞİKLİĞİ
• Ne kadar çok karbondioksit o kadar çok sıcaklık demek.
• Küresel ısınma, sera gazı olan karbondioksitin salınımının artmasından dolayı
dünyanın ortalama sıcaklığının yükselmesi demek.
• Güneşteki patlamalar, dünyanın yörüngesindeki sapmalar, volkanik
patlamalar ve tektonik hareketler nedeniyle Dünya 150 bin yılda bir yaklaşık
bir derece ısınıyor ya da soğuyordu. Böylece iklimler değişiyordu. Oysa
1850’den sonra 150 bin yılda yaşanan 1 derecelik artış 150 yılda gerçekleşti.
Yani dünya 1000 kat hızlı ısındı. Bunun adı ani iklim değişikliği. Ekolojik
sistem bu duruma ayak uyduramıyor. Havadaki karbon miktarı ve kalış süresi
giderek artıyor. Dedemin dedesinin yaktığı çöpün karbondioksiti hâlâ havada!
• Yani küresel ısınma ile yağışlar azalmayacak yere düşüş şekli ve bölgesi
değişecek.
• Havanın hafızası yok, ‘7 yıl oldu Türkiye’ye bir kuraklık yapayım’ demiyor!
• Kuraklık başka bir şey su kıtlığı başka... Türkiye gibi yarı kurak bir coğrafyada,
İstanbul gibi daracık bir bölgede su havzalarının kapasitesinin 5-6 katı nüfus
yerleştirirseniz, 2 kat yağış olsa bile su kıtlığı yaşanır. İklim değişikliği ve hava
durumu su kıtlığının son nedenidir. Yanlış arazi planlaması, sanayi bölgelerinin
yanlış seçilmesi, su havzalarının yerleşime açılması ya da kirletilmesi su kıtlığının
asıl nedenidir. Yağmurlar iklim değişikliğinden dolayı azaldı, yağan yağmuru da
hasat edemiyoruz.
Mikdat Kadıoğlu: Kanal, 3. köprü ve havalimanı İstanbul'un iklimini etkilemez!, Kübra Par/Habertürk Gazetesi, 17 Şubat 2014, Pazartesi
Okuma Parçası: KÜRESEL ISINMA VE İKLİM DEĞİŞİKLİĞİ
• 1960’lı yıllarla 2000’li yılları karşılaştırdığımız zaman
Dünyada meteorolojik felaketlerin 3 kat arttığını görüyoruz.
• İstanbul’da, o kadar çok beton yüzey var ki dev projelerin
iklim değişikliğine etkisi fazla olmaz.
• Şehirlerin iklimini 3 şey etkiler. Aşırı tozlar, şehir ısı adası ve
yağmur.
• İstanbul’da klasik hava kirliliği yok, inşaatlardan çıkan tozların
ve egzozlardan çıkan fotokimyasalların etkisiyle modern hava
kirliliği var. Binaların çektiği ısıyla şehrin üstünde bir kubbe
oluşuyor ve kar yağdığında aşağı inemeden eriyor. Ayrıca
şehrin üstüne gelen yağmur bulutları havadaki toz
partiküllerinin etkisiyle aşırı tohumlanıyor, yağmur taneleri
küçülüyor ve yağış azalıyor.
Mikdat Kadıoğlu: Kanal, 3. köprü ve havalimanı İstanbul'un iklimini etkilemez!, Kübra Par/Habertürk Gazetesi, 17 Şubat 2014, Pazartesi
MEVCUT TEKNOLOJİ İLE YAKIT EKONOMİSİ VE EMİSYON
AZALTIMI
CO2 emisyonu [g/km]
Üzerinde Çalışılan Teknolojiler
%
• 1996 184
• 1997 182
Optimize edilmiş motorlar
3-10
Düşük yuvarlanma direncine sahip lastik teknolojisi
2
Aerodinamik
2
Hacim küçültme
10
Termodinamik yönetimi
5-7
Start stop sistemi
3-10
Toplam
25-40
2010
98%
• 1998 179
• 1999 174
• 2000 170
• 2001 166
• 2008 140
• 2012 130
• 2015 120 ACAE (European
Automobile Manufacturers Association)
hedefi
2035’de
Hala araçlardaki
motorların %50’sinden
fazlası içten yanmalı
motor…
Kaynak: Fehre, N., Schneider, H., “Hybrids and Electric Vehicles: Hype or sustainable investment? The truth about market potential and
investment ideas”, Industrials/Global Autos – Equities, 13 October 2009.
The mass-specific and volume-specific heat
values and densities of various fossil fuels
Bernd Heißing | Metin Ersoy (Eds.); Chassis Handbook - Fundamentals, Driving Dynamics, Components, Mechatronics, Perspectives With 970 figures and 75
tables; 1st Edition 2011
Notlar:
MPG = mil/gal
1 gal = 4,54 litre (UK)
1 gal = 3,78 litre (US)
1 barrel petroluen = 42 gal =
158,99 litre (ham petrol) [US]
1 mil= 1609 m
In 2009, the US government
announced its new CAFE
standard, requiring that all
car manufacturers achieve
an average fuel economy of
35 MPG by 2020. This is
equivalent to 6.7 l/100 km.
CAFE - Corporate Average Fuel Economy = Birleşik Ortalama Yakıt Verimliliği,
Kurumsal Ortalama Yakıt Ekonomisi
NHTSA - National Highway Traffic Safety Administration = Ulusal Otoyol Trafik
Güvenliği Yönetimi/İdaresi/Komisyonu
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HATIRLATMA:
Yakıt tüketimi:
Yakıt tüketim testleri/değerleri, genellikle 2004/3/EC ile düzeltilmiş AB Direktifi
80/1268/EEC'ye göre yapılmaktadır. Ayrıca AB’nin RL 1999/100/CE normuna göre de
değerler verilmektedir. Araçların teknik özelliklerinin belirtildiği broşür ya da kullanıcı el
kitaplarındaki şehir içi, şehir dışı ve ortalama yakıt tüketim değerlerinin hangi
direktiflere göre tespit edildiği genellikle ilgili bölümde dipnot olarak belirtilmektedir.
80/1268/EEC direktifi yakıt tüketimi değerleri: Laboratuar ortamında ve
belirli koşullarda yapılan testlerde elde edilen, l/100 km mertebesinde sonuçları
göstermektedir. Bu direktife göre:
Şehir içi yakıt tüketimi, laboratuar ortamında soğuktan çalıştırılmış motor ile 4 km'lik
teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 50 km/h ve ortalama 19 km/h hızla ölçülmüş
yakıt tüketim değerlerdir.
Şehir dışı yakıt tüketimi ise şehir içi ölçümünden hemen sonra gerçekleştirilen, 7 km'lik
teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 120 km/h hıza ulaşacak şekilde, yarı zamanlı sabit
hız ve yarı zamanlı değişken hızla ölçülmüş yakıt tüketim değerleridir.
Karma/Birleşik tüketim değeri ise şehir içi ve şehir dışı testlerinin kat edilen mesafe
ölçüsüyle ağırlıklı ortalaması alınarak hesaplanmaktadır.
Ortalama yakıt tüketimi; otomobil yaklaşık %37 normal şehir içi trafikte ve yaklaşık %63
şehir dışı trafikte kullanılarak elde edilir.
TAŞIT TEKNOLOJİLERİNDEKİ ARAYIŞLAR
Dünyamızın doğal yapısının korunmasına yönelik zorlamalar,
otomobil üreticilerini performanstan ödün vermeden daha çevreci
arayışlara doğru itmektedir. Bu arayışlar içerisinde; daha küçük
silindir hacmi ile daha az sürtünme ve ağırlık, daha az hareketli
kütleler, turbo besleme sayesinde torkun geniş devir bandına yayılması,
çift beslemeyle (turbo ve kompresör) turbo boşluğunun azaltılması ya
da tamamen yok edilmesi, değişken supap zamanlaması, dur-kalk
sistemleri, farklı malzemelerle ağırlık azaltılması, gelişmiş direk
enjeksiyon sistemleri, motorda sürtünmelerin azaltılması, düşük
sürtünmeli yağlayıcılar, silindirlerin devre dışı bırakılması, kamsız
supap işletimi, otomatikleştirilmiş manüel şanzıman uygulamaları ve
8-10 ileri kademeli manüel vites kutularının kullanımı, entegre marşalternatör üniteleri, ultra fakir karışımlı direk enjeksiyonlu motorlar,
araçta uzman/akıllı ısı yönetimi, dizel motorlarda piezo-enjektör
kullanımı ve bir çevrimde birden çok enjeksiyon (split injection) gibi
konular üzerinde yoğun çalışmalar yürütülmektedir [1].
ALTERNATİF YAKITLI ARAÇLARIN BAŞARISINDAKİ KISITLAR
 Alternatif teknolojili taşıtlar için yüksek ilk yatırım maliyeti (High
first cost for vehicle)
 Sınırlı yakıt depolama durumları [On-board fuel storage issues (i.e.
Limited range)]
 Emniyet ve yükümlülük konuları (Safety and liability concerns)
 Yüksek yakıt dolum maliyetleri [High fueling cost (compared to
gasoline)]
 Sınırlı dolum/şarj istasyonları [Limited fuel stations: chicken and egg
problem]
 Mevcut trendlerdeki gelişmeler [better, cleaner gasoline vehicles].
Kaynak: Joseph Romm, “The car and fuel of the future”, Energy Policy 34 (2006) 2609–2614.
GELİŞMİŞ ARAÇ TAHRİK TEKNOLOJİ STRATEJİSİ
Geliştirilmiş Yakıt
Ekonomisi ve
Emisyonlar
2009-2020
Hidrojen Yakıt Pili - Elektrik
Batarya-Elektrikli Araçlar
(E-Flex)
Hibrid-Elektrikli Araçlar (Plugin Araçlar dahil)
İçten Yanmalı Motor ve
Şanzıman Gelişmeleri
Zaman
Enerji Çeşitliliği
Petrol (Konvensiyonel ve Alternatif Kaynaklar)
Biyoyakıtlar (Ethanol E85, Biyodizel)
Elektrik (Konvensiyonel ve Alternatif Kaynaklar)
Hidrojen
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
2020’de tüm
yeni araçların
%10 plug-in
fonksiyonlu olacak
Şekil 3: 2025 Vizyonu bağlamında elektrikleştirme derecesi.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Uluslararası
Elektroteknik
Komisyonunun
Teknik
Komitesi
(Elektrikli yol araçları) tarafından verilen
tanıma göre: Hibrid elektrikli araç,
enerjinin iki ya da daha fazla enerji
deposundan sağlandığı ve bu enerji
depolarından en az bir tanesinin
elektrik enerjisi verdiği bir araç olarak
ifade edilmiştir.
Honda Insight
Hibrid elektrikli araç daha çok
hem içten yanmalı motorun
(İYM) hem de elektrikli motorun
kullanıldığı araç olarak kabul
edilmektedir.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”, ISBN 978-0-47074773-5, 2011.
HİBRİT ARAÇLAR
Interdisciplinary Nature of HEVs
HEVs involve the use of electric machines, power electronics converters, and
batteries, in addition to conventional ICEs and mechanical and hydraulic
systems. The interdisciplinary nature of HEV systems can be summarized as
in Figures. The HEV field involves engineering subjects beyond traditional
automotive engineering, which was mechanical engineering oriented. Power
electronics, electric machines, energy storage systems, and control systems
are now integral parts of the engineering of HEVs and PHEVs.
In addition, thermal management is also important in HEVs and PHEVs,
where the power electronics, electric machines, and batteries all require a
much lower temperature to operate properly, compared to a non-hybrid
vehicle’s powertrain components.
Modeling and simulation, vehicle dynamics, and vehicle design and
optimization also pose challenges to the traditional automotive engineering
field due to the increased difficulties in packaging the components and
associated thermal management systems, as well as the changes in vehicle
weight, shape, and weight distribution.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR - Interdisciplinary Nature of HEVs
The general nature and required engineering field by HEVs
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”, ISBN 978-0-47074773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
When compared to gasolinepowered cars, EVs and HEVs:
• were more expensive than
gasoline cars due to the large
battery packs used;
• were less powerful than gasoline
cars due to the limited power
from the onboard battery;
• had limited range between each
charge;
• and needed many hours to
recharge the onboard battery. /
Chapter -1
Honda Insight
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”, ISBN 978-0-47074773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
A short history of hybrid & electric cars
 1825
 Steam Engine Car, British inventor Goldsworthy
 85 miles round trip took 10 hours (14 km/h)
 1870
 First electric car was build in Scotland
 1897
 The London Electric Cab Company used a 40-cell battery and 3
horsepower electric motor,
 Could be driven 50 miles between charges
 1898
 The German Dr. Porsche, at age 23, Built the world's first frontwheel-drive
 Porsche's second car was a hybrid, using an internal combustion
engine to spin a generator that provided power to electric motors
located in the wheel hubs. On battery alone, the car could travel
nearly 40 miles
Heydar Ali Palizban PhD, Hybrid and Electric Vehicles - An overview, Feb 28, 2009
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
History: The world’s automotive history
turned to a new page in 1997 when the first
modern hybrid electric car, the Toyota Prius,
was sold in Japan. This car, along with Honda’s
Insight and Civic HEVs, has been available in
the United States since 2000. These early
HEVs marked a radical change in the types of
cars offered to the public: vehicles that take
advantage of the benefits of both battery EVs
and conventional gasoline-powered vehicles.
At the time of writing, there are more than 40
models of HEVs available in the marketplace
from more than 10 major car companies. /
[Chapter 1]
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”, ISBN 978-0470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
State of the Art of HEVs
•
•
•
•
In the past 10 years, many HEVs have been deployed by the major
automotive manufacturers.
It is clear that HEV sales have grown significantly over the last 10
years. In 2008, these sales had a downturn which is consistent with
conventional car sales that dropped more than 20% in 2008 from the
previous year.
Another observation is that most HEV sales belong to Toyota, which
manufactured the earliest modern HEV, the Prius, and also makes
most of the models available (including the Lexus).
In the case of the Toyota Prius, the comparison is made to the Toyota
Corolla. It can be seen that the price of HEVs is generally 40% more
than that of their base models. The increase in fuel economy in
HEVs is also significant, in particular for city driving.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN SINIFLANDIRILMASI
HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN SINIFLANDIRILMASI
For example, a HEV with a motor rated at 50 kW and an engine rated at 75 kW
will have a hybridization ratio of 50/(50+75) kW= 40%. A conventional
gasoline-powered vehicle will have a 0% hybridization ratio and a battery EV
will have a hybridization ratio of 100%. A series HEV will also have a
hybridization ratio of 100% due to the fact that the vehicle is capable of being
driven in EV mode.
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
MILLER CYCLE ENGINE
Otto motorlardan farkı olarak, Miller
çevrimi motorlarda, 4 zamanlı
motorlardaki sıkıştırma sürecinde
ortaya çıkan enerji kaybı daha
düşüktür.
Patenti
Amerikalı
mühendis Ralph Miller tarafında 1940
yılında alınmıştır. İlk örnekleri
gemilerde
ve
güç
üretim
istasyonlarında kullanılmıştır.
ÖRNEK UYGULAMA: MILLER CYCLE ENGINE
Mazda’s naturally-aspirated MZR 1.3L Miller-cycle engine
delays the closure of the intake valves to improve the thermal
efficiency (high expansion ratio). Sequential-valve timing (SVT) is also employed to optimize intake valve timing and ensure
sufficient torque for cruising and accelerating.
Miller Cycle | Sequential Valve Timing (S-VT) | Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/982-miller-cycle-sequential-valve-timing-s-vt-continuously-variable-transmission-cvt/
MILLER CYCLE ENGINE
Miller Cycle | Sequential Valve Timing (S-VT) | Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/982-miller-cycle-sequential-valve-timing-s-vt-continuously-variable-transmission-cvt/
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
http://m.searchautoparts.com/motorage/training/old-engine-designs-are-new-again
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
http://m.searchautoparts.com/motorage/training/old-engine-designs-are-new-again
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
http://liquidpiston.com/technology/hehc-cycle/
Note: High Efficiency Hybrid Cycle (HEHC)
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
The Atkinson cycle engine is
definitely not a new design having
been invented in 1882. Because the
cycle has advantages when applied to
hybrids, the 1882 invention is
enjoying a period of popularity. See
Figure, which shows the various
strokes of a four-stroke engine with
intermediate positions as well.
Key features of Atkinson cycle are
a long expansion stroke which
allows extraction of more energy.
The short compression stroke
reduces pumping losses. The design
allows retaining and designing any
compression ratio desired. The results
are improved engine efficiency which
is provided at the expense of power.
Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
That is the good news; now for the bad
news. Due to the reduced charge,
discussed presently, the power is reduced
compared to the same engine of equal
displacement. “Charge” is the maximum
mass of fuel plus air in the cylinder;
usually this mass occurs when the piston
is at TDC and all valves are (nearly)
closed ready for expansion stroke.
Some relevant definitions: as crankshaft
angle passes through 0°, the piston
pauses and stops; hence the word “dead”
to describe top dead center (TDC).
Closing all valves for improved
regenerative braking. Engine operation
is analogous to lowloss motion of a
spring with a mass, m. The minimum
loss for an engine is attained with all
valves closed.
Lowloss: Az kayıplı
Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
An open intake valve is like
leaving the door open; the
charge leaks out. Compression
is
delayed
creating
a
shortened
compression
stroke, which is one feature
of the Atkinson cycle (see
sketch C). Sketch F shows full
expansion stroke, which is
another feature of the Atkinson
cycle.
Figure provides an excellent
way to understand reduced
pumping losses from the
Atkinson cycle as applied to a
four-stroke
engine.
The
pressure traces enclose two
areas, I and II.
Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
Analysis shows that the area enclosed
in I is proportional to the energy
produced by the engine. Since the
test equipment that yields the
pressure–volume curves is known
as an indicator, the energy of I is
termed indicated energy. Area II
involves moving the gases in and
out of the cylinder; this is called
pumping. Hence, the term pumping
loss is applied to II. The net output of
energy from the engine is
Net energy = Indicated energy Pumping loss
Considerable confusion exists in the
popular press about pumping loss.
Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
FIGURE: Pressure shown as function
of volume within cylinder as piston
moves from TDC to BDC. The four
strokes are D–E, compression; E–A–
B, expansion; B–C, exhaust; and C–D,
intake. Pressures within a cylinder
are measured as engine is operating
at part throttle.
The magnitude of pumping loss
depends on the throttle setting.
Consider the ratio of pumping loss
divided by net work done by the
engine. At full throttle, the
pumping loss ratio is 1%–3%. At
partial throttle, the pumping loss
ratio is much larger being 30%–
40%.
Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
In Figure, pa is the ambient pressure. Point D,
which is below ambient pressure, is a partial
vacuum. Also point D is equal to manifold
pressure. In the Otto cycle, the intake valve
closes at D, and the charge is being
compressed. Notice the pressure curve going
upward toward point E. However, with the
Atkinson cycle the intake valve remains
open. As the piston moves toward TDC from
BDC, the pressure remains equal to that at
point D. When the intake valve closes, the
pressure increases and the curve heads off
toward E. Area II is reduced in size by the slice,
which is gray shaded. Pumping losses are
less.
Figure also shows the shortened
compression stroke and the
comparatively long expansion
stroke. The long expansion stroke
yields a greater extraction of
energy from the fuel.
Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
Biggest
disadvantage
is
reduction in power density
(power/unit volume) arising
from the reduction in air
intake
Jacob Reagan, Atkinson Cycle Engines
ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE
Architectures of HEVs
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Architectures of HEVs
A HEV is a combination of a conventional ICE-powered vehicle and an EV. It
uses both an ICE and an electric motor/generator for propulsion. The two power
devices, the ICE and the electric motor, can be connected in series or in parallel
from a power flow point of view.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Architectures of HEVs (cont.)
When the ICE and motor are connected in series, the HEV is a series hybrid in
which only the electric motor is providing mechanical power to the wheels.
When the ICE and the electric motor are connected in parallel, the HEV is a parallel
hybrid in which both the electric motor and the ICE can deliver mechanical
power to the wheels.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Architectures of HEVs (cont.)
In a HEV, liquid fuel is still the source of energy. The ICE is the main
power converter that provides all the energy for the vehicle.
The electric motor increases system efficiency and reduces fuel
consumption by recovering kinetic energy during regenerative braking,
and optimizes the operation of the ICE during normal driving by adjusting
the engine torque and speed. The ICE provides the vehicle with an
extended driving range therefore overcoming the disadvantages of a pure
EV.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Architectures of HEVs (cont.)
In a series HEV or PHEV, the ICE drives a
generator (referred to as the I/G set). The ICE
converts energy in the liquid fuel to mechanical
energy and the generator converts the
mechanical energy of the engine output to
electricity.
An electric motor will propel the vehicle using
electricity generated by the I/G set. This
electric motor is also used to capture the
kinetic energy during braking.
There will be a battery between the generator
and the electric motor to buffer the electric
energy between the I/G set and the motor.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Architectures of HEVs (cont.)
In a parallel HEV or PHEV, both the
ICE and the electric motor are coupled
to the final drive shaft through a
mechanical coupling mechanism, such
as a clutch, gears, belts, or pulleys. This
parallel configuration allows both the
ICE and the electric motor to drive the
vehicle either in combined mode, or
separately. The electric motor is also
used for regenerative braking and for
capturing the excess energy from the
ICE during coasting.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
http://www.plugin.org.nz/FAQs
http://www.plugin.org.nz/FAQs
SERİ HİBRİD ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR
Series HEV
In this HEV, the ICE is the main energy converter that converts
the original energy in gasoline to mechanical power. The
mechanical output of the ICE is then converted to electricity
using a generator. The electric motor moves the final drive using
electricity generated by the generator or electricity stored in the
battery. The electric motor can receive electricity directly from
the engine, or from the battery, or both. Since the engine is
decoupled from the wheels, the engine speed can be controlled
independently of vehicle speed. This not only simplifies the
control of the engine, but, most importantly, can allow
operation of the engine at its optimum speed to achieve the best
fuel economy. It also provides flexibility in locating the
engine on the vehicle. There is no need for the traditional
mechanical transmission in a series HEV.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Güç Çevirici (İnvertör): İnvertör, doğru akımı (DC) alternatif akıma (AC)
çeviren elektriksel bir güç çeviricisidir. İnvertör çıkışında üretilen AC güç,
kullanılan transformatörlere, anahtarlama ve kontrol devrelerine bağlı olarak
herhangi bir gerilimde ve frekansta olabilir.
Fig. 1: The architecture of a series HEV
The
alternator
actually
produces alternating current.
The vehicle's electrical system,
on the other hand, requires
direct current to recharge the
battery and operate the
electrical equipment. Ref. Bosch
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Series HEV (Cont.)
Based on the vehicle operating conditions, the propulsion components on a series
HEV can operate with different combinations:
• Battery alone: When the battery has sufficient energy, and the vehicle power
demand is low, the I/G set is turned off, and the vehicle is powered by the battery
only.
• Combined power: At high power demands, the I/G set is turned on and the
battery also supplies power to the electric motor.
• Engine alone: During highway cruising and at moderately high power demands,
the I/G set is turned on. The battery is neither charged nor discharged. This is
mostly due to the fact that the battery’s state of charge (SOC) is already at a high
level but the power demand of the vehicle prevents the engine from turning, or it
may not be efficient to turn the engine off.
• Power split: When the I/G is turned on, the vehicle power demand is below the
I/G optimum power, and the battery SOC is low, then a portion of the I/G power is
used to charge the battery.
• Stationary charging: The battery is charged from the I/G power without the
vehicle being driven.
• Regenerative braking: The electric motor is operated as a generator to convert the
vehicle’s kinetic energy into electric energy and charge the battery.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
Reading Text: State of Charge (SOC)
State of Charge (SOC)
A key parameter in the electric vehicle is the SOC of the battery. The
SOC is a measure of the residual capacity of a battery. To define it
mathematically, consider a completely discharged battery.
Typically, the battery SOC is maintained between 20 and 95%.
A common mistake that people may make about a battery’s charge is
that when a battery “goes dead,” the voltage goes from 12 to 0 V (for a 12
V battery). In reality a battery’s voltage varies between 12.6 V with a
SOC of 100% to approximately 10.5 V with a SOC of near 0%. It is
advised that the SOC should not fall below 40%, which corresponds to
a voltage of 11.9 V. All batteries have a SOC vs. voltage curve which
can be either looked up from the manufacturer’s data or determined
experimentally. An example of an SOC vs. voltage curve of a lead acid
battery is shown in Figure. Note that for a lithium-ion battery, the
curve may be much flatter, especially for the mid-SOC range of 40–
80%.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Figure: Example SOC vs. voltage curve for a 12 V battery
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Series HEV (cont.)
In this case, as shown in Figure 2, there are four electric motors, each one installed inside
each wheel. Due to the elimination of transmission and final drive, the efficiency of
the vehicle system can be significantly increased. The vehicle will also have all-wheel
drive (AWD) capability. However, controlling the four electric motors independently is a
challenge.
Fig. 2: Hub motor configuration of a series HEV
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
Reading Text
What is the difference between an AC motor and a DC motor? / July 29, 2011 | Q&A
While both A.C. and D.C. motors serve the same function of converting
electrical energy into mechanical energy, they are powered, constructed and
controlled differently. 1 The most basic difference is the power source. A.C.
motors are powered from alternating current (A.C.) while D.C. motors are
powered from direct current (D.C.), such as batteries, D.C. power supplies
or an AC-to-DC power converter. D.C wound field motors are constructed
with brushes and a commutator, which add to the maintenance, limit the
speed and usually reduce the life expectancy of brushed D.C. motors. A.C.
induction motors do not use brushes; they are very rugged and have
long life expectancies. The final basic difference is speed control. The
speed of a D.C. motor is controlled by varying the armature winding’s
current while the speed of an A.C. motor is controlled by varying the
frequency, which is commonly done with an adjustable frequency drive
control. 2
1.Saeed Niku. Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, Applications. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011. Page 280 ↩
2.Robert S. Carrow. Electrician’s technical reference: Variable frequency drives. Delmar Thomson Learning, 2001. Page 45 ↩
Published by Ohio Electric Motors: http://www.ohioelectricmotors.com/what-is-the-difference-between-an-ac-motor-and-a-dc-motor673#ixzz2ezsrNvI3
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Parallel HEVs
In this configuration, the ICE and the electric motor can both deliver power in
parallel to the wheels. The ICE and the electric motor are coupled to the final
drive through a mechanism such as a clutch, belts, pulleys, and gears. Both the
ICE and the motor can deliver power to the final drive, either in combined
mode, or each separately. The electric motor can be used as a generator to recover
the kinetic energy during braking or absorbing a portion of power from the ICE.
Figure 3: The architecture of a parallel HEV
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Parallel HEVs (cont.)
The parallel hybrid needs only two propulsion devices, the ICE and
the electric motor, which can be used in the following mode:
• Motor-alone mode: When the battery has sufficient energy,
and the vehicle power demand is low, then the engine is turned
off, and the vehicle is powered by the motor and battery only.
• Combined power mode: At high power demand, the engine is
turned on and the motor also supplies power to the wheels.
• Engine-alone mode: During highway cruising and at
moderately high power demands, the engine provides all the
power needed to drive the vehicle. The motor remains idle. This
is mostly due to the fact that the battery SOC is already at a high
level but the power demand of the vehicle prevents the engine
from turning off, or it may not be efficient to turn the engine off.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Parallel HEVs (cont.)
•
•
•
Power split mode: When the engine is on, but the vehicle power
demand is low and the battery SOC is also low, then a portion of the
engine power is converted to electricity by the motor to charge the
battery.
Stationary charging mode: The battery is charged by running the
motor as a generator and driven by the engine, without the vehicle
being driven.
Regenerative braking mode: The electric motor is operated as a
generator to convert the vehicle’s kinetic energy into electric energy
and store it in the battery. Note that, in regenerative mode, it is in
principle possible to run the engine as well, and provide additional
current to charge the battery more quickly (while the propulsion
motor is in generator mode) and command its torque accordingly,
that is, to match the total battery power input. In this case, the
engine and motor controllers have to be properly coordinated.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
Seri hibrid sistemde tekerlere tahrik gücünü sağlayan bir elektrik motoru vardır. İYM
generatöre bağlıdır ve elektrik enerjisinin oluşturulmasını sağlayarak bataryalarda enerji
depolanmasına katkıda bulunur. Bataryalarda depo edilen elektrik enerjisi ise elektrik
motoruna verilir ve tahrik tekerlerine gerekli olan güç iletilir. İYM ve tekerlekler arasında
mekanik bir güç iletimi mevcut değildir.
Paralel hibrid sistemde ise tahrik için gerekli olan güç, birden fazla enerji kaynağından
sağlanır. İYM, transmisyon aracılığı ile tekerlere doğrudan güç iletir. Bunun yanında
bataryalarda depo edilen elektrik enerjisi ise elektrik motoru yolu ile tekerlere iletilir.
Seri sistemin dezavantajları:
Bu sistemde İYM, jeneratör ve elektrik motoru olmak üzere üç tahrik ekipmanına ihtiyaç
duyulur:
• Elektrik motoru gerekli olan azami gücü karşılayacak şekilde, özellikle yüksek eğimler
için tasarlanır. Fakat araç çoğunlukla azami gücün altında çalışmaktadır.
• Tahrik ekipmanları, batarya kapasitesinin birinci seviyede dikkate alınarak menzil ve
performans için azami gücü karşılayacak şekilde boyutlandırılır.
• Güç sistemi ağır ve maliyeti daha yüksektir.
Paralel hibrid sistemin dezavantajları:
• Gerekli olan güç iki farklı kaynaktan sağlandığı için burada enerji yönetimi önem
arz eder.
• İYM ve elektrik motorundan gelen gücün tahrik tekerlerine düzgün olarak
iletilebilmesi için karmaşık mekanik elemanlara ihtiyaç duyulur.
• Sessiz çalışma modu sağlamamaktadır.
Elektrikli Araçlar, Enerji Sistemleri ve Çevre Araştırma Enstitüsü, GEBZE - 2003
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Series–Parallel HEVs
In comparison to a series HEV, the series–parallel HEV adds a
mechanical link between the engine and the final drive,
so the engine can drive the wheels directly. When compared to
a parallel HEV, the series–parallel HEV adds a second
electric motor that serves primarily as a generator.
Because a series–parallel HEV can operate in both parallel
and series modes, the fuel efficiency and drivability can be
optimized based on the vehicle’s operating condition. The
increased degree of freedom in control makes the series–
parallel HEV a popular choice. However, due to increased
components and complexity, it is generally more
expensive than series or parallel HEVs.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Series–Parallel HEVs
Figure 4: The architectures of a series–parallel HEV
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Complex HEVs
Complex HEVs usually involve the use of planetary
gear systems and multiple electric motors (in the
case of four/all-wheel drive). One typical example is a
four-wheel drive (4WD) system that is realized
through the use of separate drive axles, as shown in
Figure 5. The generator in this system is used to
realize series operation as well as to control the
engine operating condition for maximum efficiency.
The two electric motors are used to realize all-wheel
drive, and to realize better performance in
regenerative braking. They may also enhance vehicle
stability control and antilock braking control by their
use.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Complex HEVs
Figure 5: The electrical four-wheel drive system using a complex architecture
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Hybridization Ratio
Some new concepts have also emerged in the past few years, including full
hybrid, mild hybrid, and micro hybrid. These concepts are usually related
to the power rating of the main electric motor in a HEV.
For example, if the HEV contains a fairly large electric motor and associated
batteries, it can be considered as a full hybrid. On the other hand, if the size
of the electric motor is relatively small, then it may be considered as a micro
hybrid.
Typically, a full hybrid should be able to operate the vehicle using the
electric motor and battery up to a certain speed limit and drive the vehicle
for a certain amount of time. The speed threshold is typically the speed
limit in a residential area. The typical power rating of an electric motor in a
full hybrid passenger car is approximately 50–75 kW.
The micro hybrid, on the other hand, does not offer the capability to drive
the vehicle with the electric motor only. The electric motor is merely for
starting and stopping the engine. The typical rating of electric motors used
in micro hybrids is less than 10 kW.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Hybridization Ratio
A mild hybrid is in between a full hybrid and a micro hybrid.
An effective approach for evaluating HEVs is to use a
hybridization ratio to reflect the degree of hybridization of a
HEV. In a parallel hybrid, the hybridization ratio is defined as
the ratio of electric power to the total powertrain power.
For example, a HEV with a motor rated at 50 kW and an engine
rated at 75 kW will have a hybridization ratio of 50/(50+75) kW=
40%. A conventional gasoline-powered vehicle will have a 0%
hybridization ratio and a battery EV will have a hybridization
ratio of 100%. A series HEV will also have a hybridization ratio
of 100% due to the fact that the vehicle is capable of being driven
in EV mode.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Different vehicle manufacturers
use various hybrid technologies.
• Micro Hybrid
• Mild Hybrid
• Medium Hybrid
• Full Hybrid
• A mild hybrid with a lower voltage system (36–50
volts) is capable of increasing fuel economy and
reducing exhaust emissions but is not capable of
using the electric motor alone to propel the vehicle.
• A medium hybrid uses a higher voltage than a mild
hybrid (140–150 volts) and offers increased fuel
economy over a mild hybrid design but is not capable
of operating using the electric motor alone.
• A full or strong hybrid uses a high-voltage system
(250–650 volts) and is capable of operating using the
electric motor(s) alone and achieves the highest fuel
economy improvement of all types of hybrids.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamental, Pearson Automotive, 2010.
HİBRİD VE ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR
Hibrid Elektrikli Araç Uygulamalarına
Örnekler
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Abdullah DEMİR
«Her tercih bir vazgeçiştir»
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Table 1: Partial list of HEVs available in the United States
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong
Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles
And
Applications
With
Practical
Perspectives”, ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLARA - ÖRNEKLER
SERİ HİBRİD ARAÇLARA ÖRNEK
KONFİGÜRASYON
UYGULAMASI
Seri (elektrik bağlantılı)
Tofaş Dublo Elit-1
Paralel (mekanik bağlantılı)
Fusion parallel HEV, GM EV1, Parallel
Hibrid-electric Honda Insight and Civic
Seri–paralel (mekanik ve elektrik Ford Escape series–parallel Hibrid
bağlantılı)
Kompleks (mekanik ve elektrik
Toyota Prius hibrid, Honda Civic
bağlantılı)
(a) Series (electrically coupling), (b) parallel (mechanical coupling), (c) series–
parallel (mechanical and electrical coupling, (d) complex (mechanical and
electrical coupling).
HİBRİD ARAÇLARDA TRANSMİSYON
TRANSMİSYON
İki modlu ya da
değişken
transmisyon
Tek modlu
UYGULAMASI
Sonata Hibrid,
2011 Camry Hibrid – CVT,
2010 Altima Hibrid – CVT,
2011 Fusion Hibrid – CVT,
Honda Civic Hibrid –CVT,
ML450 Blue-Hibrid- İki
modlu transmisyon
Toyota Prius – ECVT, bir
modlu
AÇIKLAMA
Sonata: Tork konverterli/konvertersiz
otomatik transmisyon, elektrikli yağ
pompası
ECVT: Elektronik sürekli değişken
transmisyon (Electronic continuously
variable transmission)
İki modlu transmisyon iki elektrik
motoruna sahiptir. Şehir içi ve
şehirlerarası yollarda yakıt ekonomisi
sağlar.
Düzenli bir modlu hibrid düşük
hızlarda taşıtın tahriki için bir
elektrik
motoru
kullanır
ve
hızlanmalarda benzin motoruna
yardımcı olur.
HİBRİT ARAÇLAR
Figure: The powertrain layout of the Toyota Prius (EM, Electric Machine;
PM, Permanent Magnet)
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİT ARAÇLAR
The Toyota Prius
Toyota produced the world’s first mass-marketed modern HEV in 1997, the Prius, as
shown in Figure. The worldwide sales of the Prius exceeded 1 million units in 2009.
It uses a planetary gear set to realize continuous variable transmission (CVT).
Therefore, conventional transmission is not needed in this system. As shown in
Figure, the engine is connected to the carrier of the planetary gear while the generator
is connected to the sun gear. The ring gear is coupled to the final drive, as is the
electric motor. The planetary gear set also acts as a power/torque split device.
During normal operations, the ring gear speed is determined by the vehicle speed,
while the generator speed can be controlled such that the engine speed is in its
optimum efficiency range.
The 6.5 Ah, 21 kW nickel metal hydride battery pack is charged by the generator
during coasting and by the propulsion motor (in generation mode) during
regenerative braking. The engine is shut off during low-speed driving.
The same technology has been used in the Camry hybrid, the Highlander hybrid,
and the Lexus brand hybrids. However, the Highlander and the Lexus brand hybrids
add a third motor at the rear wheel. The drive performance, such as for acceleration
and braking, can thus be further improved.
E (Wh) = V × C = 201.6V × 6.5Ah = 1310Wh = 1.31 kWh
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”, ISBN 978-0-470-
HİBRİT ARAÇLAR
Figure: The Toyota Prius (2010 model)
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
Hybrid 2010 Model 3rd Generation,
2009 Toyota Motor Corporation
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
The Honda Civic
The Honda Civic hybrid has an electric
motor mounted between the ICE and
the CVT, as shown in Figure. The
electric
motor
either
provides
assistance to the engine during high
power demand, or splits the engine
power during low power demand.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Figure: The powertrain layout of the Honda Civic hybrid
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
The Ford Escape
The Escape hybrid from
the Ford Motor Company
(Figure) is the first hybrid
in the SUV category. The
Escape hybrid adopted the
same
planetary
gear
concept as the Toyota
system.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Figure 11: The Ford Escape Hybrid SUV
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
The Two-Mode
Hybrid
The GM two-mode hybrid
transmission was initially
developed by GM (Alison) in
1996, and later advanced by
GM, Chrysler, BMW, and
Mercedes-Benz with a joint
venture named Global Hybrid
Cooperation in 2005. The GM
two-mode hybrids use two
planetary gear sets and two
electric machines to realize
two different operating
modes, namely, high-speed
mode and low-speed mode.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Figure: The Chrysler Aspen Two-mode Hybrid
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Diesel Hybrids
HEVs can also be built around diesel vehicles. All topologies explained earlier, such as
series, parallel, series–parallel, and complex HEVs, are applicable to diesel hybrids.
Due to the fact that diesel vehicles can generally achieve higher fuel economy, the fuel
efficiency of hybridized diesel vehicles can be even better when compared to their
gasoline counterparts.
Vehicles such as delivery trucks and buses have unique driving patterns and
relatively low fuel economy. When hybridized, these vehicles can provide
significant fuel savings.
Hybrid trucks and buses can be series, parallel, series–parallel, or complex structured and
may run on gasoline or diesel.
Diesel locomotives are a special type of hybrid. A diesel locomotive uses a diesel
engine and generator set to generate electricity. It uses electric motors to drive the
train. Even though a diesel locomotive can be referred to as a series hybrid, in some
architectures there is no battery for the main drive system to buffer energy between the
I/G set and the electric motor. This special configuration is sometimes referred to as
simple hybrid.
In other architectures, batteries are used and can help reduce the size of the generator,
and can also be used for regenerative energy capture. The batteries, in this case, can also
be utilized for short-term high current due to torque needs, without resorting to a larger
generator.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Other Approaches to
Vehicle Hybridization
The main focus of this presentation
is on HEVs, that is, electric–gasoline
or electric–diesel hybrids. However,
there
exist
other
types
of
hybridization methods that involve
other types of energy storage and
propulsion, such as compressed
air, flywheels, and hydraulic
systems.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Other Approaches to Vehicle Hybridization (Cont.)
A typical hydraulic hybrid is shown in Figure 6. Hydraulic systems can
provide a large amount of torque, but due to the complexity of the
hydraulic system, a hydraulic hybrid is considered only for large trucks
and utility vehicles where frequent and extended period of stops of the
engine are necessary.
Figure 6: A parallel hydraulic hybrid
vehicle (LP, Low Pressure)
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
EK OKUMA İNCELEME KISMI
Reading Text
The main difference among the various configurations is the series, parallel or
mixed interconnection of the power sources. In the series configuration (1) the
individual drive components are connected in series, whereas in the parallel
configuration (2) the drive power of both drive sources is mechanically added. The letters
M and G indicate whether the electric drive is operating in "motor" or "generator"
mode.
Because the diesel engine in the series configuration is mechanically decoupled
from the vehicle drive, the diesel engine can be operated at a constant speed, i.e.
at its optimum operating point in terms of efficiency and emissions. Despite the
advantages of the series configuration, its disadvantage is that energy must be
converted several times. Including battery storage efficiency, the mechanical
efficiency between the diesel engine and the powered axle is hardly greater than
55 %.
The parallel hybrid configuration (2) has the advantage that when operated in the
mode which incorporates an IC engine, it is just as efficient as the engine in a
conventional vehicle. In configuration 2, the change-speed transmission required by the
diesel-engine drive is also part of the electric drive branch. In this type of drive the speed
of the electric motor therefore must be varied only within a specific range above a basic
speed, in a manner similar to the way in which the diesel engine is operated. Moreover, in
this configuration the electric drive also profits from the torque conversion by the
downstream transmission, as a result of which the electric motor must only be
dimensioned for low drive torque. This leads to an equivalent reduction in motor mass
which is roughly proportional to motor torque.
Bosch Automotive Handbook, 2002
The
mixed
configuration
(3)
represents
a
combination
of
configurations 1 and 2, and corresponds
to a splitter transmission with an
infinitely-variable transmission ratio.
On the one hand, the power of the IC
engine is mechanically transmitted
directly to the driving wheels, while on
the other, the rotation of the IC engine
is decoupled from the rotation of the
driving wheels by the speed overlay in
the planetary gear.
Hybrid drive configurations
1 Series configuration,
2 Parallel configuration,
3 Mixed configuration
VM - IC engine,
EL - Electric drive (operated as a motor
or
alternator/generator),
BA - Battery or external power supply,
SG - Manually shifted transmission.
M and G indicate whether the electric drive is
operating in "motor" or "generator" mode
Bosch Automotive Handbook, 2002
ÖZETLE: HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN KONFİGÜRASYONU
(a) Series (electrically coupling), (b) parallel (mechanical coupling), (c) series–parallel
(mechanical and electrical coupling, (d) complex (mechanical and electrical coupling).
ÖZETLE: HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN KONFİGÜRASYONU
FIGURE: A drawing of the
power flow in a typical series
hybrid vehicle.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamental, Pearson Automotive, 2010.
ÖZETLE: HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN KONFİGÜRASYONU
FIGURE: This diagram shows the components included in a typical series
hybrid design. The solid-line arrow indicates the transmission of torque to the
drive wheels. The dotted-line arrows indicate the transmission of electrical
current.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamental, Pearson Automotive, 2010.
ÖZETLE: HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN KONFİGÜRASYONU
FIGURE: The power flow in a
typical
parallel
hybrid
vehicle.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamental, Pearson Automotive, 2010.
ÖZETLE: HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN KONFİGÜRASYONU
FIGURE: Diagram showing the components involved in a typical parallel-hybrid
vehicle. The solid-line arrows indicate the transmission of torque to the drive wheels,
and the dotted-line arrows indicate the flow of electrical current.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamental, Pearson Automotive, 2010.
ÖZETLE: HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN KONFİGÜRASYONU
FIGURE:
A
series-parallel
hybrid design allows the vehicle
to operate in electric motor
mode only or in combination
with the internal combustion
engine.
Hybrid Electric Vehicle Fundamental, Pearson Automotive, 2010.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs
HEVs can overcome some of the disadvantages of battery-powered pure EVs and
gasoline powered conventional vehicles. These advantages include optimized
fuel economy and reduced emissions when compared to conventional vehicles,
and increased range, reduced charging time, and reduced battery size (hence
reduced cost) when compared to pure EVs. However, HEVs and PHEVs still face
many challenges, including higher cost when compared to conventional vehicles;
electromagnetic interference caused by high-power components; and safety and
reliability concerns due to increased components and complexity, packaging of
the system, vehicle control, and power management:
•
Power electronics and electric machines: The subject of power
electronics and electric motors is not new. However, the use of power
electronics in a vehicle environment poses significant challenges.
Environmental conditions, such as extreme high and low temperatures,
vibration, shock, and transient behavior are very different from what electric
motors and power electronic converters have been used to. Challenges in
power electronics in a HEV include packaging, size, cost, and thermal
management.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs (Cont.)
•
•
Electromagnetic interference: High-frequency switching and highpower operation of power electronics and electric motors will generate
abundant electromagnetic noise that will interfere with the rest of the
vehicle system if not dealt with properly.
Energy storage systems: Such systems are a major challenge for HEVs
and PHEVs. The pulsed power behavior and energy content required for
the best performance are typically difficult for conventional batteries to
satisfy. Life cycle and abuse tolerance are also critical for vehicle
applications. At the present time, nickel metal hydride batteries are used
by most HEVs and lithium-ion batteries are targeted by PHEVs.
Ultracapacitors have also been considered in some special applications
where power demand is a major concern. Flywheels have also been
investigated. The limitations of the current energy storage systems are
unsatisfactory power density and energy density, limited life cycle, high
cost, and potential safety issues.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.
HİBRİD ARAÇLAR
Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs (Cont.)
•
•
•
•
Regenerative braking control: Recovering the kinetic energy during
braking is a key feature of HEVs and PHEVs. However, coordinating
regenerative braking with the hydraulic/frictional braking system presents a
major challenge as far as safety and braking performance are concerned.
Power management and vehicle control: HEVs involve the use of
multiple propulsion components that require harmonious coordination.
Hence, power management is a critical aspect of vehicle control functions in
a HEV. A optimized vehicle controller can help achieve better fuel efficiency
in a HEV.
Thermal management: Power electronics, electric machines, and batteries
all require a much lower operating temperature than a gasoline engine. A
separate cooling loop is necessary in a HEV.
Modeling and simulation, vehicle dynamics, vehicle design, and
optimization: Due to the increased number of components in a HEV,
packaging of the components in the same space is a challenge. Associated
vehicle dynamics, vehicle design, and modeling and simulation all involve
major challenges.
Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”,
ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.