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LATE QUATERNARY GLACIATION AND PALEOCLIMATE OF TURKEY
INFERRED FROM COSMOGENIC 36Cl DATING OF MORAINES AND GLACIER
MODELING
by
Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya
__________________________
A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the
DEPARTMENT OF HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
WITH A MAJOR HYDROLOGY
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
2009
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THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
GRADUATE COLLEGE
As members of the Dissertation Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation
prepared by Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya
entitled Late Quaternary Glaciation and Paleoclimate of Turkey Inferred From
Cosmogenic 36Cl Dating of Moraines and Glacier Modeling
and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Date: April 15, 2009
Marek G. Zreda
Victor R. Baker
Anthony John T. Jull
Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate’s
submission of the final copies of the dissertation to the Graduate College.
I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and
recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement.
Dissertation director: Marek G. Zreda
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STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an
advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library
to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.
Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided
that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended
quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by
the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her
judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other
instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.
SIGNED: Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my advisor, Marek Zreda, for his countless assistance and guidance
during my graduate studies at the University of Arizona. I gained great benefits from his
enthusiasm and intelligent curiosity. I also would like to thank my former Ph.D. advisor,
Attila Çiner, from Hacettepe University, Ankara Turkey, who encouraged me to pursue
research on cosmogenic dating of Turkish paleoglaciers. This work would not be
completed without his continuous and unconditional help.
Many people have also provided valuable assistance and advice in completing this work.
Thanks to Chris Zweck, who have provided the glacier model, and patiently taught me all
about it. I owe great appreciation to Serdar Bayarı, Bülent Akıl, Kemal Akpınar, Erdal
Şen, Şükran Şahbudak, and Tuna Özverim for their help and logistic support in the field.
My recognitions are also due to Darin Desilets and Tim Corley who provided invaluable
assistance and expertise in our cosmogenic lab. Special thanks to Kayadam Hotel and its
personnel who greatly host us during our visits to Turkey. In particular, Kısmet Çiner, a
graceful İstanbul lady, made our experience in Cappadocia unforgettable.
I thank my dissertation committee members, Vic Baker and Tim Jull for sharing with me
their comments and advice.
The research in this dissertation was supported by a grant from the US National Science
Foundation (grant 0115298) and grants from the Scientific and Technological Research
Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) (Grant 101Y002 and 107Y069).
Finally, I am deeply grateful to my wife and my parents for their encouragement, endless
support and patience during my years in graduate school. Their love and care is always
precious for me.
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“… to my lovely wife Perihan and beloved son Enes Ömer”
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT …………………………………...………………………………...……….
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1. INTRODUCTION ………………………………...……………………………….…..
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2. PRESENT STUDY …...………………………………………..……………………....
2.1 Statement of candidate’s contribution of papers ……...……………………...
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REFERENCES ………………….…………...…………………………………….……..
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APPENDIX A: ERCİYES VOLKANI GEÇ KUVATERNER BUZUL ÇÖKELLERİ.....
Statement of Copyright Permission …………………………….………………..
Öz ………………………………………………………………………………...
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………..
Giriş ………...……………………………………………………………………
Amaç ve Yöntem ………………………………...………………………………
Buzul Çökelleri ………………………………...……………………………...…
Aksu Vadisi ……...……………………...………………………………
Öksüzdere Vadisi ……...………………...………………………………
Üçker Vadisi …..………………………...………………………………
Topaktaş Sırtı ……….…………………...………………………………
Kırkpınar Vadisi ………………………...………………………………
Güncel Buzul ……...…………………………...……………………………...…
Tartışma ve Sonuçlar ...………………………...……………………………...…
Katkı Belirtme ...………..……………………...……………………………...…
Kaynaklar ……...………..……………………...……………………………...…
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APPENDIX B: COLD AND WET LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM ON MOUNT
SANDIRAS, SW TURKEY, INFERRED FROM COSMOGENIC DATING
AND GLACIER MODELING ……………………………………….………….
Statement of Copyright Permission …………………………….………………..
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………..
1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………
2. Physical setting and climate …………………...………………………………
3. Evidence of glacial action on Mount Sandıras ………………………………..
4. Methods …………………………………………………………………….....
4.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl dating of moraines ……..…………………..….....
4.1.1. Determination of 36Cl ages …….…………………..….....
4.1.2 Collection, preparation and analysis of samples ……….....
4.2. Glacier modeling ……………………..…..…………………..….....
5. Results …...………………………………………………………………….....
5.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl exposure ages ……..………...……………..….....
5.2. Paleoclimatic interpretations …….…..………...……………..….....
6. Conclusion …...………………………….………………………………….....
Acknowledgements ………………....………..……………….………………....
References ………….……………....………………………….………………....
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued
APPENDIX C: GLACIATIONS AND PALEOCLIMATE OF MOUNT ERCIYES,
CENTRAL TURKEY, SINCE THE LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM,
INFERRED FROM 36Cl COSMOGENIC DATING AND GLACIER
MODELING ……………………………………………………………………..
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………..
1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………
2. Physical setting, geology and climate …………………...………….…………
3. Glacial activity on Mount Erciyes …………...………………………………..
3.1. Aksu Valley ……..…………………………………..………..….....
3.2. Üçker Valley ……..…………………………...……..………..….....
4. Methods …………………………………………………………………….....
4.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl dating method ……….....…………………..….....
5. Results …...………………………………………………………………….....
5.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl exposure ages ……..………...……………..….....
5.1.1. Aksu Valley ………..….…..………...……………..….....
5.1.2. Üçker Valley ………..….…..………...………...…..….....
6. Discussion of timing of glaciations ....…………………....……………..….....
7. Paleoclimatic interpretations …….…..…………………....……………..….....
7.1. Last Glacial Maximum …...…………..…..…………………..….....
7.2. Late Glacial …………….....…………..…..…………………..….....
7.3. Early Holocene ……….......…………..…..…………………..….....
7.4. Late Holocene ……….......…………..………………………..….....
8. Validation of glacier model using the retreat of the present glacier during the
past century …………………………………..……………………………….….
9. Discussion and conclusion …………….…………………...……………….....
Acknowledgements ………………....…………………...…….………………....
References ………….……………....………………………….………………....
Figures and tables ………………….....……………………….……………........
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APPENDIX D: REMARKABLY EXTENSIVE EARLY HOLOCENE GLACIATION
IN TURKEY …………………………………………………..……………...….
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………..
1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………
2. Geologic setting …………...…...……………...………………………………
3. Methods …………...…...............……………...………………………………
4. Results and Discussions ...............……………...…………...…………………
Acknowledgements ………………...………………………….………………....
References sited …………………....………………………….………………....
Figures …………………....…………………..……………….………………....
Data repository items ……………....………………………….………………....
Methods ….……………...………….……………………………...…....
Cosmogenic dating ….………………….……...…………….....
Sample collection, preparations and analysis …………………..
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Calculation of surface exposure ages ...…................................................
Calculation of ELA, temperature and precipitation …………………......
Ice flow line model …………...….…………...………...……....
Sensitivity of the Hacer glacier to temperature and precipitation...……..
Data repository references ……………………………...…………...…..
Data repository figure and tables ……………………...…………...……
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APPENDIX E: CONTERMINOUS WET AND DRY LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM
CLIMATES OF THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN ……..……………...….
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………..
Main Text …………………...……………………………………………………
References and Notes ……………....………………………….………………...
Figures ………...…………………………………………………………………
Supporting Online Material ………...…...……………...………………………..
Data supplement S1: Glacier model ………….....………………………
Calculation of Mass Balance …………………………………...
Ice Flow ………………………………………………………...
Local Climate Parameterizations ……………………………….
Data supplement S2: Regional settings and site details …………………
Site Details ……………………………………………………...
Mount Sandıras ………………………………………...
Uludağ …………………………………………………
Mount Erciyes ………………………………………….
Kaçkar Mountains ……………………………………...
Mount Cilo ……………………………………………..
References ……………………………………………………………….
Supplementary Online Material Figures and Tables ……………………
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APPENDIX F: SUMMARY OF THE LATE QUATERNARY GLACIAL
CHRONOLOGY OF TURKEY ….…………………………………………..….
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APPENDIX G: BIBLIOGRAPHY OF TURKISH GLACIERS AND GLACIATED
MOUNTAINS ………………………………………………………………..….
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APPENDIX H: SAMPLE PREPARATION PROCEDURES FOR MEASUREMENTS
OF COSMOGENIC 36Cl IN ROCKS BY ACCELERATED MASS
SPECTROMETRY …………………………………………...………………….
1. General Cleaning Procedures …………………………………………...……..
2. Pretreatment …………………………………………...………………………
2.1. Crushing …………………………………………...………………..
2.2. Grinding …………………………………………...………………..
2.3. Sieving …………………………………………...…………………
3. Leaching …………………………………………...…………………………..
3.1. Leaching Silicates …………………………………………...……...
3.2. Leaching Carbonates …………………………………………...…..
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4. Powdering …………………………………………...………………………...
5. Total Chlorine Determination …………………………………………...…….
6. Spike Calculations …………………………………………………………….
7. Dissolutions of Samples …………………………………………...…………..
7.1. Dissolution Procedures for Silicate Samples ……………………….
7.2. Dissolution Procedures for Carbonate Samples ……………………
8. Chlorine Extraction …………………………………………...……………….
8.1. Precipitation Method …………………………………………...…..
8.2. Ion Exchange Columns …………………………………………......
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APPENDIX I: FIELD DESCRIPTIONS, ATTRIBUTES, GEOCHEMICAL AND
ISOTOPIC ANALYTICAL AND SPIKE DATA OF SAMPLES USED IN
COSMOGENIC AGE CALCULATIONS AND CLIMATIC RECORDS ……...
277
APPENDIX J: TURKISH GEOGRAPHICAL NAME INDEX AND THEIR
MEANINGS IN ENGLISH ……………………………………………………...
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APPENDIX K: THE FORTRAN CODE FOR GLACIER MODEL ……………...…......
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APPENDIX L: SUPPLEMENTARY CD ………………………………………………..
Appendix H Files
DiffCellsCalculator.xls
AgeCalculator.xls
SpikeCalculator.xls
DespikeCalculator.xls
Appendix I Files
Pictures of Samples
SampleData.xls
MoraineAgeCalculator.xls
ClimateData.xls
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ABSTRACT
The main objective of this dissertation is to improve the knowledge of glacial chronology
and paleoclimate of Turkey during the Late Quaternary. The
36
Cl cosmogenic exposure
ages of moraines show that Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) glaciers were the most
extensive ones in Turkey in the last 22 ka (ka=thousands years), and they were closely
correlated with the global LGM chron (between 19−23 ka). LGM glaciers started
retreating 21.3±0.9 ka (1σ) ago on Mount Erciyes, central Turkey, and 20.4±1.3 ka ago
on Mount Sandıras, southwest Turkey. Glaciers readvanced and retreated by 14.6±1.2 ka
ago (Late Glacial) on Mount Erciyes and 16.2±0.5 ka ago on Mount Sandıras. Large
Early Holocene glaciers were active in Aladağlar, south-central Turkey, where they
culminated at 10.2±0.2 ka and retreated by 8.6±0.3 ka, and on Mount Erciyes, where they
retreated by 9.3±0.5 ka. The latest glacial advance took place 3.8±0.4 ka ago on Mount
Erciyes. Using glacier modeling together with paleoclimate proxy data from the region, I
reconstructed the paleoclimate at these four discrete times. The results show that LGM
climate was 8-11oC colder than today (obtained from paleotemperature proxies) and
wetter (up to 2 times) on the southwestern mountains, drier (by ~60%) on the
northeastern ones and approximately the same as today in the interior regions. The
intense LGM precipitation over the mountains along the northern Mediterranean coast
was produced by unstable atmospheric conditions due to the anomalously steep vertical
temperature gradients on the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. In contrast, drier conditions
along the southern Black Sea coast were produced by the partially ceased moisture take-
11
up from the cold or frozen Black Sea and prevailing periglacial conditions due to the cold
air carried from northern hemisphere’s ice sheets. Relatively warmer and moister air from
the south and overlying cold and dry air pooled over the northern and interior uplands
created a boundary between the wet and dry LGM climates somewhere on the Anatolian
Plateau. The analysis of Late Glacial advances suggests that the climate was colder by
4.5-6.4oC based on up to 1.5 times wetter conditions. The Early Holocene was 2.1oC to
4.9oC colder on Mount Erciyes and up to 9oC colder on Aladağlar, based on twice as wet
as today’s conditions. The Late Holocene was 2.4-3oC colder than today and the
precipitation amounts approached the modern levels. Glaciers present on Turkish
mountains today are retreating at accelerating rates and historical observations of the
retreat are consistent with the behavior of other glaciers around the world.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Turkey (36-42 oN, 26-45 oE) is situated in the transition zone between the temperate
Mediterranean climates influenced by North Atlantic cyclones (Macklin et al., 2002),
mid-latitude subtropical high pressure climatic zone (la Fontaine et al., 1990), and
possibly Indian Monsoon climates (Jones et al., 2006). Paleoclimate of Turkey is highly
sensitive to climatic perturbations that affected the positions and intensities of the past
atmospheric circulations. The knowledge of paleoclimate of Turkey and the wider Middle
East is critically important not only to link mid-latitude paleoclimate to Northern
Hemisphere climatic shifts (Kwiecien et al., 2009), but also to understand the evolution
of civilizations which played an important role in the human history throughout the
region (Issar and Zohar, 2004).
Large scale features of today’s atmospheric circulation patterns might have been present
in the past, although they may have been geographically displaced, or subjected to
different seasonal or inter-annual variations with different intensities. Such geographic
shifts affected the dynamic structure of the atmosphere in the circum-Mediterranean (Jost
et al., 2005; Kuhlemann et al., 2008), and these changes were recorded in a variety of
environmental archives (Hayes et al., 2005; Robinson et al., 2006; Kuhlemann et al.,
2008; Kwiecien et al., 2009). A wealth of such paleoclimatic proxies in the Eastern
Mediterranean makes this region valuable to make inferences about both environmental
and anthropogenic changes. Nevertheless, the complexity of the nature of these proxies
13
and dynamics of the atmosphere in the Eastern Mediterranean create incongruity among
published paleoclimate data (Jost et al., 2005; Tzedakis, 2007), emphasizing the need for
more direct constrains on the past regional climate patterns.
Mountain glaciers are sensitive indicators of climate change (Steiner et al., 2008), and
they react in a relatively simple way to it (Oerlemans, 2005). They respond to minute
changes of climate, mainly of precipitation and temperature, via changing their mass
balances, and therefore sizes, which can be used as a climate proxy. By analogy,
reconstruction of timing and magnitude of paleoglaciers in mountain settings provides
valuable and direct information on paleoclimate, and particularly on local temperature
and precipitation (Ohmura et al, 1992; Plummer and Phillips, 2003).
In this dissertation, I reconstructed glacial extents in several mountains of Turkey from
detailed field studies. Then, I determined the timing of glaciations with the measurement
of surface exposure ages of moraines and other glacier related landforms using in-situ
produced cosmogenic
36
Cl (Gosse and Philips, 2001). Finally, to understand the past
climates under which the glaciers existed, I modeled the glacier extents under prescribed
climatic conditions by using a physically-based glacier model (Oerlemans et al., 1998).
The combination of geological investigations, dating of glacial features and climate
modeling efforts, as presented in this dissertation, revealed, for the first time, the regional
Late Quaternary chronology and glacier-based paleoclimate conditions of Turkey and, by
extension, also of the immediate surroundings.
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2. PRESENT STUDY
This dissertation consists of five original research papers that are published in peer
reviewed journals (two), accepted for publication (one paper), currently in review (one
paper), or will soon be submitted (one paper), and seven supplementary appendixes. The
sequence of papers represents a chronological progression of understanding the Late
Quaternary glaciation and paleoclimate of different mountains of Turkey. The seven
appendixes contain data and complementary information to the presented study.
The first paper (appendix A), Erciyes Volkanı Geç Kuvaterner buzul çökelleri (Late
Quaternary glacial deposits of the Erciyes Volcano) was published in Turkish as a
research paper in the Yerbilimleri (Journal of the Earth Sciences Application and
Research Center of Hacettepe University, Ankara Turkey) with an English abstract and
figure captions. This paper discusses our initial field observations of the Late Quaternary
glacial deposits of Mount Erciyes.
The second paper (appendix B), titled Cold and wet Last Glacial Maximum on Mount
Sandıras, SW Turkey, inferred from cosmogenic dating and glacier modeling, was
published as a research paper in the Quaternary Science Reviews in April 2008. This
paper describes the Last Glacial Maximum glaciation and its paleoclimatic inferences
obtained from a glacier model on Mount Sandıras, located on the Mediterranean coast of
southwestern Turkey.
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The third paper (appendix C), Glaciations and paleoclimate of Mount Erciyes, central
Turkey, since the Last Glacial Maximum, inferred from
36
Cl cosmogenic dating and
glacier modeling, has been accepted for publication in the Quaternary Science Reviews
as a research paper. This paper describes the Last Glacial Maximum, Late Glacial, Early
Holocene and Late Holocene glacier advances, dated with in-situ cosmogenic 36Cl, in two
main valleys of Mount Erciyes. It also discusses the paleoclimate implications of these
advances.
The fourth paper (appendix D), titled Remarkably extensive Early Holocene glaciation in
Turkey, was submitted to Geology. It is in revision to be resubmitted shortly. It describes
an extraordinarily large Early Holocene glaciation in Hacer Valley of Aladağlar, southcentral Turkey, and paleoclimatic implications of its fast deglaciation.
The fifth paper (appendix E), titled Conterminous wet and dry Last Glacial Maximum
climates of the Eastern Mediterranean, is in preparation for submission to Science. This
paper presents the general pattern of the Last Glacial Maximum climate and atmospheric
circulation over Turkey and Eastern Mediterranean region based on glacier model results
applied to five different mountains of Turkey.
Appendix F contains all 36Cl cosmogenic exposure ages presented in this dissertation and
the summary of the Late Quaternary glacial chronology of Turkey.
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Appendix G lists the geographic information of glaciers and glaciated mountains of
Turkey, adopted in part from Çiner (2004) and Messerli (1967). A brief literature review
of each location is also given this appendix.
Appendix H describes the sample preparation procedures used in this dissertation. These
procedures start after the collection of rocks in the field and end with sending the final
target sample to the accelerated mass spectrometry (AMS) laboratory. Appendix H
contains four electronic files given in the Supplementary CD in Appendix L: (1)
DiffCellsCalculator.xls for calculating the total chlorine content of samples measured by
diffusion cells, (2) AgeCalculator.xls to calculate
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Cl/Cl ratio from estimated age of
sample to use in spike calculations, (3) SpikeCalculator.xls to calculate amount of the
carrier to add the samples, (4) DespikeCalculator.xls to recalculate the 36Cl/Cl ratio and
chlorine content of the rocks.
Appendix I contains field descriptions of samples, analytical data used in the age
calculations and climatic data used in the glacier model. The pictures of samples and
there supplementary electronic files given in the Supplementary CD in Appendix L.
There electronic files are (1) SampleData.xls has attributes, geochemical and isotopic
analytical, and spike data of samples, (2) MoraineAgeCalculator.xls is a workbook to
calculate average moraine ages, and (3) ClimateData.xls contains long term precipitation
and temperature data measured at 254 meteorological stations in Turkey (downloaded
17
from the Global Historical Climatology Network, version 2, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/
oa/climate/ghcn-monthly/index.php, accessed in January 2009).
Appendix J is a glossary of Turkish geographic names that appeared in this work and
their English meanings.
Appendix K contains the FORTRAN code of the glacier model used in this study.
Appendix L is a CD attached to this dissertation that contains supplementary electronic
files mentioned in Appendices H and I.
The full references of the papers and their status at the time of completion of this
dissertation are:
Appendix A: Sarıkaya, M. A., Çiner, A., Zreda, M., 2003. Erciyes Volkanı Geç
Kuvaterner buzul çökelleri [in Turkish, with English abstract and figure captions. Late
Quaternary glacial deposits of the Erciyes Volcano]. Yerbilimleri (Bulletin of Earth
Sciences Application and Research Centre of Hacettepe University) 27, 59-74.
Appendix B: Sarıkaya, M. A., Zreda, M., Çiner, A., Zweck, C., 2008. Cold and wet Last
Glacial Maximum on Mount Sandıras, SW Turkey, inferred from cosmogenic dating and
18
glacier
modeling.
Quaternary
Science
Reviews
27
(7-8),
769-780.
DOI:
10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.01.002
Appendix C: Sarıkaya, M.A., Zreda, M., Çiner, A., 2009. Glaciations and paleoclimate of
Mount Erciyes, central Turkey, since the Last Glacial Maximum, inferred from
36
Cl
cosmogenic dating and glacier modeling (accepted for publication in the Quaternary
Science Reviews). DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.04.015
Appendix D: Zreda, M., Çiner, A., Sarıkaya, M.A., Zweck, C., Bayarı, S., 2009.
Remarkably extensive early Holocene glaciation in Turkey (in revision to be resubmitted
to Geology).
Appendix E: Sarıkaya, M.A., Zreda M., Zweck, C., Çiner, A., 2009. Conterminous wet
and dry Last Glacial Maximum climates of Turkey (in preparation for submission to
Science).
2.1. Statement of candidate’s contribution of papers
The candidate was the major contributor to the research reported in all papers. He wrote
the papers given in appendixes A, B, C, and E, and extensively contributed to the writing
of the paper given in appendix D.
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REFERENCES
Çiner, A., 2004. Turkish glaciers and glacial deposits. In: J. Ehlers and P. L. Gibbard
(Eds.), Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology, Part I: Europe, pp. 419429. Elsevier Publishers, Amsterdam.
Gosse, J.C., Phillips, F.M., 2001. Terrestrial in situ cosmogenic nuclides: theory and
application. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 1475-1560.
Hayes, A., Kucera, M., Kallel, N., Sbaffi, L., Rohling, E.J., 2005. Glacial Mediterranean
sea surface temperatures based on planktonic foraminiferal assemblages.
Quaternary Science Reviews 24 (7-9), 999-1016.
Issar, A. S., Zohar, M., 2004. Climate change, environment and civilization in the Middle
East. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Jones, M.D., Roberts, C.N., Leng, M.J., Turkeş, M., 2006. A high-resolution late
Holocene lake isotope record from Turkey and links to North Atlantic and
monsoon climate. Geology 34 (5), 361-364.
Jost, A., Lunt, D., Kageyama, M., Abe-Ouchi, A., Peyron, O., Valdes, P.J., Ramstein, G.,
2005. High-resolution simulations of the last glacial maximum climate over
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Europe:
a
solution
to
discrepancies
with
continental
palaeoclimatic
reconstructions? Climate Dynamics 24 (6), 577-590.
Kuhlemann, J., Rohling, E.J., Krumrei, I., Kubik, P., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kucera, M., 2008.
Regional synthesis of Mediterranean atmospheric circulation during the last
glacial maximum. Science 321 (5894), 1338-1340.
Kwiecien, O., Arz, H.W., Lamy, F., Plessen, B., Bahr, A., Haug, G.H., 2009. North
Atlantic control on precipitation pattern in the eastern Mediterranean/Black Sea
region during the last glacial. Quaternary Research 71 (3), 375-384.
la Fontaine, C. V., Bryson, R. A., Wendland, W. M., 1990. Airstream regions of North
Africa and the Mediterranean. Journal of Climate, 3, 366-372.
Macklin, M. G., Fuller, I. C., Lewin, J., Maas, G. S., Passmore, D. G., Rose, J.,
Woodward, J. C., Black, S., Hamlin, R. H. B., Rrowan, J. S., 2002. Correlation of
fluvial sequences in the Mediterranean basin over the last 200 ka and their
relationship to climate change. Quaternary Science Reviews, 21 (14-15), 16331641.
Messerli, B., 1967. Die eiszeitliche und die gegenwartige Vergletscherung in
Mittelmeerraum. Geographica Helvetica 22, 105-228.
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Oerlemans, J., Anderson, B., Hubbard, A., Huybrechts, P., Johannesson, T., Knap, W.H.,
Schmeits, M., Stroeven, A.P., Van de Wal, R.S.W., Wallinga, J. and Zuo, Z.,
1998. Modelling the response of glaciers to climate warming. Climate Dynamics
14 (4), 267-274.
Oerlemans, J., 2005. Extracting a Climate Signal from 169 Glacier Records. Science,
308 (5722), 675-677.
Ohmura, A., Kasser, P., Funk, M., 1992. Climate at the equilibrium line of glaciers.
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22
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Zumbuhl, H.J., 2008. Sensitivity of European glaciers to precipitation and
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23
APPENDICES
24
APPENDIX A
ERCİYES VOLKANI GEÇ KUVATERNER BUZUL ÇÖKELLERİ
LATE QUATERNARY GLACIAL DEPOSITS OF ERCIYES VOLCANO
Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya1, Attila Çiner1, Marek Zreda2
1
2
Geological Engineering Department, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara 06800, Turkey
Hydrology and Water Resources Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
[in Turkish, with English abstract and figure captions Yerbilimleri (Journal of the Earth
Sciences Application and Research Center of Hacettepe University), 27 (2003), 59 – 74]
25
Editor-in-Chief:
Prof. Dr. Reşat ULUSAY
Hacettepe University,
Faculty of Engineering,
Geological Engineering Department
06800 Beytepe, ANKARA, TURKEY
Tel: (+90) (312) 297 77 67; 297 77 00-05
Fax: (+90) (312) 299 20 75
E-mail: [email protected]
Internet://www.yerbilimleri.hacettepe.edu.tr
April 22, 2009
Dear Mr. Akif Sarıkaya,
This is to certify that HU-YUVAM the holder of the copyright of the paper “Late
Quaternary glacial deposits of the Erciyes Volcano” by M. Akif Sarıkaya, Attilla
Çiner and Marek Zreda, published in the YERBILIMLERI journal in 27th issue
(2003, pp. 59-74) grants you permission to reproduce the aforementioned material.
The granted permission extends to microfilming and publication by the University
Microfilms Incorporated (UMI) of your University, being aware that UMI may sell
on demand, single copies of the dissertation, thesis or document, including the
copyrighted materials, for scholarly purposes.
Sincerely
Prof. Dr. Reşat ULUSAY
Editor-in-Chief
YERBILIMLERI
26
Yerbilimleri, 27 (2003), 59-74
Hacettepe †niversitesi Yerbilimleri Uygulama ve AraßtÝrma Merkezi BŸlteni
Bulletin of Earth Sciences Application and Research Centre of Hacettepe University
Erciyes VolkanÝ Ge• Kuvaterner buzul •škelleri
Late Quaternary glacial deposits of the Erciyes Volcano
M. Akif SARIKAYA, Attila ‚ÜNER
Hacettepe †niversitesi, Jeoloji MŸhendisliÛi BšlŸmŸ, 06532 Beytepe, ANKARA
Marek ZREDA
University of Arizona, Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, AZ 85721 Tucson, USA
…Z
Kapadokya Volkanik BšlgesiÕnin en yŸksek volkanÝ olan Erciyes DaÛÝ, Ge• KuvaternerÕde Ÿ• evrede izlenebilen
šnemli bir buzullaßma dšnemi ge•irmißtir. BuzullaßmanÝn izleri šzellikle dšrt ana vadi ile bir sÝrtta gšzlenir. KuzeybatÝya doÛru uzanan tekne ßekilli Aksu VadisiÕnde, dili 3400 m yŸksekliÛinde olan gŸncel bir buzul ile buzul dilinin
šn kÝsÝmlarÝndan itibaren Ÿzerleri kaya bloklarÝyla kaplÝ šlŸ buzul par•alarÝ gšzlenir. Vadi boyunca Ÿ• buzul evresine ait erime, yan ve cephe morenleri ile sandur dŸzlŸkleri bulunmaktadÝr. Ülk evreye ait yan morenler 2900 m yŸkseklikten 2200 mÕye kadar inmekte ve bazÝ yerlerde gšreceli yŸkseklikleri 100 mÕyi ge•mektedir. Bu morenlerden
tŸremiß 3-4 m •aplÝ bŸyŸk bloklar i•erebilen sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ ise geniß alanlar kaplar. Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda diÛer
šnemli bir buzul vadisi ise, daÛÝn doÛusunda geniß bir buzyalaÛÝnÝn i•inde gelißerek 2500 m yŸksekliÛe kadar indiÛi belirlenen buzullarÝn olußturduÛu cephe moren karmaßÝÛÝ ile temsil edilen †•ker VadisiÕdir. Yan, cephe, gerileme ve tŸmseksi morenlerden olußan bu moren karmaßÝÛÝnÝn en Ÿst kesimlerinde gŸncel kaya buzullarÝ da gšzlenir. DaÛÝn kuzeydoÛusuna doÛru uzanan dar bir vadi olan …ksŸzdere Vadisi boyunca 2900 m yŸkseklikten 2300
mÕye kadar uzanan ilk evreye ait bir yan moren •ifti ile yukarÝ kesimlerde ikinci evreye ait tŸmseksi moren karmaßÝÛÝ ve bir sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ bulunmaktadÝr. Daha kŸ•Ÿk bir vadi olan KÝrkpÝnar Vadisi buzul •škelleri ise, Aksu VadisiÕnin batÝsÝnda, 2850-2600 m yŸkseklikleri arasÝnda kalan kuzeybatÝ uzanÝmlÝ kŸ•Ÿk bir vadide gelißmiß yan ve
tŸmseksi morenlerden olußan bir karmaßÝk ile temsil edilir. Erciyes VolkanÝÕnÝn gŸneyinde buzul vadisi olußumu bulunmamakla birlikte 3300 ile 2500 m yŸkseklikleri arasÝnda kalan Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnda ilk iki evreye ait yan ve cephe morenleri ile DikkartÝn DomuÕnun etrafÝnda gelißmiß sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ gšzlenmektedir. Aksu VadisiÕnde bulunan
gŸncel buzulda yapÝlan gšzlemler, TŸrkiyeÕnin diÛer buzullarÝnda olduÛu gibi burada da, en azÝndan 20. yŸzyÝlÝn
baßlarÝndan bu yana bir gerilemenin olduÛunu belirtmektedir.
Anahtar kelimeler: Erciyes, Ge• Kuvaterner, gŸncel buzul, kaya buzullarÝ, kozmojenik yŸzey yaßlandÝrma, moren.
ABSTRACT
Mount Erciyes, highest stratovolcano of Cappadocian Volcanic Province, witnessed widespread valley glaciations
during Late Quaternary. It is characterized by four valleys and one ridge that contain a small glacier and glacial
deposits on its flanks. Aksu Valley is a northwest trending U-shaped valley with an actual glacier descending down
to 3400 m of elevation. Few dead ice fragments covered by debris are also present starting from the lower end of
the glacier. Lateral and terminal moraines, together with young ablation moraines and outwash plains indicate
three glacial epochs. The oldest and most extensive one is characterized by two well-preserved, 100 m high lateral moraines at altitudes 2900-2200 m. A vast outwash plain derived from these moraines contains large andesitic blocks up to 3-4 m in diameter. Another important glacial valley, situated on the eastarn side of the mountain,
is †•ker Valley with a wide cirque area originated from a volcanic amphitheatre. It contains a vast terminal moraine complex covering the present ski area. On the southern rim of the mountain, several rock glaciers are also observed. …ksŸzdere Valley is a northeast trending narrow glacial valley containing two lateral moraines between
M. A. SarÝkaya
Yerbilimleri
27
2900-2300 m of altitude. Between these moraines, a younger hummocky moraine complex and an outwash plain
are present. There is no glacial valley development on the southern side of the volcano. However, on the Topaktaß Ridge, small lateral and terminal moraines are present at altitudes between 3300 and 2500 m. KÝrkpÝnar Valley, situated to the west of Aksu Valley, is covered by a northwest oriented small terminal moraine complex made
up of lateral and hummocky moraines between 2850 and 2600 m of altitude. The data available on the modern
glacier situated in the Aksu Valley, indicate that the recent glacier retreat probably started at least at the beginning
of the 20th century.
Key words: Erciyes, Late Quaternary, actual glacier, rock glacier, cosmogenic surface dating, moraines.
GÜRÜÞ
Kapadokya Volkanik BšlgesiÕnin en yŸksek stratovolkanÝ olan Erciyes DaÛÝ (3917 m), KayseriÕnin 20 km gŸneyinde yer alÝr (Þekil 1). TŸrkiyeÕnin 2500-3000 mÕyi aßan bir•ok daÛÝnda (AÛrÝ, SŸphan ile Toroslar ve DoÛu Karadeniz DaÛlarÝ) olduÛu gibi, Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda da Ge•
Kuvaterner buzullaßmasÝna ait izlere rastlamak
mŸmkŸndŸr.
Bšlgede šzellikle volkanolojiye yšnelik •alÝßmalar olduk•a fazladÝr (Pasquare, 1968; Innocenti
vd., 1975; AyrancÝ, 1991; Notsu vd., 1995; Þen,
1997). Buna karßÝn, tŸm TŸrkiyeÕde olduÛu gibi,
ErciyesÕde de buzullaßmaya ve buzul •škellerine yšnelik •alÝßmalar •ok sÝnÝrlÝ sayÝdadÝr (Pent-
ErciyesÿDaÛÝ
3917ÿm
Þekil 1. Erciyes VolkanÝÕnÝn yer bulduru haritasÝ.
Figure 1. Location map of the Erciyes Volcano.
her, 1905; Bartsch, 1930; Blumenthal, 1938;
Erin•, 1951; GŸner ve Emre, 1983). Erciyes DaÛÝÕnda en son •alÝßmayÝ ger•ekleßtiren Þen
(1997), volkanizmayÝ iki aßamada incelemißtir.
Birinci Ko• DaÛÝ aßamasÝndan sonra gelißen
Yeni Erciyes volkanizmasÝ bugŸnkŸ Erciyes
VolkanÝÕnÝn olußtuÛu aßamayÝ belirtir. 1.7 my
(Innocenti vd., 1975; Ercan vd., 1994; Notsu
vd., 1995) šnce andezitik, dasitik ve bazaltik lav
akÝntÝlarÝ ile baßlayan bu aßama, dasitik, riyodasitik karakterdeki kuvvetli patlamalÝ volkanizma
ile 0.14 my (Ercan vd., 1994; Notsu vd., 1995)
šncesine kadar sŸrmŸßtŸr. Volkanik kaya•lara
ait bšlgede saptanan en son 0.083 myÕdÝr. Notsu vd. (1995) tarafÝndan belirlenen bu yaß PerikartÝn DomuÕnun yaklaßÝk 4 km kuzeyinde bulunan ‚arÝk Tepe (1719 m)Õdeki dasitik lavlara ait-
SarÝkaya vd.
tir. Bu tarihten sonra daÛÝn doÛu yamacÝnda bulunan amfitiyatroyu olußturan volkanik •ÝÛÝn olußumu ile Erciyes VolkanÝ en son halini almÝßtÝr
(Þen, 1997).
Ge• KuvaternerÕin Ÿ• evresinde ge•irdiÛi buzullaßma sonucu ise, Erciyes bugŸnkŸ gšrŸnŸmŸnŸ kazanmÝßtÝr. BuzullaßmanÝn yoÛun olarak
gelißtiÛi kuzey, kuzeybatÝ ve kuzeydoÛuya bakan yama•larda aßÝnma o denli ilerlemißtir ki,
GŸner ve Emre, (1983)Õnin belirttiÛi gibi daÛÝn iskeleti ortaya •ÝkmÝßtÝr. Buna karßÝn, daÛÝn gŸney
yamacÝnda Erciyes tam bir volkan gšrŸnŸmŸndedir.
Þekil 2. Erciyes VolkanÝ buzul •škelleri haritasÝ.
Figure 2. Glacial deposits map of the Erciyes Volcano.
28
Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda buzullaßmanÝn esas olarak
dšrt vadi boyunca gelißtiÛi gšzlenmektedir (Þekil 2). Bunlar; (1) kuzeybatÝya doÛru uzanan Aksu, (2) kuzeydoÛuya doÛru uzanan …ksŸzdere
ve (3) bugŸnkŸ kayak merkezini de kÝsmen i•ine
alan ve doÛuya bakan †•ker VadileriÕdir. DiÛer
buzullaßma bšlgeleri ise genelde kŸ•Ÿk bir buzyalaÛÝndan itibaren gelißen ancak fazla ilerleyemeyen buzullarÝn olußturduÛu (4) gŸneydeki Topaktaß SÝrtÝ ve (5) batÝdaki KÝrkpÝnar VadisiÕdir.
AMA‚ VE Y…NTEM
TŸrkiyeÕde Kuvaterner buzullaßmasÝ ile ilgili olarak yapÝlan daha šnceki •alÝßmalarda buzullaß-
Yerbilimleri
29
ma evrelerine ait mutlak (nicel) bir yaß verisi bulunmamaktadÝr. Ge•miß evrelere ait buzullarÝn
biriktirme ve aßÝndÝrma šzelliklerine bakÝlarak
ve bu yapÝlar arasÝndaki stratigrafik ve morfolojik ilißkiler incelenilerek yapÝlan bu tŸr stratigrafik yaßlandÝrma yšntemleri ancak gšreceli yaß
verebilmektedir. Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda yapÝlan bu
•alÝßmanÝn temel amacÝ, daÛÝn Ge• KuvaternerÕden gŸnŸmŸze kadar ge•irdiÛi buzullaßma
evrelerinin mutlak yaßlandÝrmasÝnÝn yapÝlabilmesi i•in gerekli šn •alÝßmalarÝn ger•ekleßtirilmesidir. Bu ama• doÛrultusunda šncelikle aßÝnma ve birikme yapÝlarÝnÝn (šzellikle moren setleri) kapsamlÝ haritalarÝ GPS kullanÝlarak yapÝlmÝßtÝr. Bunun yanÝ sÝra, moren setlerini olußturan buzul •škellerinin (till) ve sandur dŸzlŸklerinin sedimantolojik tanÝmlamalarÝ yapÝlmÝß ve
kozmojenik 36Cl yŸzey yaßlandÝrmasÝ (Cosmogenic 36Cl surface exposure dating) i•in šrnekler toplanmÝßtÝr.
BUZUL ‚…KELLERÜ
Aksu Vadisi
Genel gšrŸnŸmŸ itibariyle tipik bir tekne ßekilli
buzul vadisi olan Aksu Vadisi, Erciyes VolkanÝÕnÝn kuzeybatÝya bakan yamacÝnda zirveden
itibaren gelißmiß yaklaßÝk 4 km uzunluÛunda dar
ve derin bir vadidir (Þekil 2, 3 ve 4). BŸyŸk Erciyes (3917 m) ve KŸ•Ÿk Erciyes (3703 m) zirveleri ile baßlayan vadi esas olarak iki kÝsma ayrÝlÝr. Bunlar, ana vadi ile kuzeydoÛusunda ana vadiye paralel olarak uzanan ve yaklaßÝk 1 km
sonra 3000 m kotunda ana vadiye baÛlanan
asÝlÝ vadidir. Ana vadi, KŸ•Ÿk ve BŸyŸk Erciyes
zirvelerinin kuzey eteklerinde iki adet buzyalaÛÝ
ile baßlar. AsÝlÝ vadi ise, bu iki buzyalaÛÝndan
farklÝ bir buzyalaÛÝna sahiptir. YŸksek ve dik
sÝrtlarla •evrili Aksu Vadisi 3917 m kotundan
3000 mÕye kadar dik bir eÛimle al•alÝr ve en dar
olduÛu (375 m) noktadan itibaren 2600 m kotuna kadar sabit bir eÛimle uzanÝr.
YukarÝda genel morfolojik šzellikleri belirtilen
Aksu Vadisi tekne vadi šzelliÛini gŸnŸmŸze kadar sŸregelen buzul aktiviteleri nedeniyle almÝßtÝr. Bu aktivitenin aßÝndÝrma ve biriktirme izlerini
Aksu Vadisi ve asÝlÝ vadi i•inde gšrmek mŸmkŸndŸr. Buzul aßÝndÝrma izlerinin en šnemli kanÝtlarÝ vadinin 2900 m kotundan daha yŸksek
olan kesimlerinde bulunan ve ortalama rakÝmlarÝ 3300-3400 m olan dik ve keskin sÝrtlar (ar•-
Þekil 3. Aksu Vadisi buzul •škelleri haritasÝ (M1: Birinci evre morenleri, M2: Ükinci evre morenleri, M3: †•ŸncŸ evre morenleri, S1: Birinci
evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ, S2: Ükinci evre sandur
dŸzlŸÛŸ, S3: †•ŸncŸ evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ,
B: GŸncel buzul, …b: …lŸ buzul, Em: Erime
moreni, Moren sÝrtlarÝ kalÝn •izgilerle gšsterilmißtir, : Foto bakÝß yšnlerini gšstermektedir).
Figure 3. Glacial deposits map of Aksu Valley (M1: 1st
epoch moraine, M2: 2nd epoch moraine, M3:
3rd epoch moraine, S1: 1st epoch outwash
plain, S2: 2nd epoch outwash plain, S3: 3rd
epoch outwash plain, B: actual glacial, …b:
Dead ice, Em: Ablation moraine, Moraine
crests are indicated by thick lines, : Indicates the view directions of the pictures).
tes) ile 3500 mÕden sonra bulunan ve taban yŸkseklikleri ortalamasÝ 3550 m olan buzyalaklarÝdÝr. Bunun yanÝ sÝra, buzulun ana kaya Ÿzerinden ge•erken cilalayarak olußturduÛu hšrgŸ•kayalar ile, •ok daha kŸ•Ÿk boyutlu olsa da, buzulun i•erdiÛi ince malzemelerce •izilmiß yŸzeyler ve buzul yontmasÝ sonucu gelißmiß hilal ßekilleri (crescent marks) de gšzlenir (Þekil 5 ve
6).
SarÝkaya vd.
30
Þekil 4. Aksu VadisiÕnin genel gšrŸnŸmŸ (Arka planda, sol tarafta BŸyŸk Erciyes (3917 m), saÛ tarafta ise KŸ•Ÿk
Erciyes (3703 m) zirveleri gšzŸkmektedir. FotoÛrafÝn •ekildiÛi sÝrt 1. evre yan morenini (M1), zirvenin alt
kÝsmÝndaki beyaz alan gŸncel buzulu (B), aßaÛÝdaki dŸz alan ise 2. evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸnŸ (S2) temsil etmektedir, fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil 3Õe bakÝnÝz).
Figure 4. General view of Aksu Valley (Greater Erciyes Peak (3917 m) on the left and Little Erciyes Peak (3703
m) on the right. Picture is taken from the top of the 1st epoch lateral moraine (M1) from where the actual
glacier (B), and the 2nd epoch outwash plain (S2) can be seen, see Figure 3 for picture location).
Aksu VadisiÕnde buzul aßÝndÝrma yer ßekillerinin
yanÝ sÝra, bir•ok buzul birikinti yer ßekilleri de
bulunmaktadÝr. Bu vadi boyunca birikinti yer ßekillerini Ÿ• evrede incelemek mŸmkŸndŸr. En
yaßlÝ evreye (birinci evre) ait buzul •škelleri genellikle yan morenlerden olußan ve 2800-2900
m kotundan baßlayÝp, Aksu YaylasÝÕnÝn bulunduÛu 2200 mÕye kadar ilerleyen moren karmaßÝÛÝ
(M1) ile temsil edilirler (Þekil 3 ve 4). BaßlangÝ•ta iki adet bŸyŸk yan morenden olußan karmaßÝk, 2600 mÕden sonra belli belirsiz sÝrtlar halinde devam eder. Belirgin bir bitki šrtŸsŸnŸn gelißtiÛi bu moren karmaßÝÛÝnÝn yarÝ pekißmiß bileßenleri ve aßÝnmÝß morfolojileri nedeniyle Pleyistosen sonunda olußtuklarÝ belirtilmißtir (Erin•,
1951; GŸner ve Emre, 1983). Vadinin her iki tarafÝnda bulunan yan morenlerin yŸkseklikleri Aksu Vadisi tabanÝndan itibaren yaklaßÝk 60-100
m, genißlikleri ise 60-120 m civarÝndadÝr. Gerek
yŸkseklik ve doÛrultularÝ, gerekse fasiyes šzelliklerinin benzer olmalarÝ bu morenlerin aynÝ evrede olußtuklarÝ izlenimini vermektedir. Vadi bo-
yunca kuzeybatÝya doÛru birbirlerine paralel bir
ßekilde uzanan yan morenler, 2600 mÕden sonra gelißmiß flŸvyal etki nedeniyle ilksel gšrŸnŸmlerini kaybetmißlerdir. Birinci evre morenleri Aksu YaylasÝ (2200 m) civarÝnda gelißen volkanizma nedeniyle KaragŸllŸ Domu yerleßimine ait
piroklastik akÝß, yayÝlma ve geri dŸßme •škelleri
tarafÝndan Ÿzerlenmißlerdir (Þekil 7). Birinci evre
buzullaßmasÝnÝn olußturduÛu sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ
(S1) Aksu YaylasÝ (2200 m)Õndan itibaren HacÝlar (1550 m)Õa doÛru devam eden bšlgeyi kaplar
durumdadÝr. BuzullaßmayÝ izleyen evrede Erciyes VolkanÝÕnÝn eteklerindeki parazit konilerde
meydana gelen ikincil volkanizma ile bu sandur
dŸzlŸÛŸnŸn šrtŸldŸÛŸ gšzlenmektedir (Þekil 7).
Aksu VadisiÕnde gelißen ikinci evreye ait buzullaßma 3000-3100 m kotunda, asÝlÝ vadi ile ana
vadinin gŸney kenarÝndan itibaren yaklaßÝk 300500 m uzunluÛa ve 50-70 m yŸksekliÛe sahip
ikißer •ift yan moren (M2) ile temsil edilir (Þekil
8). Morenleri olußturan buzul •škellerinin bile-
Yerbilimleri
Þekil 5. Buzulun ilerlemesi sÝrasÝnda taßÝdÝÛÝ ince taneli sedimanlarÝn bir andezit bloÛunu •izmesi sonucu olußmuß buzul •izikleri (…rnekte
buzul akÝß yšnŸ ilk šnce saÛdan sola (veya
tersi) iken bloÛun dšnmesi ile kalemin sivri
ucunun gšsterdiÛi yšnde ikincil buzul •izikleri (birincil •izikleri keser halde) gelißmißtir).
Figure 5.Striations developed by fine grained sediments within the flowing glacier on the surface of an andesitic block (Example shows
two well developed striations, first from left
to right (or visa versa) and a second (younger since they cut the first ones) towards the
upper left corner of the picture).
31
Þekil 7. Aksu VadisiÕnin aßaÛÝ kesimlerindeki birinci
evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S1) ve yan morenlerini (M1) kesen KaragŸllŸ DomÕu (K) (Arka
planda Kayseri ßehri gšrŸlmektedir, fotoÛraf
yeri i•in Þekil 3Õe bakÝnÝz).
Figure 7. KaragŸllŸ Dome (K) cutting the 1st epoch
outwash plain (S1) and lateral moraines
(M1) on the lower end of Aksu Valley (Kayseri town on the background, see Figure 3
for picture location).
Sandur dŸzlŸÛŸnde 1,5-4 m tane boyuna sahip
iri bloklarÝn yanÝ sÝra birka• cm •apÝ olan daha
ince tane boyutlu malzeme de bulunmaktadÝr
(Þekil 9).
Aksu VadisiÕnde bulunan Ÿ•ŸncŸ evreye ait morenler buzulun gerilemesi esnasÝnda gelißmiß
erime morenlerinden (ablation moraines) (M3)
Þekil 6. Buzulun uyguladÝÛÝ basÝn• nedeniyle kaya•tan yontarak olußturduÛu hilal ßekilleri (AkÝß
yšnŸ fotoÛrafÝn Ÿst kÝsmÝndan aßaÛÝya doÛrudur).
Figure 6. Crescent marks developed due to the pressure applied by flowing glacier (Flow from
top towards bottom).
ßenleri genelde kšßeli-yarÝ kšßeli olup, 5-20 cm
•apÝndadÝr. Bunun yanÝ sÝra, •apÝ 2-4 m arasÝnda deÛißen bloklar da ince taneli bir matriks i•erisinde yŸzer durumdadÝrlar. Yer yer bitki šrtŸsŸnŸn de gelißtiÛi bu morenlerin cephe setleri
daha sonraki evrelerde gelißen flŸvyal etki sonucu bozulmußtur. Ancak bu morenlere ait sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S2) Aksu Vadisi tabanÝ boyunca
2500 m kotuna kadar devam eder (bkz. Þekil 3).
Þekil 8. †• adet 2. evre yan moreni (M2) ve bunlardan birinin kesiti (TabakalanmanÝn ve tane
boyu ayrÝßmasÝnÝn gšzlenmediÛi kum matriks destekli til i•inde yŸzen bloklar. FotoÛrafÝn sol tarafÝndaki beyaz blok yaklaßÝk 2 m
•apÝndadÝr).
Figure 8. Three 2nd epoch lateral moraines (M2) and
a cross-section through one of them (Note
the non-stratified, non-sorted nature of the
till and blocks floating in a sandy matrix. The
white boulder to the left is approximately 2 m
in diameter, see Figure 3 for picture location).
SarÝkaya vd.
32
bloklar ile šlŸ buz par•alarÝ karÝßÝk halde bulunurlar. †•ŸncŸ evre buzullarÝndan itibaren olußmuß sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S3) 3200 mÕden 2800 m
kotuna kadar devam eder. Nispeten dŸz bir topoÛrafyaya sahip olan sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ i•inde
30-50 cmÕlik kšßeli-yarÝ kšßeli taneler gšzlenir.
…ksŸzdere Vadisi
Þekil 9. Aksu Vadisi 1. evre saÛ yan moreni (M1) ve
2. evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S2) (Bloklar 2-4 m
•apÝnda olup sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ gŸncel akarsu
(a) tarafÝndan kesilmißtir, fotoÛraf yeri i•in
Þekil 3Õe bakÝnÝz).
Figure 9. The 1st epoch right lateral moraine (M1) and
the 2nd epoch outwash plain (S2) (Blocks
are 2 to 4 m in diameter and a recent river
(a) cuts though the outwash plain, see Figure 3 for picture location).
olußur (Þekil 10). Hem Aksu VadisiÕnde, hem de
ana vadiye baÛlanan asÝlÝ vadide 3100-3150 m
kotunda bulunan bu morenleri olußturan •škellerin tane boyu birka• 10 cmÕden 3-5 mÕlik bloklara kadar uzanÝr. Gerek •ok gen• olmalarÝ, gerekse de •ok az oranda ince boyutlu malzeme
i•ermelerinden dolayÝ bloklar yerlerinde sabit
deÛillerdir. ‚ok kšßeli tane boyuna sahip olan
Þekil 10. Aksu Vadisi 3. evre erime morenlerinin (Em)
buzuldan itibaren gšrŸnŸßŸ (Geri planda 2.
evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ, 1. evre saÛ yanal moreni (M1), 1. evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S1) ve
KaragŸllŸ DomÕu (K) gšrŸlmektedir, fotoÛraf
yeri i•in Þekil 3Õe bakÝnÝz).
Figure 10. The general view of the 3rd epoch ablation
moraines (Em) from the glacier (The 2nd
epoch outwash plain (S2) and 1st epoch
right lateral moraine (M1), the 1st epoch outwash plain (S1) and KaragŸllŸ Dome (K)
can be observed on the background, see Figure 3 for picture location).
…ksŸzdere Vadisi, Erciyes VolkanÝÕnÝn kuzeydoÛuya bakan yamacÝndan itibaren 2150 m yŸksekliÛe kadar yaklaßÝk 6 km uzanan bir buzul
vadisidir (Þekil 2 ve 11). …ksŸzdere vadisi 1.5
km genißliÛinde ve 2 km uzunluÛunda geniß bir
buzyalaÛÝndan itibaren baßlar. Vadinin en dar
yeri, SaÛsÝkalÝk ve KÝr•ÝllÝseki SÝrtlarÝ arasÝnda
dŸzgŸn bir ßekilde uzanan tepeler arasÝnda yaklaßÝk 250 m kadardÝr. ErciyesÕin zirvesinden itibaren kuzeydoÛuya doÛru 45-60oÕlik bir eÛimle
baßlayan buzyalaÛÝ gŸnŸmŸzde zirve ve •evresindeki dik yama•lardan dškŸlen malzemelerle
tamamen kaplÝ bir haldedir (Þekil 12). 29003000 m kotuna kadar devam eden yama• dškŸntŸlerinin olußturduÛu yŸksek eÛimli topoÛrafya, 3000 m kotundan sonra yerini biri 2800 m di-
Þekil 11. …ksŸzdere Vadisi buzul •škelleri haritasÝ
(M1: Birinci evre morenleri, M2: Ükinci evre
morenleri, S1: Birinci evre sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ,
Tm: TŸmseksi moren, Moren sÝrtlarÝ kalÝn
•izgilerle gšsterilmißtir,
: Foto bakÝß yšnlerini gšstermektedir).
Figure 11. Glacial deposits map of …ksŸzdere Valley
(M1: 1st epoch moraine, M2: 2nd epoch moraine, S1: 1st epoch outwash plain, Tm:
Hummocky moraine, Moraine crests are indicated by thick lines, : Indicates the view
directions of the pictures).
Yerbilimleri
33
Þekil 12. …ksŸzdere VadisiÕnde gšzlenen 1. evreye ait saÛ ve sol yanal moren setleri (M1) ve arasÝnda gelißmiß
tŸmseksi morenler (Tm) (fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil 11Õe bakÝnÝz).
Figure 12. …ksŸzdere Valley 1st epoch right lateral moraines (M1) and hummocky moraines (Tm) in between (see
Figure 11 for picture location).
Ûeri ise 2900 mÕde bulunan cephe morenlerinin
olußturduÛu iki basamaÛa bÝrakÝr. Bu basamaklarÝn arka kesimlerinde ise kŸ•Ÿk tepeler ve •ukur alanlarÝn bulunduÛu bir morfoloji gšzlenir. Alt
basamaktan itibaren vadi flŸvyal etki ile aßÝnarak 2100-2000 m kotunda son bulmaktadÝr.
Aksu VadisiÕnde gšzlemlenen birinci ve ikinci
evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn eßlenikleri …ksŸzdere VadisiÕnde de gšrŸlmektedir. Her ne kadar gšzlenemese de, buzyalaÛÝ i•erisinde bulunan ve
3400 m kotundan 3000 mÕye kadar devam eden
geniß ve kalÝn alŸvyal yelpaze šrtŸsŸnŸn gen•
morenleri (Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre) ŸzerlediÛi dŸßŸnŸlmektedir.
…ksŸzdere VadisiÕnin her iki yanÝnda 2800
mÕden baßlayarak 2250 m kotuna kadar devam
eden yan moren •iftinin (M1) vadi tabanÝndan itibaren yŸkseklikleri 60-100 m, genißlikleri ise 50150 m kadardÝr (Þekil 12). Yan morenlerin yŸksekliklerinin, uzunluklarÝnÝn ve sedimantolojik
šzelliklerinin benzer olmasÝ aynÝ evrede olußtuklarÝnÝn birer belirtisidir. YarÝ pekißmiß, matriks
destekli bir gšrŸnŸm sunan bu birinci evre morenleri, yarÝ •aplarÝ birka• 10 cmÕden 3-5 mÕlik
bloklara kadar deÛißen bileßenler i•erirler. Riyolit ve bazalt gibi volkanik kškenli kaya• par•alarÝ i•eren morenlerin Ÿzerleri yosun ve •alÝlÝklarÝn
olußturduÛu seyrek bir bitki šrtŸsŸ ile kaplÝdÝr.
Birinci evre buzullaßmanÝn olußturduÛu cephe
morenleri daha sonra bšlgede gelißen flŸvyal etki nedeniyle aßÝnmÝßlardÝr.
…ksŸzdere VadisiÕnde gšzlemlenen birinci evre
buzullaßmasÝ sÝrasÝnda gelißen sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ
(S1) 2600 m kotundan baßlar ve 1200 mÕye kadar devam eder. Genellikle 20-30 cmÕlik bloklar
ile daha ince tane boyutlu malzemeden olußan
sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ flŸvyal etkinin artmasÝ sonucu
giderek belirginsizleßir.
Vadideki ikinci buzul evresi 2700 m ve 2900 m
kotunda birbirini izleyen iki set gšrŸnŸmŸnde
olan ve buzul gerilemesini ifade eden cephe morenleri (M2) ile kendini gšsterir (Þekil 11). Yerden yŸkseklikleri 100-150 mÕyi bulan bu cephe
morenlerinin genißlikleri yaklaßÝk 30-50 m olup,
uzunluklarÝ vadiyi dolduracak ßekilde 100 m civarÝndadÝr. Bileßenleri genellikle 10-20 cmÕden
3-5 mÕye kadar olan bloklardan olußan sšz konusu morenler, yarÝ pekißmiß, matriks destekli
kil-kum boyu baÛlayÝcÝ i•eren yÝÛÝßÝmlar halindedir (Þekil 13). YŸzeylerinde seyrek de olsa bir
bitki šrtŸsŸ gelißmißtir.
Her iki cephe moreni gerisinde ise, genellikle
dŸzensiz bir daÛÝlÝm gšsteren, kŸ•Ÿk tepecikler
ile •ukur alanlardan olußan bšlgeler (Òknob-andkettle topographyÓ, Gravenor ve Kupsch, 1959)
gšzlenmektedir. Tepecikler 2-4 m yŸksekliÛinde, 5-10 m genißliÛinde hafif yuvarlak ve genel-
SarÝkaya vd.
34
hemen hemen aynÝ evrede olußmuß tŸmseksi
morenler (hummocky moraines) olarak yorumlanmÝßlardÝr.
†•ker Vadisi
Þekil 13. …ksŸzdere Vadisi i•erisinde bulunan 2. evre cephe moren setlerinden 2900 mÕde olanÝ (M2) ve kozmojenik yŸzey yaßlandÝrmasÝ
i•in šrnek alÝmÝ (fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil 11Õe
bakÝnÝz).
Figure 13. The 2nd epoch frontal moraine (M2) at
2900 m, and sampling for cosmogenic dating, (see Figure 11 for picture location).
likle uzunlamasÝna olup, 1-3 m derinliÛinde ve
4-6 m genißliÛinde •ukur alanlar ile birbirlerinden ayrÝlmÝßlardÝr. Tepeciklerin bileßenleri yarÝ
pekißmiß, kil-kum boyu baÛlayÝcÝ i•eren, matriks
destekli ve kahverengi-sarÝmsÝ renkli 5-10 cm
•aplÝ •akÝllar ile 1-1,5 m •apÝndaki bloklardan
olußur. ‚ukurluklar ise genellikle kil, yer yer kum
boyu malzeme ile šrtŸlŸ haldedir. YaÛÝßlÝ mevsimlerde gšlcŸklerin olußtuÛu bu alanlar, yaz
aylarÝnda kurur ve bitki šrtŸsŸ ile kaplanÝr. Cephe morenleri gerisindeki bu tepecikler onlarla
Erciyes VolkanÝ zirvesinden itibaren doÛuya
doÛru uzanan ve kuzeyde KÝr•ÝllÝseki SÝrtÝ (3357
m) ile gŸneyde KuzuyataÛÝ Tepe (3667 m) arasÝnda bulunan †•ker Vadisi volkanik •škme ile
olußan bir amfitiyatroyu i•ine alÝr (Þekil 14 ve
15). 1-1.5 km genißliÛinde, 2-2.5 km uzunluÛunda ve 800-900 m derinliÛinde dik yama•larla
•evrili bu amfitiyatro Ge• KuvaternerÕde †•ker
VadisiÕnde gelißmiß buzullar i•in bir buzyalaÛÝ
ißlevini gšrmŸßtŸr. Homojen bir morfoloji arz etmeyen vadi, †•ker mevkii civarÝnda etrafÝ kapalÝ •ukur bir buzyalaÛÝ, Þeytan SÝrtÝ (2734 m) ve
Bokluyurt SÝrtÝ (2663 m) kotunda ise basamaklar halinde gelißmiß tepe ve •ukur alanlardan
olußur. Yer yer flŸvyal etki nedeni ile aßÝnan vadi, gŸneyde Þeytan Deresi kuzeyde ise Bokluyurt Deresi ile sÝnÝrlÝdÝr.
YukarÝda genel morfolojik šzellikleri aktarÝlan
†•ker Vadisi i•inde KuvaternerÕde gelißen Ÿ•
evreli buzullaßmanÝn izleri gšrŸlmektedir. Birinci
evre buzullaßmasÝna ait morenler (M1) 2650 m
kotunda bulunan Þeytan SÝrtÝÕndan itibaren baß-
Þekil 14. †•ker Vadisi buzul •škelleri haritasÝ (M1: Birinci evre morenleri, M2: Ükinci evre morenleri, M3: †•ŸncŸ
evre morenleri, S: Sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ, Kb: Kaya buzulu, Gm: Gerileme moreni, Tm: TŸmseksi moren, Moren sÝrtlarÝ kalÝn •izgilerle gšsterilmißtir, : Foto bakÝß yšnŸnŸ gšstermektedir).
Figure 14. Glacial deposits map of †•ker Valley (M1: 1st epoch moraine, M2: 2nd epoch moraine, M3: 3rd epoch
moraine, S: Outwash plain, Kb: Rock glacier, Gm: Recessional moraine, Tm: Hummocky moraine, Moraine crests are indicated by thick lines, : Indicates the view direction of the pictures).
Yerbilimleri
35
Ûu ikinci evre moren karmaßÝÛÝ birinci evre morenlerini Þeytan SÝrtÝ civarÝnda Ÿzerler.
Þekil 15. Erciyes VolkanÝÕna doÛudan bakÝß (Arka
planda Erciyes Zirvesi ve volkanik •škmeyle
olußtuktan sonra †•ker buzyalaÛÝnÝn gelißtiÛi amfitiyatro ile šn planda kayak merkezi
gšrŸlmektedir).
Figure 15. View of Erciyes Volcano from east (The
Greater Erciyes Peak and its amphitheater
formed by volcanic collapse that later overridden by †•ker glacier on the background
and the ski area on the foreground).
lar ve Erciyes SÝrtÝÕna kadar devam ederek 2470
mÕde sonlanÝr. UzunlamasÝna sÝrt ve tepelerin
olußturduÛu yarÝ tutturulmuß, birka• 10 cmÕden
2-7 m blok boyu malzemeye kadar bileßen i•eren bu moren karmaßÝÛÝ matriks destekli, kilkum boyu baÛlayÝcÝ i•eren, kšßeli-yarÝ kšßeli sedimanlardan olußur. Genel gšrŸnŸmŸ kahverengi-sarÝ renkte olup, bileßenler arasÝnda gelißmiß
ince toprak tabakasÝ Ÿzerinde yer yer bitki šrtŸsŸ gšzlenir.
Birinci evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn olußturduÛu sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S1) gŸneyde Þeytan SÝrtÝ, kuzeyde ise Bokluyurt SÝrtÝÕnÝ takip ederek gŸnŸmŸzde kayak merkezi olarak kullanÝlan alan da dahil olmak Ÿzere Tekir YaylasÝÕnÝ da i•ine alan
geniß bir bšlgede yŸzeylenir. Bu alan sadece birinci evre buzullarÝnÝn sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ olmayÝp,
her Ÿ• dšneme ait bileßenleri de barÝndÝrÝr. 5-15
cm ile 1-2 m blok boyutunda sediman i•eren
sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ daha sonra gelißmiß flŸvyal etkinlik nedeni ile yarÝlmÝßtÝr.
†•ker VadisiÕnde gelißmiß ikinci evre buzullaßmanÝn izleri, …ksŸzdere VadisiÕnde olduÛu gibi,
iki basamak halinde gšzlenir. Birinci basamak
2700 m kotunda, ikinci basamak ise 2850 mÕde
yer alÝr. Cephe morenlerinin (M2) olußturduÛu
bu basamaklarÝn gerisinde •oÛunlukla gerileme
morenleri ile tŸmseksi morenler bulunur. AnÝlan
moren karmaßÝÛÝ kuzeyden ve gŸneyden ikißer
•ift yan moren ile sÝnÝrlandÝrÝlmÝßtÝr. Bir•ok kŸ•Ÿk ve uzunlamasÝna moren setlerinin bulundu-
Ükinci evre morenlerini olußturan ilk cephe moreninin vadi tabanÝndan yŸksekliÛi 70 m, genißliÛi
ise 550 m kadardÝr. Arka bšlŸmŸnde 50x100 m
genißliÛindeki bir alanda tŸmseksi morenler barÝndÝran bu ilk cephe moreninden sonra yŸksekliÛi 25-30 m, genißliÛi ise 350 m olan ikinci cephe moreni gelir. Yine bu moren setinin arkasÝnda 70x800 mÕlik bir alan kaplayan ve gerileme
morenleri ile tŸmseksi morenlerden olußan bir
bšlge yer alÝr. Bileßenleri birka• 20 cmÕden 2-5
m arasÝnda bloklara kadar deÛißen bu morenler,
yarÝ pekißmiß matriks destekli, kil-kum boyu
baÛlayÝcÝ i•eren ve seyrek bitki šrŸsŸnŸn gelißtiÛi bir gšrŸnŸm arz ederler (Þekil 16).
Erciyes kayak alanÝnÝn Ÿst kÝsÝmlarÝnÝ da i•ine
alan ikinci evre moren karmaßÝÛÝ 3000-3050 m
kotunda bšlgede bulunan Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre morenleri (M3) tarafÝndan Ÿzerlenir. 50-70 m uzunluÛunda, 10-45 m genißliÛinde, 15-30 m yŸksekliÛinde uzunlamasÝna tepeciklerden olußan bu Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre morenlerinin en belirgin šzellikleri diÛerlerine gšre •ok daha gen• gšrŸnŸmlŸ olmalarÝdÝr. 3050 m kotunda bulunan cephe moreninin
yŸksekliÛi 55 m, 3250 m kotundaki diÛer cephe
morenin yŸksekliÛi ise 35 m kadardÝr. 3400 m
kotunda bile kŸ•Ÿk buzyalaklarÝndan itibaren
gelißmiß cephe moreni setlerine rastlanÝr. Gevßek, tutturulmamÝß, kšßeli-yarÝ kšßeli, 50-80
cmÕden 3-8 mÕlik bloklara kadar sediman i•eren
morenler hemen hemen hi• baÛlayÝcÝ malzeme
Þekil 16.†•ker Vadisi i•erisinde 2. evre morenlerinden olußan karmaßÝk (M2) ile bunu Ÿzerleyen gŸncel kaya buzullarÝ (Kb) ve 3. evreye
ait morenler (M3) (fotoÛraf yeri i•in Þekil
14Õe bakÝnÝz).
Figure 16. The 2nd epoch morainic complex (M2) within the †•ker Valley is overlain by 3rd epoch
moraines and active rock glaciers (Kb) (see
Figure 14 for picture location).
SarÝkaya vd.
36
i•ermezler. Aksu VadisiÕnde gšzlenen son evre
morenleri ile ortak šzelliklere sahip bu morenlerin onlarla aynÝ evrede olußtuklarÝ sšylenebilir.
†•ker VadisiÕ nin 3000 ile 3250 m kotlarÝ arasÝnda, 15-20 m uzunluÛunda, yarÝ kapalÝ, sÝralÝ, yay
ßekili tepecik ve •ukur alanlardan olußturan ve
gevßek, tutturulmamÝß, 10-40 cmÕden 1-3 mÕye
kadar bloklar i•eren aktif kaya buzullarÝ bulunmaktadÝr (Þekil 16). Bunun yanÝ sÝra bšlgede,
kaya buzullarÝnÝn i•erisindeki šlŸ buz par•acÝklarÝnÝn zaman i•inde erimesi ve Ÿstteki sedimanlarÝn bu boßluÛa gš•mesi sonucu olußan
huni ßekilli buz •ukuru ile bunlarÝn su ile dolmasÝ sonucu gelißen gšlcŸkler de gšzlenmektedir.
Topaktaß SÝrtÝ
ErciyesÕe gŸneyden bakÝldÝÛÝnda daÛ ger•ek bir
volkan gšrŸnŸmŸndedir. DŸzenli bir eÛimle yŸkselen KuzuyataÛÝ SÝrtÝ daÛa bu šzelliÛini verir.
Ancak kuzeyden bakÝldÝÛÝnda Erciyes DaÛÝ iskeletimsi bir gšrŸnŸm arz eder. GŸner ve Emre
(1983) daÛÝn bu šzelliÛini kuzey yama•ta KuvaternerÕde gelißen etkin ve yaygÝn buzullaßmanÝn
olußturduÛunu belirtmektedirler. Kuzey ve doÛu
yama•larda sšz konusu evrelerde gelißmiß buzullaßmalar ile bu bšlgelerde buzyalaklarÝ ve
buzul vadileri a•ÝlmÝßtÝr. GŸney ve batÝ yama•larda ise, kŸ•Ÿk boyutlu buzyalaklarÝndan itibaren gelißen buzullar, tekne ßekilli vadiler olußturamasalar da, sÝrtlar Ÿzerinde •škellerini bÝrakmÝßlardÝr.
Erciyes zirvesinden itibaren gŸneye doÛru uzanarak KartÝnardÝ (2500 m) civarÝnda sona eren
ve Topaktaß SÝrtÝ olarak anÝlan bšlge yan morenler ile bir cephe moreni i•ermektedir (Þekil 2
ve 17). BaßlangÝ•ta 3110 m kotunda kŸ•Ÿk bir
buzyalaÛÝ da i•eren Topaktaß SÝrtÝ, batÝsÝnda
Topaktaß Dere ve doÛusunda KuzuyataÛÝ SÝrtÝ
ile sÝnÝrlandÝrÝlmÝßtÝr.
Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnda ilk iki evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn
izlerini gšrmek mŸmkŸndŸr. Birinci evre morenleri (M1) 2700-2562 m kotlarÝ arasÝndaki alanda
gšzlenir (Þekil 18). 250-400 m uzunluÛunda kuzey-gŸney doÛrultulu birka• moren sÝrtÝndan
olußan birinci evre morenleri kuzey ve doÛudaki
vadilerde bulunan eßlenikleri kadar gelißememißlerdir. DikkartÝn Domu tarafÝndan Ÿzerlenen
birinci evre morenleri, 10-15 cm boyutundaki
•akÝllar ile 2-3 mÕlik bloklardan olußmußtur. Ge-
Þekil 17. Topaktaß SÝrtÝ buzul •škelleri haritasÝ (M1:
Birinci evre morenleri, M2: Ükinci evre morenleri, S: Sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ, Moren sÝrtlarÝ kalÝn •izgilerle gšsterilmißtir).
Figure 17. Glacial deposits map of Topaktaß Ridge
(M1: 1st epoch moraine, M2: 2nd epoch moraine, S: Outwash plain, Moraine crests are
indicated by thick lines).
nellikle yarÝ tutturulmuß, matriks destekli, kilkum boyutunda malzeme i•eren morenler, kahverengi-sarÝmsÝ renktedirler.
Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnda gšzlemlenen ikinci evre moren karmaßÝÛÝ (M2) 3100 m kotunda, 600-650 m
uzunluÛundaki birka• yan moren ile baßlar ve
2650 m kotunda son bulur. Birinci evre morenlerini Ÿzerleyen cephe moreninin yŸksekliÛi 60
m civarÝnda olup, uzunluÛu 450-500 m genißliÛi
Yerbilimleri
37
Þekil 18. Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnÝ kaplayan 2. evre moren
(M2) sÝrtÝndaki en bŸyŸk boyutlu bloktan šrnekleme.
Figure 18. Sampling from the largest boulder available from the 2nd epoch moraines on Topaktaß
Ridge.
ise 70 m kadardÝr. 20-40 cm ile 2-5 m arasÝnda,
kšßeli-yarÝ kšßeli malzeme i•eren ikinci evre
morenleri, kil-kum boyu baÛlayÝcÝ malzeme i•erirler ve Ÿzerlerinde yer yer bitki šrtŸsŸ gelißmißtir. Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnda son evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn
izlerine rastlanÝlmamÝßtÝr. SÝrtÝn gŸneye bakmasÝ ve son evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn olduÛu dšnemde daimi kar seviyesinin bšlgede bulunan buzyalaÛÝnÝn Ÿzerinde olmasÝ nedeniyle daÛÝn diÛer
bšlgelerinde gšzlenen Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre buzullaßmasÝnÝn burada gelißemediÛi sšylenebilir. Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕnda her iki evre buzullaßmasÝna ait sandur dŸzlŸÛŸ (S) DikkartÝn TepeÕnin batÝ ve doÛu
kenarlarÝndan itibaren gelißmißtir. Bu bšlgede
bulunan sandur dŸzlŸÛŸnŸn DikkartÝn Domu tarafÝndan šrtŸldŸÛŸ dŸßŸnŸlmektedir.
KÝrkpÝnar Vadisi
Aksu VadisiÕnin batÝsÝnda KŸ•Ÿk Erciyes zirvesi
(3703 m)Õnden itibaren kuzeybatÝya doÛru uzanan KÝrkpÝnar Vadisi Ÿzerinde 2850-2600 m kotlarÝ arasÝndaki 1.5 km2Õlik alanda Topaktaß SÝrtÝÕndakilere benzer bir moren karmaßÝÛÝ gšzlenmektedir (Þekil 2, 19 ve 20). GŸneß alan a•Ýk bir
konumda olmasÝ nedeniyle bšlgede šnemli bir
buzyalaÛÝ gelißememißtir. DolayÝsÝyla bu bšlgede gelißen kŸ•Ÿk bir buzulun olußturduÛu morenler de •ok fazla yayÝlÝm gšstermezler.
DeÛißik doÛrultularda, 40-60 m uzunluÛunda,
15-20 m genißliÛinde 5-10 m yŸksekliÛinde yan
ve tŸmseksi morenlerden olußan bšlgede yer
yer 5-10 m derinliÛinde uzunlamasÝna •ukur
alanlar yer alÝr. 10-20 cm •akÝllar ile 1-4 m blok
Þekil 19. KÝrkpÝnar Vadisi buzul •škelleri haritasÝ (M1:
Birinci evre morenleri, Tm: TŸmseksi moren,
Moren sÝrtlarÝ kalÝn •izgilerle gšsterilmißtir,
: Foto bakÝß yšnŸnŸ gšstermektedir).
Figure 19. Glacial deposits map of KÝrkpÝnar Ridge
(M1: 1st epoch moraine, Tm: Hummocky
moraine, Moraine crests are indicated by
thick lines, : Indicates the view direction of
the pictures).
boyutundaki malzemeden olußan morenler, kilkum boyu matriks ile yarÝ tutturulmuß haldedir.
Yer yer bitki šrtŸsŸnŸn gelißtiÛi morenler arasÝndaki •ukurluklarda gelißen gšlcŸklerde daha da
yaygÝn bir bitki šrtŸsŸ gšzlenir. Bileßenlerinin
tutturulmuß olmasÝ ve gelißmiß bitki šrtŸsŸ nedeniyle KÝrkpÝnar Vadisi morenleri birinci evre
morenleri (M1) olarak ele alÝnmÝßtÝr.
Þekil 20. KÝrkpÝnar VadisiÕnde gšzlenen 1. evre tŸmseksi morenler (Tm) (Arka planda KŸ•Ÿk Erciyes zirvesi gšrŸlmektedir, fotoÛraf yeri i•in
Þekil 19Õa bakÝnÝz).
Figure 20. The southeastern view of the 1st epoch
hummocky moraines (Tm) in the KÝrkpÝnar
Valley. (Little Erciyes Peak on the background, see Figure 19 for picture location).
SarÝkaya vd.
G†NCEL BUZUL
Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda gŸncel buzul sadece kuzeybatÝya bakan Aksu VadisiÕnde bulunmaktadÝr
(Þekil 4). 20. yyÕÝn baßlarÝndan itibaren sistematik olmasa da, yapÝlan šl•Ÿmler Aksu BuzuluÕnun sŸrekli bir gerileme i•erisinde olduÛunu
gšstermektedir (Þekil 21). Buzula ilißkin en eski
veriler 1902 yÝlÝnÝn Temmuz ayÝna aittir. Penther
(1905) buzul dilinin 3100 m kotuna kadar indiÛini belirtmekte ve TŸrkiyeÕnin yayÝnlanmÝß ilk buzul fotoÛrafÝ olduÛu dŸßŸnŸlen bir fotoÛrafÝ da
•alÝßmasÝnda sunmaktadÝr. Penther (1905)Õin
uzunluÛunu 700 m olarak hesapladÝÛÝ buzulun
dil kÝsmÝnÝn olduÛu yerde bugŸn Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre
buzullaßmasÝnÝn cephe morenleri gšzlenmektedir. 1930 yÝlÝnÝn yaz aylarÝnda yapÝlan bir baßka
•alÝßmada ise buzul dilinin 3250 m kotuna •ekildiÛi belirtilmektedir (Bartsch, 1930 ve 1935).
Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda TŸrk araßtÝrmacÝlar tarafÝndan yapÝlan •alÝßmalar Erin• (1951 ve 1952a,b)
tarafÝndan baßlatÝlmÝßtÝr. Erin• 1950 yÝlÝnÝn
AÛustos ayÝnda yaptÝÛÝ •alÝßmada daimi kar sÝnÝrÝnÝn 3550 m kotunda olduÛunu ve buzulun
3380 mÕye •ekildiÛini belirtmißtir (Erin•, 1951 ve
1952a). AraßtÝrmacÝ ayrÝca Penther (1905)Õin
•alÝßmasÝna atÝfta bulunarak buzulun yÝlda ortalama 3 m geri •ekildiÛini hesaplamÝßtÝr. Erin•
(1951)Õe gšre 1950 yÝlÝnda 15 hektar alan kaplayan buzulun o zamanki uzunluÛu 550 m olup,
kalÝnlÝÛÝ en fazla 50 m kadardÝr. Üzleyen yÝllarda
Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda gŸncel buzul ve daha šnce-
38
ki evrelerdeki buzullaßmaya ilißkin •alÝßmalar
devam etmißtir (Messerli, 1964, 1965, 1967; Birman, 1968). GŸnŸmŸze en yakÝn •alÝßma ise,
GŸner ve Emre (1983) tarafÝndan yapÝlmÝßtÝr. Bu
araßtÝrmacÝlar, buzulun uzunluÛunun 380 mÕye
gerilediÛini ve buzul dilinin 3400 m kotuna ulaßtÝÛÝnÝ belirtmißlerdir.
Bu •alÝßma kapsamÝnda yapÝlan arazi •alÝßmalarÝ ile gŸncel buzulun daha šnceki •alÝßmalarda
da belirtildiÛi gibi gerilediÛi gšrŸlmŸßtŸr. GŸnŸmŸzde buzul, Aksu Vadisi i•erisinde BŸyŸk Erciyes (3917 m) ile KŸ•Ÿk Erciyes zirvesi (3703 m)
arasÝnda kalan ge•idin BŸyŸk Erciyes zirvesine
daha yakÝn olan kÝsmÝnda kuzeye bakan dik
eÛimli yama•ta bulunmaktadÝr. YaklaßÝk 400 m
uzunluÛunda olan buzulun son bulduÛu nokta
3420 m kotundadÝr. Buzulun šn kÝsmÝnda kopmuß šlŸ buz par•alarÝ ile •evreden dškŸlen bloklarÝn olußturduÛu moren karmaßÝÛÝ 3300 m kotuna kadar devam etmektedir.
TARTIÞMA VE SONU‚LAR
Erciyes VolkanÝ Ge• KuvaternerÕde Ÿ• buzullaßma evresi ge•irmißtir. Toplam dšrt ana vadi (Aksu, †•ker, …ksŸzdere ve KÝrkpÝnar Vadileri) ve
bir sÝrtta (Topaktaß SÝrtÝ) gšzlenen buzullaßma
sonucu •eßitli buzul aßÝndÝrma izleri ve biriktirme
ßekilleri olußmußtur. …zellikle Aksu ve …ksŸzdere VadileriÕnde gšrŸlen tekne vadi karakteri ile
†•ker buzulunun volkanik amfitiyatroyu ißleyerek yarattÝÛÝ bŸyŸk boyutlu buzyalaÛÝ šnemli
Þekil 21. Buzulun zaman ve mekan i•indeki gelißimini gšsterir harita ve bšlgede •alÝßan •eßitli araßtÝrmacÝlara gšre buzul evrimi (kesikli •izgiler araßtÝrÝcÝlara gšre buzulun kapladÝÛÝ alanlarÝ gšstermektedir).
Figure 21. Time and space relationships of the glacier and its evolution (dashed lines indicate the areas covered
by the glacier) throughout the years according to various investigators.
Yerbilimleri
aßÝndÝrma izlerindendir. Ana kaya ve bloklar
Ÿzerinde gšzlenen •izikler ve hilal ßekilleri de
kŸ•Ÿk boyutlu aßÝndÝrma izlerine šrnek olarak
verilebilir.
Biriktirme ßekillerinden en šnemlilerini yan ve
cephe morenleri olußturur. …zellikle birinci evreye ait yan morenlerin vadilerin •oÛunda 22002300 m kotuna kadar inmiß olmalarÝ ve olußturduklarÝ sÝrtlarÝn yŸksekliklerinin yer yer 100 mÕyi
ge•mesi bunlarÝn en etkin buzul evresinin ŸrŸnŸ
olduklarÝnÝ kußkuya yer vermeyecek ßekilde kanÝtlamaktadÝr. ‚alÝßmanÝn temel amacÝnÝ olußturan moren setleri Ÿzerindeki bloklardan kozmojenik yaß tayini i•in toplanan šrneklerden henŸz
nicel bir yaß bulgusu olmasa da, birinci evreye
ait morenlerin (M1) ve sandur dŸzlŸÛŸnŸn (S1)
KaragŸllŸ DomuÕndan •Ýkan piroklastik malzemeler ile šrtŸlmŸß olmasÝ buzullaßmanÝn baÛÝl
yaßÝ hakkÝnda bilgi vermektedir. Her ne kadar
KaragŸllŸ DomuÕndan yaß verisi bulunmasa da,
benzer bileßim ve volkanik ge•miße sahip PerikartÝn ve DikkartÝn DomlarÝÕnÝn (Þen vd., 2002)
0.14±0.02 ile 0.11±0.03 My yaß aralÝÛÝnda olußtuklarÝ (Ercan vd., 1994) gšzšnŸne alÝndÝÛÝnda,
birinci buzul evresinin baÛÝl yaßÝnÝn yukarÝda belirtilen yaßtan daha fazla olmasÝ gerektiÛi a•ÝktÝr.
Kuvaterner stratigrafisi i•inde 6. buzul evresi
olarak bilinen (125 000 yÝl šnce) evreye karßÝlÝk
gelebilecek bu morenlerin kesin yaßlarÝ kozmojenik yaß tayini sonucu daha da net bir ßekilde
belirlenebilecektir.
‚ok daha az yaygÝn olan ikinci evre yan ve cephe morenleri ise, šzellikle …ksŸzdere VadisiÕnde
gšrŸldŸÛŸ Ÿzere, gerileme morenleri ve tŸmseksi morenler olarak bulunurlar. Her ne kadar yan
ve cephe morenlerinin olußum mekanizmalarÝ
a•Ýk bir ßekilde anlaßÝlabilmiß ise de, tŸmseksi
morenler hakkÝnda tam bir fikir birliÛi bulunmamaktadÝr. Konu ile ilgilenen araßtÝrmacÝlarÝn bir•oÛu tŸmseksi morenlerin ana buzul dilinden koparak šlŸ buz haline gelen buzullarÝn Ÿzerindeki, i•indeki ve/veya altÝndaki sedimanlarÝn zamanla šbekler halinde birikmesi sonucu olußtuklarÝ konusunda gšrŸß birliÛi i•indedirler (Eyles,
1983; Benn, 1992; Bennett ve Boulton, 1993;
Eyles vd., 1998; Klassen ve Hughes 2000; Boone ve Eyles, 2001). †lkemizde bilinen en yaygÝn tŸmseksi morenler, Orta ToroslarÕda GeyikdaÛ civarÝndaki Namaras VadisiÕnde gelißmiß
olup, •ok geniß alanlar (30 km2) kaplarlar (‚iner
vd., 1999; ‚iner, 2003).
39
†•ŸncŸ evreye ait morenler genellikle taze gšrŸnŸmlŸ ve bitki šrtŸsŸnŸn gelißmediÛi, baÛlayÝcÝ i•ermeyen iri bloklara sahip erime ve cephe
morenlerinden olußurlar. †• vadide de gšzlemlenen bu morenlerin yaklaßÝk olarak 1500-1800
yÝllarÝ arasÝnda etkin olan KŸ•Ÿk Buzul ‚aÛÝÕnda
olußtuklarÝ dŸßŸnŸlmektedir.
†•ker VadisiÕnde ikinci ve kÝsmen Ÿ•ŸncŸ evre
moren karmaßÝÛÝnÝ Ÿzerler durumda bulunan
kaya buzullarÝ buzul •evresi (periglacial) ortamlarÝn tipik gšstergelerindendir. Capps (1910)ÕÝn
ilk defa kaya buzulu deyimini kullanmasÝndan
sonra kapsamlÝ bir •alÝßma ile AlaskaÕda
200Õden fazla kaya buzulunu inceleyen Wahrhaftig ve Cox (1959), bunlarÝ Òvadi yama•larÝnÝn
eteklerinde veya kŸ•Ÿk buzullarÝn šnŸnde gelißmiß, dil veya yayvan ßekilli, kšßeli ve kštŸ boylanmÝß malzemeden olußan kŸtlelerÓ olarak tanÝmlamÝßlardÝr. Kaya buzullarÝnÝn kškeni ve dinamiÛi ile ilgilenen araßtÝrmacÝlarÝn bir kÝsmÝ, kaya buzullarÝnÝn periglasiyal kškenli oluÛunu ve
yama• dškŸntŸlerini olußturan malzemeler arasÝndaki boßluklarÝ dolduran suyun donmasÝ ve
•šzŸlmesi esnasÝnda gelißen kuvvetlerin bu kŸtleyi (Òbirincil kaya buzullarÝÓ, Corte, 1976) aßaÛÝya doÛru yavaß bir ßekilde hareket ettirdiklerini
šne sŸrmektedirler (Wahrhaftig ve Cox, 1959;
Blagbrough ve Farkas, 1968; Haeberli, 1985;
Barsch, 1992). Bir diÛer gurup araßtÝrmacÝ ise,
kaya buzullarÝnÝn olußumunu kŸ•Ÿk buzullarÝn
yŸzeyine yama•lardan dškŸlen malzemenin buzulun erimesi sonucu birikmesine (Òikincil kaya
buzullarÝÓ, Corte, 1976) baÛlamaktadÝr (Richmond, 1952; Humlum, 1988). Bu •alÝßma kapsamÝnda †•ker VadisiÕnde gšzlemlenen kaya
buzullarÝnÝn daha ziyade periglasyal kškenli, yani birincil kaya buzulu olduklarÝ dŸßŸnŸlmektedir.
Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda 20. yŸzyÝlÝn baßÝndan beri
gŸncel buzula ait toplanan veriler buzul dilinin
1902 yÝlÝndaki 3100 m kotundan gŸnŸmŸzde
3420 mÕye •ekildiÛini gšstermektedir. 1950 yÝlÝnda ortalama geri •ekilme hÝzÝ 3 m/yÝl iken (Erin•,
1952a), gŸnŸmŸzde bunun daha da artarak, ortalama 4 m/yÝlÕa •ÝktÝÛÝ gšrŸlmektedir. Erin•
(1951)Õe gšre bu buzul Pleyistosen buzullaßmasÝnÝn bir devamÝ olmayÝp, gŸnŸmŸzden 4-6 bin
yÝl šnce gelißmiß sÝcak ve kurak Üklim OptimumuÕnda tamamen erimiß veya firn seviyesine inmißtir. BŸyŸk olasÝlÝkla KŸ•Ÿk Buzul ‚aÛÝÕnda
gelißmiß bu buzulun ŸrŸnleri olan erime moren-
SarÝkaya vd.
leri ise bu •alÝßma kapsamÝnda 3. evre morenleri baßlÝÛÝ altÝnda toplanmÝßlardÝr.
Erciyes VolkanÝÕnda ger•ekleßtirilen bu •alÝßma
sonucunda buzullarÝn zaman ve mekan i•erisindeki baÛÝl konumlarÝ saptanabilmiß ve •škelttikleri morenlerin •eßitli šzellikleri ortaya konulabilmißtir. Kozmojenik yaß tayini i•in sistematik olarak toplanan šrneklerden alÝnacak sonu•lar sadece ErciyesÕin deÛil, TŸrkiyeÕnin Ge• KuvaternerÕdeki iklim deÛißikliklerinin boyutunun ve zamanlamasÝnÝn anlaßÝlabilmesine de šnemli katkÝlar saÛlacayaktÝr.
KATKI BELÜRTME
Bu makale, birinci yazar M. Akif SarÝkayaÕnÝn
halen devam etmekte olan ve T†BÜTAK-MŸnir
Birsel VakfÝ bursu ile kÝsmen desteklenen doktora •alÝßmasÝnÝn bir bšlŸmŸnŸ i•ermektedir. ‚alÝßmalar, T†BÜTAK ile NSF (National Science
Foundation) tarafÝndan desteklenen ÒMagnitude
of Quaternary Glaciers and Glaciations from
Low to High Latitudes: Global or Local Dominant
Controlling FactorsÓ isimli 101Y002 NoÕlu projenin maddi desteÛi ile yŸrŸtŸlmŸßtŸr. Yazarlar,
arazi •alÝßmalarÝnda kendilerine eßlik eden Hacettepe †niversitesiÕnden Dr. Erdal Þen ve YŸksek MŸh. BŸlent AkÝlÕa, ErciyesÕin sayÝsallaßtÝrÝlmÝß haritasÝnÝ saÛlayan Dr. Biltan KŸrk•ŸoÛluÕna
ve makalenin volkanizmasÝ ile ilgili olarak gšrŸßlerinden yararlanÝlan Prof. Dr. Erkan AydarÕa teßekkŸrlerini sunarlar. Yazarlar, ayrÝca bu •alÝßmanÝn gelißmesinde deÛerli gšrŸßlerinden yararlanÝlan Prof. Dr. OÛuz Erol ve Prof. Dr. Nizamettin KazancÝÕya teßekkŸr ederler.
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mine, Southern Saskatchewan. Quaternary International, 68-71, 111-115.
Messerli, B., 1964. Der Gletscher am Erciyas Dagh
und das Problem der rezenten Schneegrenze im anatolischen und mediterranen
Raum. Geographica Helvetica, 19(1), 1934.
Messerli, B., 1965. Erciyas Dagh 3916 m (TŸrkei).
Sonderabdruck aus dem Quartalsheft 2,
Die Alpen, 1-11.
41
Messerli, B., 1967. Die eiszeitliche und die gegenwŠrtige Vergletscherung in Mittelmeerraum.
Geographica Helvetica, 22, 105-228.
Notsu, K., Fujitani, T., Ui, T., Matsuda, J., and Ercan,
T., 1995. Geochemical feature of collision
related volcanic rocks in Central and Eastern Anatolia, Turkey. Journal of Volcanological Geothermal Research, 64, 171192.
Pasquare, G., 1968. Geology of the Cenozoic volcanic area of Central Anatolia. Atti Accad.
Naz. Lincei, 9, 53-204.
Penther, A., 1905. Eine Reise in das Gebiet des
Erdschias-Dagh (Kleinasien), 1902. Abhandlungen der k. k. Geography Gesellschaft in Wien, 1-6.
Richmond, G.M., 1952. Comparison of rock glaciers
and block streams in the La Sal Mountains, Utah. Geological Society America Bulletin, 63, 1292-1293.
Þen, E., 1997. Erciyes stratovolkanÝnÝn (Orta Anadolu) volkanolojik ve petrolojik gelißiminin incelenmesi. Hacettepe †niversitesi, Fen Bilimleri EnstitŸsŸ, YŸksek MŸhendislik Tezi,
264 s (yayÝmlanmamÝß).
Þen, E., Aydar, E., Gourgaud, A., and KŸrk•ŸoÛlu, B.,
2002. Initial explosive phases during the
extrusion of volcanic lava domes: example
from rhyodacitic dome of DikkartÝn DaÛ,
Erciyes Stratovolcano, Central Anatolia,
Turkey. Geosciences, 334/1, 27-33.
Wahrhaftig, C., and Cox, A., 1959. Rock glaciers in
the Alaska Range. Geological Society of
America Bulletin, 70, 383-436.
42
APPENDIX B
COLD AND WET LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM ON MOUNT SANDIRAS, SW
TURKEY, INFERRED FROM COSMOGENIC DATING AND GLACIER
MODELING
Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya1, Marek Zreda1, Attila Çiner2, Chris Zweck1
1
2
[Quaternary Science Reviews, 27 (7-8) (2008) 769-780]
DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.01.002
43
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ARTICLE IN PRESS
47
Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769–780
Cold and wet Last Glacial Maximum on Mount Sandıras, SW Turkey,
inferred from cosmogenic dating and glacier modeling
Mehmet Akif Sarıkayaa,, Marek Zredaa, Attila C
- inerb, Chris Zwecka
a
b
Received 3 July 2007; received in revised form 18 December 2007; accepted 3 January 2008
Abstract
In situ cosmogenic 36Cl was measured in boulders from moraines on Mount Sandıras (37.11N, 28.81E, 2295 m), the southwestern most
previously glaciated mountain in Turkey. Valleys on the north side of the mountain were filled with 1.5 km long glaciers that terminated
at an altitude of 1900 m. The glacial activity on Mount Sandıras correlates with the broadly defined Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The
maximum glaciation occurred approximately 20.471.3 ka (1s; 1 ka ¼ 1000 calendar years) ago, when glaciers started retreating and the
most extensive moraines were deposited. The glaciers readvanced and retreated by 19.671.6 ka ago, and then again by 16.270.5 ka.
Using the glacier modeling and the paleoclimate proxies from the Eastern Mediterranean, we estimated that if temperatures during LGM
were 8.5–11.5 1C lower than modern, precipitation was up to 1.9 times more than that of today. Thus, the local LGM climate was cold
and wet which is at odds with the conventional view of the LGM as being cold and dry in the region.
r 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The evidence of past glacial activities in mountain
settings provides direct information of the magnitude and
frequency of past climate changes. Because of the unique
location of Turkey in the transition zone between the
temperate Mediterranean climates influenced by North
Atlantic cyclones (Macklin et al., 2002) and the subtropical
high pressure climatic zone (la Fontaine et al., 1990), the
paleoclimate of Turkey is highly sensitive to climatic
perturbations that affect the position and/or intensity of
the westerly storm tracks that carry moisture from the
North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea. Thus, studying the
timing and extent of past glacial activity as a proxy of past
climates on Turkey can reveal valuable information on
Late Quaternary climate changes.
Several mountain ranges in Turkey supported glaciers
during the Late Quaternary (Erinc- , 1952; Messerli, 1967;
Birman, 1968; Kurter and Sungur, 1980; C
- iner, 2004;
Akc- ar et al., 2007). Among these, the Taurus Mountain
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 520 621 4072; fax: +1 520 621 1422.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.A. Sarıkaya).
0277-3791/$ - see front matter r 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.01.002
Range, in south Anatolia, has two-thirds of the previously
glaciated mountains in the country. On the far east (Fig. 1),
Mount Cilo (4135 m) has the largest glaciated area in
Turkey, including ice caps and valley glaciers up to 4 km
long (Kurter, 1991). In the central Taurus, Mount
Aladağlar (3756 m) has a well-preserved moraine record
of extensive Early Holocene glaciers (Klimchouk et al.,
2006; Zreda et al., 2006). While much lower than their
eastern counterparts, the western Taurides also have
several mountains with evidence of Pleistocene glaciers.
Mount Dedegöl (2990 m, Zahno et al., 2007), Beydağ
(3086 m, Messerli, 1967), Akdağ (3016 m, Onde, 1952) and
Sandıras (2295 m, de Planhol, 1953; Doğu, 1993) (Fig. 1)
show several cirques and well-preserved glacier related
landforms especially on their north and northeast facing
slopes. Today, due to the increasing effect of continentality
from west to east in Anatolia, western mountains
experience wetter and warmer climate than the eastern
mountains. Today, active glaciers are present only in
central and eastern mountains, and their sizes are increasing from west to east. Additionally, Late Pleistocene
equilibrium line altitude (ELA) estimates in Turkey
support this continental effect (Messerli, 1967; Erinc- ,
ARTICLE IN PRESS
M.A. Sarıkaya et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769–780
48
Fig. 1. Digital elevation model of Turkey and locations of places discussed in the text.
1971, 1978; Atalay, 1987). During the Last Glacial
Maximum (LGM, 21,000 calendar years ago), western
Anatolian mountains had ELAs as low as 2000–2400 m
while eastern mountains had ELAs about 3000–3200 m.
Glacial deposits in all these mountains have been studied
to some degree, but few of them have been dated
numerically. Most of the age estimates for glacial deposits
are based on relative dating techniques, including stratigraphic relationships, degree of weathering and soil
development (de Planhol, 1953; Birman, 1968; Doğu,
1993). Generally, previous studies assigned Late Pleistocene to the age of glaciation in the southwest Taurus
Mountains (de Planhol, 1953; Doğu, 1993; C
- iner, 2004 and
references therein).
The glacial landforms on Mount Sandıras were mapped
and their lithostratigraphy described in detail by de
Planhol (1953) and Doğu (1993). However, because these
glacial deposits have not been dated numerically, the exact
timing of glaciations is unknown, which precludes paleoclimatic interpretation based on the glacial records. In this
study, we examined the timing (from the age of landforms)
and magnitude (from the position of ice margins) of
paleoclimatic changes on Mount Sandıras by using the
cosmogenic 36Cl exposure dating method. We modeled the
glacier response to climatic changes using a glacier model
to reconstruct temperature and precipitation at the time of
glaciation. Finally, we compared our paleoclimatic findings
with other Late Quaternary climate proxies from the
Eastern Mediterranean region.
2. Physical setting and climate
Mount Sandıras (37.11N, 28.81E, 2295 m above mean sea
level), also known as C
- ic- ekbaba (Flower father, in
Turkish), Sandras or Gölgeli Dağları (Shaded Mountains),
is the southwestern most previously glaciated mountain in
the Anatolian Peninsula (Fig. 1). The mountain is located
about 40 km from the Mediterranean coast. The land
elevation increases rapidly towards inland creating a
natural climatic barrier between the coastal area and the
interior.
The summit of Mount Sandıras is a plateau approximately 1 km2 in area, sloping to the southeast and ranging
in elevation from 2200 to 2295 m (Fig. 2). The geological
formation exposed on the mountain is the upper part of the
Lycian Allochthons, called Lycian Peridotite Thrust Sheet
(Collins and Robertson, 1998). It consists predominantly
of serpentinized harzburgite, with minor pyroxenite, pediform dunite and chromitite (Kaaden, 1959; de Graciansky,
1967; Engin and Hirst, 1970; Collins, 1997).
Present climate in southwest Turkey is characterized by
dry/hot summers and wet/temperate winters (Kendrew,
1961). Average summer temperature (June, July and
August; JJA) on the southwest Mediterranean coast of
Turkey is about 26 1C (calculated from long-term weather
stations data downloaded from Global Historical Climatology Network, version 2, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/
climate/ghcn-monthly/index.php, accessed in May 2007),
and average winter temperature (December, January and
February; DJF) is about 10 1C. Winters are moderately
wet. Sixty percent of average 0.9 m annual precipitation
falls in winter months (DJF) due to the penetration of
depressions that brings moisture from either the Atlantic
Ocean or the Mediterranean Sea (Stevens et al., 2001).
These storm tracks tend to move eastward along the
Mediterranean (Kendrew, 1961; Wigley and Farmer, 1982)
and bring most of the precipitation in the winter. Summers
are dry. Only 2% of annual precipitation falls in summer
months (JJA) due to the persistent northerly winds
(Kendrew, 1961).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
M.A. Sarıkaya et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (2008) 769 –780
49
Fig. 2. Glacial features of Mount Sandıras with sample locations and the central ice flow line (dashed line between X and Y) along which the glacier was
modeled.
3. Evidence of glacial action on Mount Sandıras
Philippson (1915), cited by Doğu (1993), first described
evidence of former glaciations on Mount Sandıras. de
Planhol (1953) suggested that an ice cap covered the flat
top of the mountain during the Würm glacial age and the
tongues of that ice cap reached an altitude of 1900 m on the
north side. He calculated the Würm glaciation snow line
(similar to ELA) to be at 2000–2050 m and proposed that
this snow line lower than that on other mountains in
southwestern Turkey is due to the tectonic lowering of
Sandıras that occurred after the glaciation. However, the
position of river terraces on the southern slopes of the
mountain suggests at least 20–30 m of uplift (Pons and
Edelman, 1963; Doğu, 1986, 1994), invalidating the idea of
de Planhol (1953).
Messerli (1967) rejected the tectonic hypothesis of de
Planhol (1953), and proposed that the low ELA was due to
the local climatic conditions that occurred during the
Würm glacial age and due to the proximity of Mount
Sandıras to the source of moisture in the adjacent sea. He
described glacial evidence from nearby Akdağ and Beydağ
(Fig. 1), and calculated the local Würm snow line on these
mountains to be 2500–2600 m.
Doğu (1993) mapped and described glacial deposits from
the summit plateau and from the valleys on the northern
and northeastern flanks of the mountain. He found that the
northern valleys were glaciated during two epochs of the
Würm glaciation. During the first epoch, the plateau was
covered by an ice cap whose outlet glaciers reached lower
elevations via northern valleys. During the second epoch,
the ice cap did not exist and only small valley glaciers
existed in the northern valleys. According to de Planhol
(1953) and Doğu (1993), the high plateau above 2200 m
(Fig. 2) is a remnant of an old erosional level (peneplane)
which was modified by an ice cap during the Late
Pleistocene. But our own field work revealed no clear
evidence of glacial action on the plateau. It is likely that the
combination of southern exposure, flat topography and
strong winds prevented accumulation of snow and ice even
during glacial times.
The northern valleys (the Kartal Lake Valley, the Middle
Valley and the Northwest Valley, Fig. 2) contain the most
important glacial features on the Mount Sandıras. Kartal
Lake Valley, a typical U-shaped glacial valley, 400–550 m
wide, extends 1.5 km down from the plateau at an altitude
of 2220 m to the lowest moraine below Kartal Lake at
about 1900 m (Fig. 2). The highest part of the valley is
ARTICLE IN PRESS
occupied by a large glacial cirque with nearly vertical walls
that are 100 m high. Doğu (1993) interpreted this sharp
edge as evidence of a two-stage glaciation, but this type of
sharp morphology is a characteristic of cirques (Ehlers,
1996) and is not a proof of multiple glaciations. The Kartal
Lake Valley continues with two consecutive steps at
around 2090 and 2000 m. In the lower part of the valley,
there are several terminal and lateral moraines between
1900 and 2000 m. The moraines of Kartal Lake Valley have
many crests (marked in Fig. 2) separated by depressions
several meters deep, indicating small fluctuations of the ice
margin. The stratigraphic positions of the moraine crests
and age results (Section 5.1) suggest that at least two
separate sets of moraine exist in the Kartal Lake valley.
The older moraines (A1) are the farthest crests below the
lake, and the younger ones (A2) are the moraines closest to
the lake (Fig. 2). Several left lateral moraine crests also
exist on the northwest of the lake, in continuation with the
terminal moraines A1 and A2. On the right side of the
valley, there are no remnants of glacial deposits other than
small patches of till on the bedrock.
The Northwest Valley (Fig. 2) starts east of C
- ıralıoluk
Tepe (2217 m) and continues north–northwest from about
2210 m to 1900 m. The cirque area is not as well developed
as that in the Kartal Lake Valley, but can be outlined by
steep bedrock walls. The valley has two well-preserved
loops of terminal and lateral moraines, B1 and B2, at
elevations of about 1900 and 1930 m, respectively. These
moraines are dissected by melt water and small streams.
The outer part of the lower terminal moraine (B1) has a
very fresh surface and steep slope (601) on the down
valley side, indicating that the outer part of B1 was
removed recently. On the topographic maps from 1950s,
the outer part of the crest still existed, but our GPS surveys
and field observations indicate that this part is missing.
This shows that at least part of the moraine is missing, and
suggests that if older moraines ever existed in the valleys,
they might have been obliterated.
The Middle Valley (Fig. 2) has numerous crescent-like
nested crests separated from each other by small depressions. These hummocky moraines of the Middle Valley
start at an elevation of about 2100 m and continue to about
1950 m. Boulders here are generally small and not well
preserved. Because of the lack of suitable boulder to date
by cosmogenic methods, we did not collect any sample
from this valley.
4. Methods
4.1. Cosmogenic
36
Cl dating of moraines
4.1.1. Determination of 36Cl ages
We used the cosmogenic 36Cl method (Davis and
Schaeffer, 1955; Phillips et al., 1986; Zreda and Phillips,
2000) to determine surface exposure ages of boulders from
moraines associated with the Sandıras glaciation. Chlorine
36 is produced in rocks by collisions of cosmic-ray
50
neutrons and muons with atoms of Cl, Ca and K (Zreda
et al., 1991). Once produced, it remains in place and
accumulates continuously with time (Zreda and Phillips,
2000). Because the production rates of 36Cl from the three
target elements are known, at least in principle (Zreda
et al., 1991; Phillips et al., 1996, 2001; Stone et al., 1996,
1998; Swanson and Caffee, 2001; Zweck et al., 2006),
measured concentrations of 36Cl in rocks can be used to
determine how long these rocks have been exposed to cosmic
radiation. In situ accumulation of various cosmogenic
nuclides, including 36Cl, has been used to develop glacial
chronologies in many areas (Zreda et al., 1999; Owen et al.,
2001, 2002; Mackintosh et al., 2006; Principato et al., 2006;
Akc- ar et al., 2007) and the approach is considered reliable.
The inventory of cosmogenic nuclide in the dated
material depends on the geographic location of the sample
(latitude, longitude and elevation) as well as amount of
shielding of the sample by surrounding topography and
snow from exposure to cosmic rays, the concentration of
the target elements and assumed elemental production
rates. The location dependence of 36Cl production was
calculated using Desilets and Zreda (2003) and Desilets
et al. (2006a). Topographic shielding corrections were
made by measuring the inclination to the horizon of the
sample locations at 451 azimuthal increments using a handheld clinometer and applying the method given in Gosse
and Phillips (2001, pp. 1520–1522). Snow corrections were
made by estimating the average annual snow thickness on
sample sites using the long-term precipitation and temperature data from nearby weather stations and interpolating them to Mount Sandıras by the method described
in Section 4.2. The shielding correction factors are given
in Table 1.
Cosmogenic 36Cl surface exposure ages were calculated
using a new approach that is being implemented in the
ACE (Age Calculation Engine) software (Anderson et al.,
2007), previously known as iCronus (Zweck et al., 2006),
using the following production rates: 71.773.2 atoms 36Cl
(g Ca)1 yr1, 15578.0 atoms 36Cl (g K)1 yr1 and
678743 fast neutrons (g air)1 yr1. These rates are based
on the calibration data set of Phillips et al. (1996). They
have been scaled to sea level (atmospheric pressure
1033 g cm2) and high geomagnetic latitude (geomagnetic
cutoff rigidity o2 GV) using Desilets and Zreda (2003) and
Desilets et al. (2006a), and include necessary corrections
for secular changes in paleomagnetic intensity (Guyodo
and Valet, 1999; Yang et al., 2000), changes in geomagnetic
pole position (Ohno and Hamano, 1992) and eustatic
changes in seal level (Fairbanks, 1989). As an example,
time variation of cosmogenic 36Cl production rate for
sample SA02-609 is given in Fig. 3 along with its time
averaged rate. Other 36Cl production rate estimates are
also available (Stone et al., 1996, 1998; Swanson and
Caffee, 2001), which would result in different age estimates
for the samples. However, we prefer to use the production
rates based on the data set of Phillips et al. (1996) because
(a) in this data set, 36Cl production rates have been
B1
B1
B2
B2
B2
Northwest Valley
SA05-616
SA05-616-A
SA05-613a
SA05-617
SA05-617-A
1934
1934
1934
1907
1907
1949
1914
1914
1910
1899
1902
1902
Elev.
(m)
37.101
37.100
37.100
37.103
37.103
37.100
37.100
37.100
37.099
37.100
37.100
37.100
Lat.
(1N)
28.834
28.837
28.837
28.837
28.837
28.849
28.852
28.852
28.852
29.854
28.853
28.853
Long.
(1E)
0.9627
0.9789
0.9789
0.9886
0.9886
0.9898
0.9798
0.9789
0.9895
0.9898
0.9698
0.9898
Shielding
correctionb
2
3
3
1
1
2
3
3
1.5
4
2
3
Sample
thickness
(cm)
6.370.4
34.171.6
37.271.6
21.471.8
26.270.9
67.9711.5
34.571.4
35.071.4
63.072.3
30.674.6
28.871.5
39.174.0
36
ClTotal
(104 atoms g1)
12.4
21.2
23.7
14.7
15.5
40.4
17.9
16.1
18.9
14.2
15.0
19.5
5.170.3
16.470.8
16.070.7
14.871.2
17.270.6
17.272.9
19.270.8
21.970.9
34.771.3
22.173.3
19.671.0
20.672.1
Boulder
aged
(ka)
>
;
9
>
=
)
>
>
;
9
>
>
=
>
;
9
>
=
16.270.5 (70.8)
16.571.1 (71.3)
19.671.6 (71.8)
20.471.3 (71.6)
Moraine
agee
(ka)
Cl ages of boulders with moraine ages of Sandıras glaciations
36
Production
ratec
(atoms g1 yr1)
Cl inventories, time averaged total production rates and
36
b
Samples that are not included in the moraine age calculations.
The product of topographic and snow correction factors.
c
Time averaged total production rate of 36Cl at the surface of the boulder.
d
Uncertainties are based on analytical errors and given in 1sd (standard deviation) level. Replicates were integrally averaged before adding to the moraine age calculations.
e
Uncertainties are based on boulder-to-boulder variability and given in 1sem (standard error of the mean) level. Total errors which also include uncertainties on production rates of 36Cl are given in
parentheses.
a
A2
A2
A2
A2
A1
A1
A1
Kartal Lake Valley
SA02-609
SA02-610
SA02-611
SA02-612
SA05-618
SA05-618-A
SA05-619a
Moraine
Sample
Table 1
Locations, shielding correction factors, sample thicknesses, measured total
ARTICLE IN PRESS
51
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Production rate of 36Cl, atoms g-1 yr -1
18
16
14
12
10
8
0
5
10
15
20
Age, ka
Fig. 3. Cosmogenic 36Cl production rate variation of sample SA02-609
for 22.1 ka. The variations about the mean of 14.2 (horizontal line) are due
to the combination of changes in the geomagnetic intensity and sea level
(gradually decreasing long term change) and magnetic pole position (short
term fluctuations).
determined using many samples of different ages and from
different localities while other production rates are based
on fewer samples and/or fewer localities; (b) 36Cl production rates from all three primary target (Ca, K and Cl) have
been calculated simultaneously and (c) computational
procedures used for the calibration samples and for our
samples in this research were identical, which assures
compatibility of all results.
4.1.2. Collection, preparation and analysis of samples
We collected samples for cosmogenic 36Cl dating from
the top few centimeters of boulders using a hammer and
chisel. Boulders were chosen based on their preservation,
size, appearance and position on the landform. We
sampled the boulders on the crests of the moraines and
restricted sampling to large (usually X1 m in diameter)
boulders that have a strong root in the moraine matrix.
The aim of this sampling strategy was to minimize
potential effects of post-depositional complications, such
as boulder rolling or matrix erosion and gradual exposure
of boulders. We also avoided sampling surfaces with
evidence of spalling, weathering and other visible signs of
surface modification. In the field, we measured the
thickness of each sample (given in Table 1) to calculate
the depth-integrated production rates.
Samples were crushed and sieved to separate the
0.25–1.0 mm size fraction, which was leached with 5%
HNO3 overnight and rinsed in deionized water to remove
atmospheric 36Cl. Chlorine was liberated from silicate
matrix using high pressure acid digestion bombs (Almasi,
2001; Desilets et al., 2006b), precipitated as AgCl, purified
of sulfur (36S is an isobar of 36Cl and interferes with the
measurement of 36Cl), and the 36Cl/Cl was measured with
accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) at PRIME Lab,
52
Purdue University, Indiana, USA. Samples SA05-618-A,
616-A and 617-A (Table 1) which are replicates of SA05618, 616 and 617, respectively, were prepared in open
vessels (Desilets et al., 2006b) to compare with samples
prepared in high pressure acid digestion bombs. Total Cl
was estimated using the ion specific electrode method
(Aruscavage and Campbell, 1983; Elsheimer, 1987) at the
University of Arizona, and its precise determination
was made from measurement of 37Cl/35Cl on spiked
samples (Desilets et al., 2006b) after the AMS measurement of 36Cl/Cl.
Major and trace elements that have high thermal
neutron cross-sections (B, Sm, Gd and others) compete
with 35Cl for thermal neutrons and must be taken into
account when calculating cosmogenic production rates.
Major elements were measured with inductively coupled
plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AE), selected
trace elements were measured with inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and boron was
measured with prompt gamma-neutron activation analysis
(PGNAA), all at Activation Laboratories Inc., Ont.,
Canada (Table 2).
4.2. Glacier modeling
To investigate the response of Mount Sandıras
glaciers to climate change, we used a one-dimensional ice
flow model (Paterson, 1994; Haeberli, 1996) to simulate
changes in ice extent. The model allows the user to recreate
a valley glacier along an ice flow line as a function of
prescribed surface air temperature and precipitation.
Starting from the present day valley topography and time
invariant mass balance patterns, the model builds up a
glacier until a steady-state condition (equilibrium) is
reached.
The model calculates the ice mass balance using the
accumulation of ice predicted by snowfall modeled as
precipitation occurring below zero degrees and ablation of
ice by using positive degree day factors, which assume a
correlation between the sum of positive air temperatures
and the amount of ablation of ice (Braithwaite, 1995).
Our model assumes no basal sliding and the ice is assumed
to be isothermal. Initially, we applied the glacier model
to both the Kartal Lake Valley and the Northwest
Valley. The results showed no significant difference in the
response to climatic signal, which means that the valleys
have similar responses to climate change. We limited
further modeling to the Kartal Lake Valley because the
most extensive and best preserved moraines are in this
valley, the source area (cirque) is well developed, and our
cosmogenic ages show at least two glacial advances
(Section 5.1).
The required inputs for the glacier model are: (1) the surface topography; (2) the spatial distribution of the modern
day monthly mean temperatures and (3) the precipitation
rates along the glaciated valley. Surface topography was
constructed from 1/25,000 scale topographic map along the
ARTICLE IN PRESS
141712
16775
4873
19779
18678
89.1
92.1
77.3
102.3
117.8
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
0.1
0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
7.9
7.9
10.5
5.6
5.6
99.8
99.8
100.0
99.9
99.9
6.26
6.26
2.96
4.68
4.68
7.88
7.88
8.32
8.31
8.31
0.102
0.102
0.114
0.114
0.114
0.006
0.006
0.012
0.033
0.033
0.71
0.71
0.93
1.93
1.93
0.04
0.04
o0.01
o0.01
o0.01
o0.01
o0.01
o0.01
o0.01
o0.01
41.40
41.40
43.08
41.93
41.93
Loss on ignition.
a
42.46
42.46
43.62
40.88
40.88
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.06
Northwest Valley
SA05-616
SA05-616-A
SA05-613
SA05-617
SA05-617-A
0.94
0.94
0.96
1.94
1.94
374756
259714
269727
180729
231710
274711
408715
48.2
64.9
84.7
220.0
87.3
74.7
90.9
0
0
0
0
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
0.7
0.7
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.1
o0.5
o0.5
3.3
1.4
5.9
5.9
7.3
99.9
99.1
98.8
98.8
99.0
99.0
99.9
2.66
4.40
4.55
3.69
o0.01
o0.01
5.03
8.34
8.24
7.95
8.70
8.69
8.69
8.36
0.116
0.108
0.111
0.104
0.121
0.121
0.115
0.029
0.026
0.020
0.023
0.029
0.029
0.022
2.12
1.85
1.95
1.61
1.41
1.41
1.60
0.09
0.02
0.03
o0.01
0.06
0.06
0.03
0.02
0.01
o0.01
o0.01
o0.01
o0.01
o0.01
45.02
42.56
42.86
43.43
43.67
43.67
41.98
2.20
1.93
2.17
1.74
1.88
1.88
1.61
39.05
39.78
38.91
39.01
43.12
43.12
41.12
Kartal Lake Valley
SA02-609
0.23
SA02-610
0.13
SA02-611
0.20
SA02-612
0.49
SA05-618
0.05
SA05-618-A
0.05
SA05-619
0.05
SiO2
%
0.01
Al2O3
%
0.01
MgO
%
0.01
Na2O
%
0.01
Element
Units
Detection limit
Table 2
Analytical results of samples from Mount Sandıras
P2O5
%
0.01
K2O
%
0.01
CaO
%
0.01
TiO2
%
0.001
MnO
%
0.001
Fe2O3
%
0.01
LOIa
%
0.01
Total
%
B
ppm
0.5
Sm
ppm
0.1
Gd
ppm
0.1
U
ppm
0.1
Th
ppm
0.1
Cl
ppm
36
Cl/(1015 Cl)
53
inferred central ice flow line of the Kartal Lake glacier
(Fig. 2). Our model uses the flow line starting at the
elevation of 2230 m on the rim of the plateau and continues
down to 1778 m, which is 122 m below the lowest moraine
in the Kartal Lake Valley. The total length of the flow line
in the model is 2 km, well in excess of the distance to the
outermost moraines, which are situated 1.5 km away from
the plateau rim.
Long term monthly mean temperature and precipitation
data from the Global Historical Climatology Network
(version 2, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/ghcnmonthly/index.php, accessed in May 2007) was used.
Because of the sharp gradient of continentality over the
region (Kurupınar, 1995; Kadıoğlu, 2000; Ünal et al.,
2003), we used only those weather stations that are within
200 km radius of Mount Sandıras to project monthly
temperature and precipitation on the mountain. We
restricted to use of weather station data that have at least
30 years of coverage. First, for each month, weather station
temperature was transferred to sea level using the modern
air temperature lapse rate calculated from the radiosonde
data (http://raob.fsl.noaa.gov/, accessed in May 2007) at
Isparta station (165 km northeast of Sandıras, Fig. 1).
Then, the data were kriged using the ArcGIS software
(version 9.1). The surface temperatures along the Kartal
Lake Valley were then recalculated using the same lapse
rates for each month from the interpolated values.
Precipitation rates on Mount Sandıras were calculated by
interpolation of the same weather station data using the
same kriging method over the region.
In the model, a 0 1C cutoff temperature is assumed to
calculate the fraction of total precipitation in the valley
that falls as snow. If the air temperature is below or equal
to 0 1C, all precipitation is assumed to be snow, above that
threshold—rain. The total annual accumulation of snow is
determined using projected monthly precipitation rates and
temperatures. Yearly ablation is calculated by determining
the spatial distribution of positive degree days sums
(Braithwaite, 1995) in the valley. Degree day factors of
3 mm day1 1C1 (water equivalent) for snow and
8 mm day1 1C1 for ice (Braithwaite and Zhang, 2000)
are assumed, as is a standard deviation of 3.3 1C for the
monthly mean surface temperature, which is based on the
Isparta weather station data. Finally, glacier mass balance
is calculated as snow accumulation minus ablation and the
ELA is defined as the elevation at which the computed
mass balance is zero.
We have tested the model results by calculating the
paleo-ELA of LGM glaciers using different methods. Our
model yielded a zero mass balance at 1998 m for the
conditions which Kartal Lake moraines deposited. The
accumulation area ratio (AAR) method (Porter, 1975),
with the AAR value of 0.6 (Nesje and Dahl, 2000) and the
reconstructed area of an LGM glacier of 0.77 km2, gave a
comparable value of 1975 m. Both figures are consistent
with the calculations made by de Planhol (1953) and Doğu
(1993).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
5. Results
5.1. Cosmogenic
36
Cl exposure ages
We dated six boulders from the Kartal Lake Valley and
three from the Northwest Valley (Fig. 2; Table 1). All
boulder ages include correction for thickness and shielding
by surrounding topography and snow. The uncertainties
quoted for the boulder ages were calculated by propagation
of analytical errors on 36Cl/Cl and on Cl (both reported by
the AMS laboratory) and assuming a 20% uncertainty on
the calculated nucleogenic component. Boulder age uncertainties are based only on analytical errors and given at
the 1sd (standard deviation) level. Moraine ages are
calculated as weighted mean of boulder ages, and are
given at the 1sem (standard error of the mean) level. Total
errors, reported in Table 1, include both analytical errors
and uncertainties on production rates of 36Cl.
With the exception of one older outlier, the boulders
from Kartal Lake moraines have ages ranging from
17.272.9 ka to 22.173.3 ka (Table 1). Samples SA02609, 610 and 611 are from moraine A1, and have a
weighted mean age of 20.471.3 ka. Samples SA02-612,
SA05-618, 618-A and 619 are from moraine A2 in the same
valley. Sample 619 gave an age of 34.771.3 ka. Because it
is older than all other samples by more than six standard
deviations, we consider it an older outlier, probably
containing 36Cl inherited from episodes of previous
exposure to cosmic radiation. This sample was excluded
from further consideration. Samples 618-A is the open
vessel replicate of sample 618. For further calculations,
replicates are internally weighted averaged first and this
average added to the moraine age calculations. Therefore,
samples 612 and 618 gave ages of 17.272.9 ka and
20.671.3 ka, and the age of moraine A2 is calculated as
19.671.6 ka. Although ages of moraine A1 and A2 overlap
at the 1-sigma level, the stratigraphic positions of these
moraines suggest that the former indicates the maximum
position of the glaciers, and the latter records a readvance.
Samples SA05-616 and its replicate 616-A, from the
outer ridge of terminal moraine B1 in the Northwest
Valley, yielded ages of 14.871.2 ka and 17.270.6 ka,
respectively, and sample SA05-617 and 617-A, from the
outer ridge of terminal moraine B2, yielded ages of
16.470.8 ka and 16.070.7 ka (Table 1). Thus, B1 and B2
moraine ages are 16.571.1 ka and 16.270.5 ka, respectively. Sample SA05-613, from the innermost moraine gave
a young age of 5.170.3 ka. This boulder is small
(70 50 cm) and short (height of 40 cm), and its young
age could be due to post-depositional modification that
affected its exposure to cosmic radiation. However, given
the position of the sample on the innermost moraine crest
(Fig. 2), it is also possible that the age is real, and that there
was a glacial advance in the Middle Holocene. Additional
samples are needed to test this hypothesis. For the
purposes of this paper, which concentrates on the LGM,
this sample is excluded from further consideration.
54
The cosmogenic 36Cl ages suggest that the glaciers
started retreating from their maximum positions by 20.47
1.3 ka ago. Two later readvances ended 19.671.6 ka ago in
the Kartal Lake Valley and 16.270.5 ka ago in the
Northwest Valley. These results agree with other glacial
records in the Mediterranean area (Hughes et al., 2006a),
and particularly with the recent glacial geological studies in
Turkey (Akc- ar et al., 2007; Zahno et al., 2007) that showed
LGM ages of recent glacial deposits. The advance of
glaciers in the Kac- kar Mountains, near the Black Sea,
began at least 26.071.2 ka ago and continued until
18.370.9 ka (Akc- ar et al., 2007). Similar results were
reported from Dedegöl Mountains, southwest Turkey by
Zahno et al. (2007) who measured cosmogenic 10Be ages of
moraines and claimed that LGM glaciation started 26 ka
ago and continued until 19 ka ago. Thus, all three
cosmogenic records indicate maximum glacial activity
during the LGM and deglaciation shortly thereafter.
5.2. Paleoclimatic interpretation
Modeled glacier lengths as a function of temperature and
precipitation changes from modern conditions are plotted
in Fig. 4. The contours show how the length of glacier in
the Kartal Lake Valley varies with climate. The zero
Fig. 4. Modeled length of the Kartal Lake Valley glacier (solid line) as a
function of temperature and precipitation changes from those of today
(full circle). As a comparison 0 km line which represents glacier inception
and 0.5, 1 and 2 km lines shown (dashed lines). Thick solid and
corresponding horizontal and vertical gray lines are suggested possible
ranges of temperature and precipitation changes during LGM. Empty
circles are those conditions suggested by proxy data (a: Bar-Matthews et
al., 1997, b: Hughes et al., 2003, c: Emeis et al., 1998, 2000; Kallel et al.,
2000, d: McGarry et al., 2004, e: corresponds to threshold temperature
depression to sustain glacier by same amount of moisture level as today
(proposed by this study), f: Jones et al., 2007).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
kilometer line represents the threshold values for glaciation; no glaciers can exist to the left and below this line.
The model results show that under the modern temperature
and precipitation conditions glaciers will not form on the
mountain, which is consistent with field observations.
Possible combinations of climatic conditions that produced
the Kartal Lake Valley glacier are along the line labeled
1.5 km. They encompass wide ranges of temperature and
precipitation, including those that are highly unlikely (e.g.,
extremely high precipitation rates would have to accompany moderate decreases of temperature). Glacier modeling shows that a cooling of about 11.5 1C is needed if we
assume the same precipitation rate as today, less than
11.5 1C of cooling would require greater precipitation than
modern (wetter conditions), and greater temperature
depressions would require less than modern precipitation
(drier conditions) to sustain glaciers on Mount Sandıras.
In order to reduce these possible ranges, we employed
additional information from other paleoclimate proxy
data around the region, especially paleotemperature
estimates since they are easier than the prediction of
paleoprecipitation.
Bar-Matthews et al. (1997) reconstructed the eastern
Mediterranean paleoclimate during the past 25 ka using a
high resolution petrographic, stable isotopic, and age study
of speleothems from the Soreq Cave, Israel (Fig. 1 for
location). They showed that during the period from 25 ka
ago to 17 ka ago the eastern coast of the Levantine Basin
was characterized by air temperatures about 6 1C lower
than today and annual precipitation was 20–50% lower
than today. Mean annual temperatures in Jerusalem and in
Köyceğiz (15 km southwest of Mount Sandıras) are 17.0
and 18.3 1C, respectively. Although the precipitation rates
of the two regions are different (the Israeli coast is drier
than the southwest coast of Turkey), their seasonal
variations are similar (Stevens et al., 2001). In Jerusalem,
67% of precipitation falls in the winter, from December to
February, and in Köyceğiz the corresponding value is 57%.
Furthermore, precipitation sources for these two regions
are the Mediterranean Sea (Kendrew, 1961; Wigley and
Farmer, 1982; Stevens et al., 2001). Vaks et al. (2006)
studied d18O in speleothems from four caves of the
Northern Negev Desert and found that during the last
200 ka the source of rainfall in northern Negev area was the
Eastern Mediterranean. Because today the area of the
Soreq Cave has similar climate to that of the southwestern
Turkey, it is likely that this temperature shift is representative of the wider region, and can be applied to constrain
the LGM temperature at Sandıras. For the first approximation, we assume that during the period from 25 ka ago
to 17 ka ago, the temperature at Mount Sandıras was lower
by the same amount as that in the Soreq Cave. Moreover,
because the Soreq Cave is 400 m above sea level while
Sandıras is well above this elevation, it is likely that the
6 1C cooling inferred for the Soreq Cave is a minimum
cooling expected at Mount Sandıras. To produce glaciers
on Mount Sandıras, this moderate cooling would have to
55
be accompanied by precipitation 3.3 times higher than
today, which is unlikely. If the prescribed precipitation
level from Soreq Cave is used, this will make the LGM
temperatures on Mount Sandıras 12–13.5 1C colder than
today (Fig. 4).
In order to obtain better estimates of terrestrial
temperatures in the Eastern Mediterranean, McGarry et
al. (2004) measured the hydrogen-isotopic composition
(dD) of speleothems fluid inclusions from three caves
including the Soreq Cave in Israel and showed that the
LGM temperature was about 10 1C cooler than today. A
similar amount of cooling, 9.5–10 1C, was obtained from
the alkenone and d18O records in sediment cores from the
Mediterranean Sea (Emeis et al., 2000), in Levantine basin
(Kallel et al., 2000) and Crete (Emeis et al., 1998).
Furthermore, these data are in good agreement with
land-based reconstructions of temperatures and precipitation rates (Bar-Matthews et al., 2003). Assuming a 10 1C
cooling during the LGM, our model results indicate a
precipitation rate that is 1.3 times higher than the modern
value (Fig. 4). Both results from the Soreq Cave and deep
sea cores in the Mediterranean Sea, when fed into our
glacial model, imply a wet and cold LGM on Mount
Sandıras.
Humid and cold climate during LGM on Mount
Sandıras is also supported by reconstruction of paleoclimate in Greece. Hughes et al. (2003, 2006b) used the
geological record of glaciers and rock glaciers on Pindus
Mountains and suggested that the Würm glacier stage was
8.5 1C (8–9 1C) cooler and slightly wetter (1.1 times) than
today. If we assume the same amount of cooling on Mount
Sandıras, the LGM precipitation would have to almost
double (1.9 times more than modern). If we assume their
paleoprecipitation estimates, our model yields 11 1C of
cooling.
Further north, in Anatolia, although there is generally
agreement on colder condition during the LGM, contemporary moisture levels are incongruous. Lacustrine
facies analyses on Konya plain show that lake levels were
high at and prior to the LGM (Roberts, 1983; Kuzucuoğlu
et al., 1999; Roberts et al., 1999, 2001) and the data is
consistent with other lakes in Turkey (Roberts and Wright,
1993; Kashima, 2002). High lake stands are indicative of
high input of water (wetter conditions) or lower evaporation to precipitation rates which indicate lower temperatures. Jones et al. (2007) studied Eski Acıgöl, a closed basin
lake in Central Anatolia, using hydrological and isotope
mass balance models and reported that glacial time
(between 23 and 16 ka before present) precipitation was
63% drier than today, in agreement with palynological
studies. Van Zeist et al. (1975) show steppe and almost
treeless vegetation implying that the climate was dry in
southwestern Turkey during LGM. In contrast, marine
pollen records from the Marmara Sea (Mudie et al., 2002)
revealed LGM climate slightly wetter on the mountains
that surround the Marmara Sea. For drier LGM, if we
assume that the precipitation was 60% less, our modeling
ARTICLE IN PRESS
results reveal that accompanying temperatures should be
depressed by about 14 1C (Fig. 4).
In conclusion, there is no consensus regarding the
moisture levels in the region during the LGM. While some
researchers suggest that it was drier (van Zeist et al., 1975;
Robinson et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2007) others think the
opposite (Gvirtzman and Wieder, 2001; Mudie et al., 2002;
Hughes et al., 2003). Furthermore, paleoprecipitation
values change from region to region, coastal areas versus
interiors (Jones et al., 2007), which imply that local climate
factors played an important role. Because of these
uncertainties, we prefer to use a range of paleotemperature
estimates and report the paleoprecipitation conditions
rather than report a fixed value for either one. If the
extreme case of cooling by only 6 1C (Bar-Matthews et al.,
1997) is ignored, as highly unlikely, other temperature
estimates are in the range of between 10 and 8.5 1C. Our
analysis of paleoconditions on Mount Sandıras suggests
that the use of the Hughes et al.’s (2003) estimate of 8.5 1C
as a minimum limit of cooling on Mount Sandıras will
almost double the precipitation rates necessary to produce
glaciers consistent with the observed moraines on Kartal
Lake Valley (Fig. 4). Up to 11.5 1C of cooling sustain
wetter conditions.
Our present day climate estimates on Mount Sandıras, at
an elevation of 2000 m, which is close to the LGM time
ELA, is calculated as annual average temperature of about
6 1C and annual precipitation of about 1 m. Our model
results show that under the wetter conditions (1–1.9 m), the
cooling by 8.5–11.5 1C will bring the mean annual
temperature to between 5.5 and 2.5 1C at 2000 m on
Mount Sandıras.
6. Conclusion
The most extensive glacial advance on Mount Sandıras
ended by 20.471.3 ka ago, and the final deglaciation
commenced by 16.270.5 ka ago. Modeling of glacier mass
balance shows a wide range of possible temperatures and
precipitation rates necessary to produce Mount Sandıras
glaciers. Without independent estimates of temperature
and precipitation for LGM, model results do not provide a
unique combination of these variables based on simulated
ice extent. An LGM half as wet as today requires a cooling
by 13.5 1C, whereas an LGM twice as wet as today requires
a cooling by 8.5 1C. By employing published paleoclimate
proxy data, the range can be reduced significantly.
However, the temperature estimates from the proxy data
indicate no more than 10 1C of cooling during the LGM in
the Eastern Mediterranean. Assuming this published
temperature range, the model yields up to 1.9 times higher
precipitation rate which indicates wetter conditions during
the LGM on the study area. This is supported by high lake
levels in and around Anatolia, but not by palynological
analysis which is sensitive to unique set of variables,
including seasonality changes. Our results imply high
moisture levels during LGM for the southwest coasts of
56
Anatolia. This is at odds with the conventional view of
LGM being cold and dry in Anatolia and the Eastern
Mediterranean.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the US National Science
Foundation (Grant 0115298) and by the Scientific and
Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK)
(Grant 101Y002).
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APPENDIX C
GLACIATIONS AND PALEOCLIMATE OF MOUNT ERCIYES, CENTRAL
TURKEY, SINCE THE LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM, INFERRED FROM 36Cl
COSMOGENIC DATING AND GLACIER MODELING
Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya1, Marek Zreda1, Attila Çiner2
1
2
[Accepted for publication in the Quaternary Science Reviews]
DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.04.015
60
Abstract
Forty-four boulders from moraines in two glacial valleys of Mount Erciyes (38.53oN,
35.45oE, 3917 m), central Turkey, dated with cosmogenic chlorine-36 (36Cl), indicate
four periods of glacial activity in the past 22 ka (1 ka = 1000 calendar years). Last Glacial
Maximum (LGM) glaciers were the most extensive, reaching 6 km in length and
descending to an altitude of 2150 m above sea level. These glaciers started retreating
21.3±0.9 ka (1σ) ago. They readvanced and retreated by 14.6±1.2 ka ago (Late Glacial),
and again by 9.3±0.5 ka ago (Early Holocene). The latest advance took place 3.8±0.4 ka
ago (Late Holocene). Using glacier modeling together with paleoclimate proxy data from
the region, we reconstructed the paleoclimate at these four discrete times. The results
show that LGM climate was 8-11oC colder than today and moisture levels were
somewhat similar to modern values, with a range between 20% more and 25% less than
today. The analysis of Late Glacial advance suggests that the climate was colder by 4.56.4oC based on up to 1.5 times wetter conditions. The Early Holocene was 2.1oC to 4.9oC
colder and up to twice as wet as today, while the Late Holocene was 2.4-3oC colder and
its precipitation amounts approached to similar conditions as today. Our paleoclimate
reconstructions show a general trend of warming for the last 22 ka, and an increase of
moisture until Early Holocene, and a decrease after that time. The recent glacier
terminates at 3450 m on the northwest side of the mountain. It is a remnant from the last
advance (possibly during the Little Ice Age). Repeated measurements of glacier length
61
between 1902 and 2008 reveal a retreat rate of 4.2 m per year, which corresponds to a
warming rate of 0.9-1.2oC per century.
1. Introduction
Glaciers provide the most important and direct sources of information on climate change
(Nesje and Dahl, 2000). In particular, mountain glaciers are very sensitive indicators of
changes of temperature and precipitation. They promptly respond to the minute changes
on local climate via adjusting their mass balances, and therefore sizes (Oerlemans, 2005),
which can be used as a climate proxy. Thus, paleoclimatic inferences are commonly
made based on the extent of the past mountain glaciers inferred from the position of their
moraines (Refsnider et al., 2007). Mountains of Turkey were extensively glaciated during
the Late Quaternary (Çiner, 2004; Sarıkaya, 2009, and references therein), and numerous
well preserved moraines exists, providing unique and valuable opportunities to infer past
climates of Turkey and the Eastern Mediterranean.
Today, several mountains of Turkey support glaciers. Mount Ağrı (5137 m) (also known
as Mt. Ararat), in eastern Anatolia (Fig. 1.a), has an ice cap covering the area of
approximately 10 km2 with several outlet glaciers (Kurter, 1991). Mount Cilo (4135 m),
in southeastern Turkey (Fig. 1.a), has active cirques and valley glaciers up to 1.5 km in
length. The Kaçkar Mountains (3932 m), on the Black Sea coast (Fig. 1.a) contain
glaciers up to 1 km in length (Akçar et al., 2007). Mount Erciyes (3917 m), in central
62
Turkey (Fig. 1.a), is the westernmost mountain that has a glacier today (Sarıkaya et al.,
2003). Glacial-geological evidence of more extensive glaciers in the Late Pleistocene is
also common throughout the high mountains of Turkey (İzbırak, 1951; Erinç, 1952;
Messerli, 1964; 1967; Birman, 1968; Kurter, 1991; Çiner, 2004; Sarıkaya et al., 2008).
Among them, Mount Erciyes has attracted much attention due to the easy access from the
nearby city of Kayseri, the extraordinary preservation of glacial deposits in the region's
dry climate, and the existence of an active glacier.
The first scientific study of glaciation on Erciyes was published by Penther (1905).
Zederbauer (cited by Penther) described the glacier as having a length of 700 m and
descending to an altitude of 3180 m, and included the first photograph (taken on July
1902, please see Fig. 7) of the Aksu Valley glacier. Erinç (1951) divided past glacial
advances into two parts: Glacial (Late Pleistocene) and Postglacial (Holocene). Messerli
(1964) mapped the recent glacier and placed the local snow line (similar to equilibrium
line altitudes, ELA) at 3650 m which is 950 m higher than the Würm snow line. He
concluded the depression of snow line in Anatolia was due to increased precipitation
during the glacial periods (Messerli, 1967). Later, Güner and Emre (1983) examined the
glacial stages and explained the relationships between the glaciation and volcanism in the
mountain. Recently, Sarıkaya et al. (2003) compiled the past and present glacial records
in the mountain. However, whereas some glacial deposits were dated by relative
techniques, including stratigraphic relationships, degree of weathering/oxidation and
soil/vegetation development (Erinç, 1951; Güner and Emre, 1983; Sarıkaya et al., 2003),
63
none have been dated numerically. Consequently, the timing of glaciations is unknown,
precluding the paleoclimatic interpretations and correlations with other proxy records of
paleoclimate.
Here, we report the first results of dating of glaciations on Mount Erciyes using the
cosmogenic chlorine-36 (36Cl) method, and modeling of glacier response to past climatic
changes using a glacier ice flow line model. Based on these results, we reconstruct
temperature and precipitation at the time of glaciations, and compare our glaciallyderived record of paleoclimate with other Late Quaternary climate proxies from the
region.
2. Physical setting, geology and climate
Mount Erciyes (38.53oN, 35.45oE, 3917 m), historically known as Mount Argaeus
(named after the Macedonian king Argaeus I, 678-640 BC), is the highest mountain in the
Central Anatolia, Turkey (Fig 1.a). The mountain is located about 20 km south of the city
of Kayseri (1068 m) and rises about 2850 m above its base.
Erciyes is a stratovolcano developed in two main evolutionary stages (Şen et al., 2003).
The first stage begun with basaltic lava flows, followed by differentiated sequences
(basaltic andesite, andesite, dacite and rhyodacite), and terminated with extensive
ignimbritic eruptions ~3 Ma ago (Innocenti et al., 1975). The second stage involved
64
basaltic, andesitic, dacitic and rhyolitic lavas, and terminated with pyroclastic eruptions
and debris avalanches. The youngest volcanic deposits are the dacitic lava flows and
dome of Çarık Tepe, which gave a K-Ar age of 80±10 ka (ka=1000 years) (Notsu et al.,
1995), and the rhyodacite domes of Perikartını, Karagüllü and Dikkartın, which gave 14C
ages on charcoal and cosmogenic 36Cl ages on lava surfaces of ca. 10 ka (Sarıkaya et al.,
2006).
Turkey is situated between (1) the temperate Mediterranean climates influenced by North
Atlantic cyclones (Macklin et al., 2002), (2) mid-latitude subtropical high-pressure
systems (la Fontaine et al., 1990), and (3) possibly Indian monsoon climates (Jones et al.,
2006). Three types of main storm tracks that carry moisture to Turkey were described by
Akçar and Schlüchter (2005). The first type brings cold and humid air from the polar
North Atlantic by westerlies and mostly produces winter precipitation. The second type
of storm tracks brings tropical hot and dry air from mid-Atlantic and North Africa with
additional moisture from the Mediterranean, and produce summer precipitation in the
southern Anatolia. Finally, continental polar air masses transport dry and cold air from
Siberia, and condense on north Anatolian mountains after taking up the moisture over
Black Sea (Akçar and Schlüchter, 2005). Precipitation in the region is strongly affected
by the local topography. The Taurus and the Kaçkar Mountains along the south and
northeast coasts of Anatolia, respectively, play an important role in the distribution of the
moisture over the Anatolian Plateau. The high altitudes of these mountain ranges create a
65
natural barrier between coastal areas and the interior, which results in a negative
precipitation gradient towards the interior.
The present climate in the interior of Turkey, where Mount Erciyes is situated, is
characterized by hot and dry summers, and cold and moderately wet winters. Average
summer temperature (June, July and August; JJA) in Kayseri meteorological station, at
1068 m, is about 19oC, and average winter temperature (December, January and
February; DJF) is about 0oC. Long-term (1961-1990) annual average precipitation total is
383 mm at the same station; most of it falls in fall, winter and spring months (85%) and
only 15% of it falls on JJA. All climate data used in this study were downloaded from
Global Historical Climatology Network, version 2 (http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate
/ghcn-monthly/index.php).
3. Glacial activity on Mount Erciyes
Erciyes has two major and three minor valleys that were previously occupied by glaciers
(Sarıkaya et al., 2003) (Fig. 1.b). The major valleys are the northwest trending Aksu
Valley and the eastward oriented Üçker Valley. They have several distinguished
moraines indicating past glacial activities. The northeast trending Öksüzdere Valley and
two small valleys (Topaktaş and Saraycık) on the southern side of the mountain were also
glaciated, but the glacial deposits in those valleys are less well preserved than those in the
Aksu and Üçker valleys. Furthermore, the Aksu Valley has an active glacier (Sarıkaya et
66
al., 2003), and the Üçker Valley has rock glaciers (Güner and Emre, 1983). For the
purpose of developing a glacial and paleoclimatic record on the mountain, we studied the
glacial deposits in the Aksu and Üçker valleys.
3.1. Aksu Valley
The Aksu Valley (Fig. 1.b) starts as a glacial cirque on the northwestern slopes of the
peak (3917 m) and continues about 6 km northwest down to an altitude of 2100 m. It is a
typical U-shaped glacial valley, with three separate cirques (Fig. 1.d) surrounded by steep
walls up to 400 m high. The main, central cirque contains a retreating glacier whose
tongue receded to an altitude of 3450 m. The western and northern cirques have no
permanent ice, today. The northern cirque becomes a tributary valley that converges with
the main Aksu Valley at two points around a bedrock ridge, at 3000 m and 2750 m of
elevation (Fig. 1.c and d).
The Aksu Valley and its tributaries show well preserved glacial depositional and
erosional features, including moraines, outwash deposits, roches moutonnées, striations,
arêtes, crescent-like scours, and polished surfaces (Sarıkaya et al, 2003). Using relative
dating methods, Erinç (1951) grouped the glacial deposits in the Aksu Valley and its
tributaries into two evolutionary stages: the Glacial stage (Late Pleistocene, probably the
Last Glacial Maximum; LGM) and the Postglacial stage (Holocene). He proposed two
separate glacial advances during the Glacial Stage of Late Pleistocene. The most
67
extensive moraines that reach down to 2150 m represent the oldest phase. They include
well-preserved lateral moraines on both sides of the Aksu Valley between 2550-2750 m
(Fig. 1.c and 2). These moraines are at the same elevation, symmetrically placed, and
have similar sizes - both about 60 m high and 60-120 m wide. A younger glacial advance,
whose moraines can be traced at 2850 m and are partially washed by later glacial
advances, corresponds to the second stage of the Late Pleistocene glaciation. Moraines
deposited during the Postglacial stage occupy the area in front of the recent glacier at
elevations above 3000 m (Erinç, 1951). They are fresh looking, have steep slopes,
contain mostly fresh clasts, and have almost no vegetation cover (Fig. 3). Erinç (1951)
concluded that this latest expansion of glaciers occurred in a cooler and probably moister
period after the Climatic Optimum of the Holocene and must therefore be separated from
the older stages. Later retreat, interrupted by re-expansions that left various ridges of end
moraines, has continued to the present and caused the continual shrinkage of the recent
glacier (Erinç, 1951).
The flat surface in the lower part of the valley between the Karagüllü volcanic dome and
the first stage moraines (at around 2100 m) (Fig. 1.b) is the outwash plain of the first
stage glaciation, and most of it was covered by Karagüllü lava flows (Sarıkaya et al.,
2003), whose age of ca. 10 ka (Sarıkaya et al., 2006) provides the minimum limiting age
for these outwash deposits. The plains of the Aksu Valley between 2600 m and 3000 m
(Fig. 1.c and 2) have outwash deposits that consist of different clast sizes, from metersized boulders to fine-grained fractions. A boulder field at 2600-2700 m has several large
68
boulders, 2-3 m in diameter, embedded in the matrix. Sarıkaya et al. (2003) interpreted
this gently-sloping area (5o) as the outwash plain of earlier glacial advances. Terraces in
this area provide evidence of sequenced glacio-fluvial activity. The recent outwash plain
(2850-3000 m) (Fig 1.d) has a gentle slope (10o) and is braided by small streams
originating from the recent glacier. The surface is less vegetated than the older outwash
landforms.
3.2. Üçker Valley
The east trending, broad Üçker Valley extends over 8 km between the peak of Erciyes
(3917 m) and the Erciyes Ski Center at 2200 m (Fig. 1.e). The upper part of the valley is
an amphitheater, about 2 km wide and 1 km deep, produced by a volcanic collapse at the
last stage of the volcanism (Şen et al., 2003). Surrounded by steep walls on the west and
south, the amphitheater was an effective ice accumulation area for Üçker valley glaciers.
Although at present there is no glacier in that depression, a rock glacier occupies an area
of about 1 km2 between the elevations of 2960 m and 3350 m on the north facing slopes
of the cirque (Güner and Emre, 1983; Sarıkaya et al., 2003).
Güner and Emre (1983) described and mapped the glacial deposits in Üçker Valley, and
divided them into three different stages. They assigned a Würm age to the oldest
moraines, which are as extensive as their coevals in the Aksu Valley (Fig. 1.b and e).
These moraines reach down to 2200 m and end near the Erciyes Ski Center. They lost
69
their original morphologies due to deep dissection by later fluvial activity. Processes of
physical weathering, oxidation and soil development are common on these moraines. The
second moraine covers the oldest one at an altitude of 2600 m. It contacts a younger
moraine at 2650 m with a steep front (Fig. 1.d). This third moraine set has typical
hummocky morphology that consists of 1-2 m high and 3-5 m wide hills separated by 1-2
m deep and 3-5 m wide depressions. The boulders at the surface of these moraines are
semi-angular to angular. The youngest moraines in the valley are present at 3250 m and
have characteristic fresh looking surfaces with almost no matrix and vegetation. They
contain large boulders (2-3 m in diameter) with well-preserved glacial features, such as
crescent marks, polish and striae. Güner and Emre (1983) correlated the ages of these
younger moraines with the Postglacial advance described in the Aksu Valley by Erinç
(1951).
Outwash plains in the Üçker Valley are present in front of the oldest moraines below
2100 m (Güner and Emre, 1983) (Fig 1.d). They contain different size materials ranging
from boulders to fine-grained sediments that are deeply dissected by streams. Several
distinct terraces are present (Bartsch, 1935) here. A relatively small flat area between
2910 m and 2850 m (Fig 1.d) defines the outwash plain, probably associated with later
glacial activity.
70
4. Methods
4.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl dating method
The cosmogenic
36
Cl dating method (Davis and Schaeffer, 1955; Phillips et al., 1986;
Zreda et al., 1991; Zreda and Phillips, 2000) was used to develop glacial chronologies of
Mount Erciyes. This technique is based on in-situ accumulation of 36Cl in rocks exposed
to cosmic radiation. Although cosmic particles are strongly attenuated in the atmosphere
(Desilets and Zreda, 2003; Desilets et al., 2006a), some reach the earth’s surface and
interact with atoms of Ca, K and Cl (Zreda et al., 1991) to produce
36
Cl. Because the
production rates of 36Cl are known (Zreda et al., 1991; Phillips et al., 1996, 2001; Stone
et al., 1996, 1998; Swanson and Caffee, 2001; Licciardi et al., 2008), measured
concentrations of 36Cl in rocks can be used to assign exposure ages of surfaces of glacial
deposits (Zreda et al., 1999; Owen et al., 2001; Sarıkaya et al., 2008).
ACE (Age Calculation Engine, http://ace.hwr.arizona.edu) cosmogenic dating software
(Anderson et al., 2007; Zweck et al., 2009) is used to calculate the 36Cl surface exposure
ages, using the following production rates: 71.7±3.2 atoms
atoms
36
36
Cl (g Ca)-1 yr-1, 154.5±8.0
Cl (g K)-1 yr-1 and 686.0±42.5 fast neutrons (g air)-1 yr-1. These reference
production rates are based on the calibration data set of Phillips et al. (1996). They have
been corrected for secular changes in paleomagnetic intensity (Guyodo and Valet, 1999;
Yang et al., 2000), changes in geomagnetic pole position (Ohno and Hamano, 1992) and
71
eustatic changes in sea level (Fairbanks, 1989; Shackleton, 2000) after scaling to sea
level (atmospheric pressure 1033 g cm-2) and high geomagnetic latitude (geomagnetic
cutoff rigidity <2 GV) using Desilets and Zreda (2003) and Desilets et al. (2006a).
The samples were collected using the methods described in Sarıkaya (2009). Cl was
liberated from the rock matrix by dissolving the sample in a mixture of hydrofluoric and
nitric acids in pressure digestion bombs (Almasi, 2001; Desilets et al., 2006b), and sulfur
was separated from Cl using chromatographic techniques to remove
isobar of
36
Cl and interferes with the measurement of
36
36
S, which is an
Cl using accelerator mass
spectrometry (AMS) (Fifield, 1999; Steier et al., 2005).
The isobaric interference of
36
S is an important problem in AMS measurement of
36
Cl
(Gosse and Phillips, 2001). Usually S is removed by precipitation as BaSO4, which must
be repeated several times for satisfactory results. Here, we developed a chemical
technique for separation of Cl from S using columns of ion exchange resin. Prior to
separation in columns, we applied one step of BaSO4 precipitation to remove the bulk of
S. The samples were then loaded to a 2 cm3 preconditioned DOWEX 1X8-400 mesh
exchange resin (converted to OH- form by eluting several bed volumes (Bv; 1Bv=2 cm3)
of 1.5 M NH4OH) using a peristaltic pump. Cl was eluted from the column with 70 Bv
0.01 M HNO3, and later S by 30 Bv 0.1 M HNO3. Then, the column and resin were
flushed with 10 Bv 18 MΩ cm H2O and 10 Bv 1.5 M NH4OH to prepare them for the
next sample. Finally, Cl was precipitated as AgCl. The separation process takes less than
72
3 hours, much shorter than the traditional method based on precipitation of BaSO4
(several days), and Cl recovery is higher than ~80%.
36
Cl/Cl was measured with accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) at PRIME Lab, Purdue
University, Indiana, USA. Total Cl was first estimated using the ion specific electrode
method (Aruscavage and Campbell, 1983; Elsheimer, 1987) at the University of Arizona,
and its accurate determination was made from measurement of
37
Cl/35Cl on spiked
samples (Desilets et al., 2006b) after the AMS measurement of 36Cl/Cl. Major elements
were measured with inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AE),
selected trace elements were measured with inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (ICP-MS), and boron was measured with prompt gamma-neutron activation
analysis (PGNAA), all at Activation Laboratories, Inc., Ontario, Canada (Table 1).
4.2. Glacier modeling
We used a one-dimensional numerical ice flow line model to determine the climatic
conditions during previous glaciations on Mount Erciyes. The modeling procedure
applied in this study is described in Sarıkaya et al. (2008). It simulates the flow of ice
enforced by the annual mass balance gradient at any point of a topographic flow line of a
glacier. The mass balance is calculated by the difference of the net accumulation and
ablation of snow, and used to create the glacier growth according to the equations of ice
flow (Paterson, 1994; Haeberli, 1996). Since the simulated ice extent is a function of
73
prescribed climatic conditions, the model allows the user to match modeled and field
observed extent of the glacier to draw inferences about the past climates.
Ice mass balance on the flow line was calculated by using the accumulation of ice
predicted by snowfall modeled as precipitation occurring below zero degree and ablation
of ice/snow by using positive degree day factors, which assume a correlation between the
sum of positive air temperatures and the amount of ablation (Braithwaite, 1995). Degree
day factors of 3 mm day-1 oC-1 (water equivalent) for snow and 8 mm day-1 oC-1 for ice
(Braithwaite and Zhang, 2000) were assumed, as was a standard deviation of 3.95oC for
the monthly mean surface temperature, which is based on the Kayseri meteorology
station data.
The temperature reconstructions at altitudes where the moraines are present were made
by using the monthly temperatures measured in Kayseri meteorological station and
monthly radiosonde-derived temperature lapse rates (radiosonde data downloaded from
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration / Earth System Research Laboratory,
http://raob.fsl.noaa.gov) calculated at the Ankara station (270 km northwest of Mount
Erciyes). The precipitation data were derived from 10 nearby meteorological stations
located within a radius of 100 km from Mount Erciyes. Vertical precipitation gradients
were used to project the monthly precipitation amounts on Mount Erciyes. Our present
day temperature estimates on Mount Erciyes, at an elevation of 2700 m, which is close to
the LGM time ELA, are -8.6oC (winter average, DJF), 7.6oC (summer average, JJA) and -
74
0.4oC (annual average). Yearly precipitation total at the same elevation is estimated as
722 mm, with 227 mm of it falling during the winter (DJF) and 85 mm during the
summer (JJA).
5. Results
5.1. Cosmogenic 36Cl exposure ages
5.1.1. Aksu Valley
Twenty-seven boulders were sampled in the Aksu Valley. Six samples (samples 12, 13,
14, 25, 26, and 27) were collected from the well-preserved lateral moraines (Fig. 1.c).
These have ages that range from 11 ka to 25 ka (Table 2). Sample 12, 13 and 14 were
collected from the left lateral moraine. Sample 13 (11±0.6 ka) is four standard deviations
apart from the nearest sample age, and it is thus considered an outlier and removed from
further consideration. The remaining two samples (12 and 14) have an average age of
20.7±1.8 ka (all moraine ages are reported as weighted averages of their boulders with
uncertainties at the 1-sigma level). Samples 25, 26 and 27 were collected from the right
lateral moraine, and their ages are 22.2±1.4 ka, 16.6±0.9 ka and 25.3±1.2 ka,
respectively. They gave an average age of 21.4±2.6 ka for that moraine. Sample 26 is off
by more than two standard deviations from the remaining samples. If we remove that
sample from our calculations, the average age of the right lateral moraine becomes
75
24.0±1.6 ka, and the average age of both moraines increases to 22.4±1.4 ka. The ages of
the two lateral moraines are within their error limits with or without sample 26. Thus, it is
most likely that the age of both moraines is between 21.2±1.6 ka (5 samples) and
22.4±1.4 ka (4 samples), and this range will be used in further discussions. These ages
clearly indicate that the big lateral moraines of the Aksu Valley were deposited during the
broadly defined Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (Fig. 4.b).
Samples 5, 6 and 7 were from boulders on the moraine adjacent to the right lateral LGM
moraine of the Aksu Valley (Fig. 1.c). Sample 7 (6.3±0.8 ka) is significantly younger
than others (Table 2). This moraine has subdued morphology and is embedded in the
surrounding outwash deposits. It is possible that sample 7 was deposited on it by
subsequent fluvial activity. Thus, we exclude sample 7 from moraine age calculation.
Samples 5 and 6 gave an average age of 14.1±1.3 ka. This age is supported by samples
(15, 16, 17, 18 and 22) collected from a lateral moraine in the right tributary valley. Their
mean age is 13.7±1.3 ka (Table 2). The ages from both moraines reveal that they were
deposited during the Late Glacial (Fig. 4.b). Late Glacial moraines in the Aksu Valley
were heavily obliterated by later advances, and only small remnants survived today.
Samples 23 (pictured in Fig. 3) and 24 were collected from the right tributary valley.
They are on the crest of a moraine that is overlying the Late Glacial moraine and shows
considerably younger ages than those samples on the Late Glacial moraine. Sample 23
has an age of 8.7±0.5 ka, and sample 24 has an age of 10.6±0.6 ka (Fig. 4.b). The average
76
of two samples is 9.6±0.9 ka. There were no more boulders suitable for sampling on this
moraine.
Samples 19, 20 and 21 were collected from fresh looking boulders of moraines in the
upper part of the right tributary valley (Fig. 3). Their mean age of 3.8±0.4 ka indicates
that these were deposited by Neoglacial expansion of glaciers during the Late Holocene.
Samples 1, 2 and 3 were collected from moraines within the left cirque (Fig. 1.d). They
have a mean age of 1.2±1.0 ka. The large uncertainty is due to the age of sample 1
(1.0±2.8 ka) which has a very high analytical error. If we exclude sample 1 from our
calculations, the moraine age will be 1.2±0.3 ka. The ages from the two tributary
cirques/valleys indicate that upper moraines in the Aksu Valley were deposited in the
Late Holocene (Fig. 4.b).
The lower outwash plains, between 2600 m and 2700 m, contain numerous scattered
large boulders, far from the bedrock ridges. In order to support our moraine ages from the
upper Aksu valley, we collected five samples (4, 8, 9, 10 and 11) from the boulders on
these outwash plains. The samples yielded ages from 2.0±0.2 ka to 9.5±0.5 ka (Table 2).
Their ages can be divided into two groups based on the age and position within the
outwash plain (Fig. 4.b); the first group (samples 4, 8 and 11) has an average age of
2.5±0.3 ka and the second group (samples 9 and 10) has an average age of 8.7±1.4 ka.
The first group indicates that they were deposited during the younger glacier advances
77
(Late Holocene) and the second group during the older advances (Early Holocene). This
conclusion is supported by the Early and Late Holocene moraines in the upper valley.
5.1.2. Üçker Valley
Seventeen samples were collected in the Üçker Valley (Table 2). Samples 43, 44, 45 and
46 were from a left lateral moraine (Fig. 1.e), and gave three consistent ages and one
older outlier (sample 44; 35.0±1.8 ka, probably containing
36
Cl inherited from episodes
of previous exposure to cosmic radiation). The average of the three younger samples,
20.4±1.5 ka, correlates with the LGM moraines in the Aksu Valley (Fig. 4.c) that were
deposited between 21.2±1.6 ka and 22.4±1.4 ka ago. Consequently, the timing of
maximum glaciation on Mount Erciyes can be considered as the average of both valleys,
which is 21.3±0.9 ka.
Samples 52, 53, 55, 56 and 57 were collected from a moraine between the elevation of
2500 and 2650 (Fig. 1.e). Samples 52 and 57 have large analytical uncertainties, with
ages 28.3±16.1 ka and 7.2±5.9 ka, respectively. Sample 52 is older than all other samples
in that moraine. Thus, we interpreted that this sample contains
36
Cl inherited from
previous exposures to cosmic radiation. Sample 57 is very close to the moraines from the
younger advance. Its age is younger than others, which may indicate it might have rolled
down from the nearby younger moraines. Therefore, we did not include these two
samples in to the age calculation of this moraine; the remaining samples gave an average
78
age of 15.2±2.0 ka. If we would include all samples together, the age of the moraine
would be 15.8±3.6 ka, which is not significantly different. This moraine, with an age of
15.2±2.0 ka, correlates with the moraines of the Late Glacial advance in the Aksu Valley
(Fig. 4.c). Consequently, the age of Late Glacial advance on the mountain can be taken as
the average of both valleys, which is 14.6±1.2 ka.
We collected eight samples (39, 40, 41, 47, 48, 49, 51 and 64) from the hummocky
moraine complex between 2650 and 3100 m in Üçker Valley. Their ages range from
7.0±0.8 ka to 11.1±0.5 ka, with an average age of 9.2±0.5 ka, which indicates they were
deposited during the Early Holocene glacial advances. This is consistent with the Early
Holocene moraines dated to 9.6±0.9 ka in the Aksu Valley (Fig. 4.c). Thus, we are
reporting that the Early Holocene glaciation occurred 9.3±0.5 ka ago, which is the
average age of moraines in both valleys.
5.2. Glacier Modeling
We applied the ice flow line model in both main valleys of Mount Erciyes. Given that
they have similar cross sections and climatic inputs to the model, and have comparable
extents of past glaciations, they produced almost identical results. Because of that we
report modeling results only from the Aksu Valley (Fig. 5), which has four glacial
advances in Late Quaternary, and limit further discussion to that valley.
79
In the Aksu Valley, our model uses the flow line (Fig. 1.b) starting at the elevation of
3650 m on the top boundary of the recent glacier and continues down to 2052 m, which is
about 100 m below the lowest moraine. The total length of the flow line is 6.8 km, well in
excess of the distance to the outermost moraines, which are situated 5.8 km from the
starting point.
Modeled glacier lengths as a function of temperature and precipitation changes from
modern conditions are plotted in Fig. 5. The contours show how the length of the glacier
varies with climate. Each contour represents the extent of the glaciation (in length)
deduced from the moraine locations in the valley. For instance, LGM moraines are
located 5.8 km away from the head of the glacier. In order to produce LGM glaciers that
are 5.8 km long, the temperature must drop by 9oC, if the precipitation amount is kept
constant (modern precipitation line in Fig. 5), and by 5.7oC, if the precipitation amount
doubles. Our modeling results indicate that wetter conditions need less temperature
drops, and drier conditions require greater temperature drops to produce the same
glaciers. As seen from Fig. 5, the paleoclimatic conditions that could have produced past
glaciers vary greatly. One should use other climate proxies to narrow that range.
Generally, the slope of the contour lines are steep for small temperature decreases, which
means that larger precipitation increases are necessary to balance small temperature drops
to produce glaciers. The “modern precipitation line” shown in Fig. 5 indicates a cooling
of 9oC, 6.4oC, 4.9oC and 2.6oC necessary to produce LGM, Late Glacial, Early Holocene
and Late Holocene glaciers, respectively. Under the modern climatic conditions (open
80
circle in Fig. 5), our model produces a glacier that is about 200 m long, which is
consistent with the field observations of the modern glacier.
We have tested the model results by calculating the paleo-ELAs of former glaciations
using the model outputs. ELA is defined as the elevation at which the computed mass
balance is zero. Our model yielded zero mass balances at 2695 m, 2796 m, 2972 m and
3225 m for LGM, Late Glacial, Early Holocene and Late Holocene glaciations,
respectively. The accumulation area ratio (AAR) method (Porter, 1975) with AAR value
of 0.6 (Nesje and Dahl, 2000) gave comparable results at 2670m, 2820 m, 2970 m, 3150
m. Messerli (1967) calculated Würm snow line at the altitude of 2700 m, which is
comparable to our model results. Recent ELA is at 3553 m, from model results, and 3525
m and 3650 m by AAR method and Messerli's (1967) calculations, respectively.
6. Discussion of timing of glaciations
Recent research has established the timing of past glaciations in several mountains in
Turkey using cosmogenic nuclides (Akçar et al., 2007; 2008; Sarıkaya et al., 2008; Zahno
et al., 2006; 2007; 2009; Zreda et al., 2009) (Fig. 4.d). These results are the first in the
region and critical to improve the local glacial-chronologies and the paleoenvironmental
interpretations. LGM glacier chronologies are available for the Kavron and Verçenik
Valleys of Kaçkar Mountains (Akçar et al., 2007; 2008). According to the 10Be exposure
ages from Kavron Valley, Akçar et al. (2007) reported the glaciation began at least
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26.0±1.2 ka ago, continued until 18.3±0.9 ka ago with the local LGM advance. A similar
result has been reported in the nearby Verçenik Valley (Akçar et al., 2008). The Verçenik
paleoglaciers were advanced before 26.1±1.2 ka ago and continued until 18.8±1.0 ka ago.
Sarıkaya et al. (2008) reported comparable chronologies in southwestern Anatolia by
using 36Cl cosmogenic ages of moraines from Kartal Lake Valley, Mount Sandıras (Fig.
1.a). They reported that the maximum glaciation occurred approximately 20.4±1.3 ka
ago, and the glaciers retreated by 19.6±1.6 ka ago. Zahno et al. (2007) reported that the
LGM glaciation started about 26 ka ago and continued until 19 ka, in the Muslu Valley,
Dedegöl Mountains (Fig. 1.a). On Uludağ (Fig. 1.a), the local LGM glaciation occurred
by 20.3 ka ago (Zahno et al., 2009). These ages agree with our LGM moraine ages from
Mount Erciyes (Fig. 4.d). Besides, the timing of local glacier maxima from Turkish
mountains is closely correlated with the global LGM chron (between 19-23 ka and
centered at 21 ka) (Mix et al., 2001), which is also coeval with the lowest sea level stand
(120-135 m below present) of Marine Isotope Stage 2 (Martinson et al., 1987; Yokoyama
et al., 2000). This result is also supported by cosmogenic results from other
Mediterranean mountains, including the central Spanish mountains (Palacios et al., 2007),
the Pyrenees (Pallàs et al., 2007), and the Maritime Alps (Granger et al., 2006). However,
as pointed out recently by Hughes and Woodward (2008), such an agreement is not
always the case. A range of geochronological techniques has produced contrasting results
for the timing of the local glacial maxima across Mediterranean mountain ranges.
Radiocarbon, U-series and OSL dating in the Cantabrian Mountains (Jiménez-Sánchez
and Farias, 2002), Pyrenees (García-Ruiz et al., 2003; González-Sampériz et al., 2006),
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Italian Apennines (Fig. 1.a) (Giraudi and Frezzotti, 1997) and Pindus Mountains, Greece
(Fig. 1.a) (Hughes et al., 2006; Woodward et al., 2008) have produced early local glacial
maxima, several thousand to tens of thousands of years earlier than the global LGM.
From comparison of different mountains of Anatolia (Fig. 4.d), it can be inferred that the
regional LGM occurred at 19-23 ka, which correlates well with the global LGM.
After the local LGM maximum in Kaçkar Mountains, recession of glaciers did not start
until around 18.3±0.9 ka ago, in the Kavron Valley, and 18.8±0.8 ka ago in Verçenik
Valley. Although the magnitude of this recession remains unknown, glaciers in Kaçkar
Mountains most probably separated into smaller valley glaciers that were restricted to the
tributaries (Akçar et al., 2007). A further glacial advance took place around 13.0±0.8 to
11.5±0.8 ka ago in Kavron Valley (Akçar et al., 2007). A comparable situation has been
reported from nearby Verçenik Valley during the Late Glacial (possibly sometime
between 13.6±0.7 ka and 10.4±0.7 ka ago) on the basis of glacial erosional features
(Akçar et al., 2008). In the southwestern Turkey, Late Glacial advances occurred earlier
than those in northeast of the country; at around 14 ka ago on Mount Dedegöl (Zahno et
al., 2006), 16.2±0.5 ka ago on Mount Sandıras (Sarıkaya et al., 2008) and 16.1 ka ago on
Uludağ (Zahno et al., 2009). Late Glacial advance on Mount Erciyes took place around
the same time as those in western mountains. It seems that central and western Late
Glacial advances occurred a few thousand years earlier than the Late Glacial advances in
Kaçkar Mountains (Fig. 4.d). Akçar et al. (2008) claimed that Kavron Valley glaciers
advanced most probably during the Younger Dryas (12.7-11.5 ka ago). In fact, similar
83
Younger Dryas glacial chronologies are also evident in mountains of southern Europe
(Hughes et al., 2006), including the Maritime Alps (Federici et al., 2008), the Italian
Apennines (Giraudi and Frezzotti, 1997), and Montenegro (Hughes and Woodward,
2008). However, in Corsica (Conchon, 1986) and in the Pirin Mountains, Bulgaria (Fig.
1.a) (Stefanova and Ammann, 2003), the valleys were ice-free during the Younger Dryas,
which is also the case for the southwestern and central Anatolian mountains.
Glaciation during the interglacial Early Holocene may seem unusual, but it is not
unprecedented. Zreda et al. (2009) showed that Aladağlar (Fig. 1.a), a mountain range 80
km south of Mount Erciyes, had extensive glaciers that peaked at 10.2±0.2 ka and melted
away by 8.6±0.3 ka (Fig. 4.d). Glaciers in Hacer Valley in Aladağlar descended more
than 2000 m in elevation to extremely low altitudes of about 1100 m. It is fascinating to
observe almost the same timing of glaciations, but smaller extent, on nearby Mount
Erciyes. The Early Holocene glaciers in Mount Erciyes advanced and retreated by
9.6±0.9 ka ago in Aksu Valley and 9.2±0.5 ka ago in Üçker Valley. Early Holocene
glaciations were reported not only from Turkey, but also from the Durmitor Massif,
Montenegro (Fig. 1.a). Hughes and Woodward (2008) obtained U-series ages of 10.6±0.2
ka and 9.6±0.8 ka from secondary calcites of two well defined terminal moraines in
Karlica Valley. It is unclear whether the Early Holocene glaciers in south-central
Anatolia and Montenegro are representative of the wider region or limited to their
localities. Other studies from Kaçkar Mountains, Dedegöl and Sandıras Mountains and
Uludağ show no evidence of Early Holocene glaciers (Fig. 4.d), possibly due to the lower
84
elevation of these mountains. Nonetheless, the observed sizes of Early Holocene glaciers,
particularly in Aladağlar, show that the climate might have been more variable than
hitherto thought during the Early Holocene (Zreda et al., 2009).
Late Holocene moraines on Mount Erciyes reveal that the glaciers advanced and retreated
by 3.8±0.4 ka ago, and again by 1.2±0.3 ka ago in the Aksu Valley. These neoglaciers
were restricted to the higher altitudes of Mount Erciyes. Phases of several Neoglacial
advances were also recognized in Italian Apennines (around 4.3±0.1 ka ago, 2.8±0.03 ka
ago and 1.3±0.03 ka ago) (Giraudi, 2004), in Maritime Alps (Federici and Stefanini,
2001) and in high cirques of Mount Olympus, Greece (Fig. 1.a) (Smith et al., 1997). Even
younger moraines were observed in the main cirque of Aksu Valley (Fig. 1.d) and in the
higher altitudes of Üçker Valley (Fig. 1.c), but we could not date them because of the
lack of suitable boulders. The main valley in the Aksu Valley (above 3000 m) has very
fresh looking moraines which we infer were from the younger glacial advances than the
Neoglacial, most probably the Little Ice Age (LIA). Neoglacial and LIA moraines appear
to be absent in Kaçkar Mountains (Akçar et al., 2007; 2008) and in western Turkey
(Zahno et al., 2007; 2009; Sarıkaya et al., 2008) (Fig. 4.d), but are present in Mount
Erciyes, in the European Alps and other mountains in the Mediterranean region (Grove,
1988). The modern glacier on Mount Erciyes is interpreted as a remnant of the LIA
glaciers due to the similar characteristics of its deposits (Erinç, 1952).
85
7. Paleoclimatic interpretations
7.1. Last Glacial Maximum
The paleoclimatic records of the LGM in the Eastern Mediterranean suggest that the
region was generally cooler than present (Robinson et al., 2006). Elevated δ18O and δ13C
values of speleothems from Soreq Cave (Fig 1.a) between 25 and 17 ka ago show LGM
was the coldest period of the last 25 ka (Bar-Matthews et al., 1997). McGarry et al.
(2004) used the fluid inclusions within the speleothems and calculated the LGM air
temperature in the range of ~8-12oC above the Soreq Cave, which is about 6-10oC cooler
than the modern values, comparable with the results obtained by clumped isotope
thermometry (Affek et al., 2008). Alkenone and δ18O records in sediment cores from the
Levantine Basin (Emeis et al., 2000) suggested similar sea surface temperatures (SST) of
about 12oC, which is at least 5-6oC colder than modern values. Hayes et al. (2005) also
calculated the LGM SSTs based on planktonic foraminifers from the Eastern
Mediterranean and showed that the largest changes, by about 6-8oC, occurred in the
Aegean Sea, with more pronounced anomalies during the summer months. The LGM
general circulation models (GCMs) showed comparable temperature decreases in
southeastern Europe (~8-11oC; Barron et al., 2004), and Anatolia (~10-12oC; Robinson et
al., 2006). The temperature reconstructions from rock glaciers on Pindus Mountains
indicate 8-9oC colder conditions before the LGM (Hughes et al., 2003).
86
In contrast to the consensus regarding LGM temperatures, there is no clear agreement
regarding moisture levels during the LGM. Cold steppe biomass and virtual absence of
trees (van Zeist et al., 1975) in Anatolia, and grassland/shrubland vegetation with varying
proportions of Artemisia, Gramineae and chenopods (Elenga et al., 2000) in southern
Europe and Africa were interpreted as indicative of drier LGM (Fontugne et al., 1999;
Tzedakis, 2007). However, facies and geomorphic analyses of lakes in the inner Anatolia
show that the lake levels were high both before (Roberts, 1983) and during the LGM
(Kuzucuoğlu et al., 1999; Roberts et al., 1999; 2001), which is consistent with other lakes
in Turkey (Roberts and Wright, 1993; Landmann and Reimer, 1996) and extensive
paleolake systems along the Dead Sea Transform (Neev and Emery, 1967; Begin et al.,
1974). Jones et al. (2007) studied Eski Acıgöl, a closed basin lake in Central Anatolia (80
km west of Mount Erciyes) (Fig. 1.a), using hydrological and isotope mass balance
models and reported that LGM precipitation was 16-60% lower than today (Fig. 6). Soreq
Cave data indicate drier conditions (between 20-50%) during the same time interval (2517 ka ago) (Bar-Matthews et al., 1997) (Fig. 6), however a recent study on d-excess
values of fluid inclusions shows higher relative humidity (60%) compared to modern day
conditions (45%) (Affek et al., 2008). The inconsistency between the lake level and
pollen data created an incongruity, and many researchers attempted to explain it. Prentice
et al. (1992) argued that the cold winters with enhanced winter precipitation and summer
drought provided the high lake levels and the steppe conditions at the same time.
However, the combination of steppe conditions and high lake stands were also interpreted
as increased cloudiness and reduced evaporation to precipitation ratio coupled with
87
lowered winter temperatures and precipitation amounts (COHMAP Members, 1988;
Kuzucuoğlu and Roberts, 1998). It is important to note that, although many lakes were
extensive during the LGM, the overall trend after 24 ka was towards reduced the lake
levels (Tzedakis, 2007). Because of these inconsistencies, we prefer not to rely on
moisture reconstructions, but use only the paleotemperature data for LGM, which is less
ambiguous, in order to narrow possible paleoclimate conditions inferred from glacial
model. If, in the future, a better estimate of either of the two exists, one can use our
glacier modeling results to re-reconstruct the past climates (inset of Fig. 5).
There is a noticeable difference between the Eastern Mediterranean LGM SST or nearsea-level (NSL) temperature estimates and the temperature estimates at higher elevations
inland. SST and NSL temperatures tend to be closer to modern values than those in
uplands. In other words, continents surrounding the Mediterranean were cooled ~3oC
more than the sea and coasts of the Mediterranean. The marked contrast in climate
between coastal areas and interiors has also been noted previously (Jones et al., 2007;
Enzel et al., 2008), and it is possibly due to the moderating effect of the Mediterranean.
Southward-shifted westerlies to the latitudes of the Mediterranean (Florineth and
Schlüchter, 2000) may also enhance the moderating effect by bringing relatively warmer
air from the mid-Atlantic during the LGM. Thus, a cooling of about 6-10oC obtained
from Soreq Cave (Fig. 1.a) and 5-8oC from LGM SST estimates in the Eastern
Mediterranean should represent the minimum cooling at higher altitudes. Therefore, we
used a temperature range of 8 to 11oC colder than today, in order to reconstruct the
88
paleoprecipitation totals on Mount Erciyes. A minimum cooling of 8oC brings our
paleoprecipitation reconstructions to 1.2 times the modern values (which indicate slightly
wetter conditions), and a maximum cooling of 11oC corresponds to 0.75 times the
modern rate (drier conditions). Therefore, given the cooling in the range of 8-11oC, our
glacier modeling results revealed that the LGM precipitation sums were somewhat closer
to modern values, with a range of 20% more to 25% less than today (Fig. 6). With the
modern precipitation amount, a cooling of about 9oC would be needed to produce LGM
glaciers consistent with the glacial-geological record.
7.2. Late Glacial
Stable climatic conditions during the LGM were followed by a series of melt water pulses
in northwest Black Sea between 18 ka and 15.5 ka, due to the retreat of Eurasian ice
sheets (Bahr et al., 2006) and Anatolian mountain glaciers. Glaciers started to retreat
from mountains of Turkey around 21-18 ka ago, and readvanced by 16-14 ka ago,
coincident with Heinrich event 1 (H1, ~16 ka ago) (Fig. 4). Paleoclimate reconstructions
generally show cooler temperatures during the H1 in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Alkenone-derived SSTs from the Northern Aegean Sea were as low as 14.5oC (Gogou et
al., 2007) around 15 ka ago, which is 3.5-4.5oC colder than today. A sharp drop in
temperature occurred 16 ka ago in Red Sea (Arz et al., 2003), and SSTs were generally
low from 17 ka to 15 ka ago (Robinson et al., 2006). This cooling was related to the coldwater input into the Mediterranean from the North Atlantic Ocean (Cacho et al., 1999)
89
during Heinrich events that caused a reduction of evaporation and precipitation in the
Eastern Mediterranean region (Kwiecien et al., 2009), leading to transient atmospheric
cooling and an evaporation excess (Robinson et al., 2006). This hypothesis explains the
lower lake levels in the Levantine (Bartov et al., 2003), Eastern Europe and Turkey
(Harrison et al., 1996) during H1. Bar-Matthews et al. (1997) reported 3.5-4oC colder
temperatures, and slightly increased (up to 1.5 times more) precipitation totals than today,
in Soreq Cave. Reconstructed moisture conditions in Eski Acıgöl showed that Late
Glacial interstade (14.5±1.0 ka) precipitation was 25-60% more than today (Jones et al.,
2007) (Fig. 6).
In summary, the Late Glacial interstade in the Eastern Mediterranean is considered to
have been somewhat colder and slightly wetter than today. Our model suggests that in
order to sustain wetter conditions, a maximum 6.4oC cooling is necessary to produce
glaciers on Mount Erciyes at that time. A cooling of 3.5-4.5oC from SST estimates in
Aegean Sea (Gogou et al., 2007) and 3.5-4oC from Soreq Cave speleothems should
represent the minimum cooling at higher altitudes. Since we do not know the exact
cooling on Mount Erciyes, we prefer to report a range of climatic conditions for Late
Glacial as we did in LGM estimates. If we assume at least 4.5oC colder temperatures, the
moisture levels will be 1.5 times higher than today. Given that the Late Glacial interstade
was somewhat wetter than today, we are reporting a range of cooling between 4.5-6.4oC
to sustain glaciers on Mount Erciyes during the Late Glacial interstade.
90
7.3. Early Holocene
The Early Holocene appears to have been the wettest phase of the last 25 ka across much
of the Levant and Eastern Mediterranean (Robinson et al., 2006). A wet Early Holocene
paleoclimate in the Levantine region is supported by several proxies, including the
increases in Pistacia and oak pollen (Rossignol-Strick, 1995) on Ghab Valley in northern
Syria and paleosol deposits on the Israeli coast (Gvirtzman and Wieder, 2001). Humid
conditions were also evident further west. High rainfall and cold winters in Sicily, Italy
(Fig. 1.a) between 7.5 ka and 8.5 ka ago were reconstructed using stable isotopes in
stalagmites (Frisia et al., 2006), and in lacustrine carbonates (Zanchetta et al., 2007). BarMatthews et al. (1997) suggested that Early Holocene (7-10 ka ago) was almost twice as
wet as today (Fig. 6) and 3-3.5oC colder. D-excess data from Soreq Cave speleothems
indicate significantly higher relativity humidity (70%) between 7.2 ka and 10 ka ago
(Affek et al., 2008). Many Mediterranean lakes returned to high levels (Harrison et al.,
1996) after a regression during Younger Dryas (Frumkin et al., 1994). A combined study
of Lake Zeribar, Lake Van and Eski Acıgöl (Jones and Roberts, 2008) suggested that the
first half of the Holocene was wetter than today. They were isotopically depleted relative
to recent millennium, which was interpreted as the change in regional water balance
(Roberts et al., 2008). A humid Early Holocene climate was also supported in central
Anatolia by high lake levels and isotopic records. Isotopic analysis on Eski Acıgöl
indicates that Early Holocene (11.0±0.5 ka) was up to 40% wetter than today (Fig. 6)
(Jones et al., 2007). Lake Van, in eastern Anatolia, had experienced high lake stands
91
during that time frame (Landmann and Reimer, 1996; Wick et al., 2003). Stable isotope
data in Lake Gölhisar (Fig. 1.a), revealed that the Early Holocene (between ca. 10.6 ka
and 8.9 ka ago) was more humid than today (Eastwood et al., 2007).
The published proxy data consistently suggest that the Early Holocene climate was wetter
than today. If we assume that the moisture conditions were two times higher than they are
today, as suggested by Bar-Matthews et al. (1997), our model requires a 2.1oC cooling to
produce the Aksu Valley glacier. If the precipitation amount was same as today, the
required cooling is 4.9oC. Since we do not know the exact humidity levels in the Early
Holocene, here we are reporting a cooling between 2.1oC and 4.9oC, which is necessary
to sustain wetter conditions to support Early Holocene glaciers on Mount Erciyes (Fig.
6). Remarkable advances of Early Holocene glaciers on Aladağlar (Zreda et al., 2009),
Mount Erciyes and Durmitor Massif of Montenegro (Hughes and Woodward, 2008) are
showing that the climate was unstable than previously thought during the interglacial
Early Holocene.
7.4. Late Holocene
The recent glacier on Mount Erciyes was interpreted as the remnant of the late Holocene
glacial advance by Erinç (1952), with terminal moraines located along the front of the
retreating glacier reflecting phases of glacial regeneration and expansion in a cooler and
wetter climate than today. However, he did not give a quantitative value for the past
92
climate for that time interval. Lake levels were high at this time in the Levant (Frumkin et
al., 1994), but low in Iberia Peninsula, Balkans and Turkey (Harrison et al., 1996).
Higher δ18O and δ13C values for the second half of the Holocene in Lake Gölhisar
indicate generally drier conditions than in the period before 5.1 ka (Eastwood et al.,
2007). During the Late Holocene (1.5±1.0 ka ago), Jones et al. (2007) reported that
precipitation totals in Eski Acıgöl approached the modern values and reported a range
between 12% wetter and 13% drier than today (Fig. 6). Clumped isotope thermometry
data in conjunction with d-excess values from Soreq Cave speleothems show similar
moisture range, but colder conditions (up to 4oC) than modern (Affek et al., 2008). A
10% deficit of precipitation (Jones et al., 2007) would bring our temperature
reconstruction for the Late Holocene to 3oC cooler than today. Precipitation amounts the
same as today would imply 2.6oC cooler temperatures on Mount Erciyes. On the other
hand, 10% wetter conditions would make Late Holocene temperature 2.4oC colder than
today (Fig. 6).
8. Validation of glacier model using the retreat of the present glacier during the past
century
The recent glacier is on the steep slope (37o) of the northern face of the peak of Mount
Erciyes (3917 m) (Fig. 7). It starts with deep crevasses below the peak at the elevation of
3650 m. Its upper surface was clear during our visits in late summer months, and the
glacier could be seen from a distance of several kilometers (Fig. 2). Our latest close
93
examination in 2008 showed the glacier occupying an area of 0.05 km2 with a length of
260 m, and its lower margin at 3450 m. The lower part of the glacier at 3450-3480 m was
covered by debris.
Since Penther’s first visit to the mountain in 1902, different scientists reported that the
glacier was retreating (Fig. 7). In Penther’s work (Penther, 1905), the glacier was
reported to be 700 m long, and descending down to the elevation of 3100 m. However,
marginal elevation of the glacier does not match the given length of the glacier on current
topographic maps. Penther (1905, p. 25) reported the peak of the mountain 87 m lower
than today, possibly because his altimeter readings were inaccurate. If we correct the
glacier tongue by this amount, the lower margin of the glacier will be at 3180 m. Bartsch
(1930, 1935) visited Mount Erciyes in 1930 and recorded the glacier tongue at the
elevation of 3250 m. 20 years later, Erinç (1952) measured the length of the glacier as
550 m, and the glacier lower margin at 3300 m, and mentioned that its terminus part was
heavily loaded with ablation moraines mixed with ice. Erinç used Penther’s measurement
and calculated the glacial retreat rate of 3 m per year during the first 50 years of the 20th
century. Klaer (1962) and Messerli (1964) reported that the glacier retreated to 3350 m
(in 1958) and 3380 m (in 1962), respectively. Güner and Emre (1983) reported glacier
length of 380 m and its margin at 3400 m. In August 2001, the glacier was 300 m long
and its lower terminus at 3420 m (Sarıkaya et al., 2003). The latest examination of the
glacier, in August 2008, revealed that it retreated to 3450 m.
94
We calculated the retreat rate of the Erciyes glacier using the historical measurements
collected from published works since 1902. The glacier length decreased by 150 m in the
first half of the century (between 1902 and 1950), giving a retreat rate of 3.1 m per year
(Erinç, 1952), and 290 m in the second half (between 1950 and 2008), giving a rate of 5
m per year. Accelerating retreat of the Erciyes glacier is consistent with the behavior of
other glaciers around the world (Oerlemans, 2005). The overall retreat rate of the glacier
since 1902 is 4.2 m per year. If the rate of retreat observed in the past century continues,
the glacier will disappear by 2070.
Since we have an observed record of recent glacier on Erciyes, we used this opportunity
to test our glacier model by simulating the recession of the Aksu glacier. As a starting
point, modern temperature was dropped by 2.6oC to match the maximum position of the
Late Holocene moraines, and the precipitation amount was kept constant. Then, for the
last 250 years, we increased the temperature at a constant rate to match the observed
glacier retreat rate (Fig. 8). The best match is a warming between 0.9 and 1.2oC per
century, which is consistent with the global warming rate, reported in the IPCC (2007)
report. This finding shows that our model works well for the recent glacier, and suggests
that it should also work well for past glaciers.
95
9. Discussion and conclusion
Cosmogenic 36Cl ages of moraines on Mount Erciyes have provided new information on
Late Quaternary glacial history of Turkey. Glaciers on Mount Erciyes advanced in four
glacial stages. The most extensive advance ended between 21.2±1.6 ka and 22.4±1.4 ka
ago in the Aksu Valley and 20.4±1.5 ka ago in the Üçker Valley. It correlates with the
broadly defined global LGM. Glaciers readvanced by 14.1±1.3 ka ago and again by
9.6±0.9 ka ago in the Aksu Valley and, consistently, 15.2±2.0 ka ago and 9.2±0.9 ka ago
in Üçker Valley. Glaciers readvanced once more by 3.8±0.4 ka ago in the Aksu Valley.
The recent glacier, located on the northern slope of the peak, is a remnant of the LIA
glaciers; it is retreating at a rate consistent with the behavior of other glaciers around the
world.
The glaciation trend in Mount Erciyes consists of general shrinkage, interrupted with
phases of re-expansion since the LGM. Recent cosmogenic exposure ages of past glacial
activity from different mountains of Turkey (Akçar et al., 2007; 2008; Zahno et al., 2006;
2007; 2009; Sarıkaya et al., 2008 and this study) indicate consistent timing of local LGM,
coinciding with the global LGM. However, Late Glacial advances in central and western
mountains (Erciyes, Sandıras and Dedegöl Mountains) of Turkey occurred a few
thousand years earlier than in northeastern Kaçkar Mountains. This might be due to local
climatic effects at that time. An unusual Early Holocene glaciation is evident only in
south-central Anatolian mountains (Mount Erciyes and Aladağlar), and dates to 9 ka.
96
Early Holocene glaciation was also recorded in Montenegro (Hughes and Woodward,
2008), but it is still unclear whether these records represent a wider region or are limited
to their localities. Neoglacial and LIA advances are present on Mount Erciyes, but are
absent from other Turkish mountains (Akçar et al., 2007).
Modeling of glacier mass balance shows that interior Turkey during the LGM was 811oC colder than today and moisture level were somewhat similar to modern values, with
a range of 20% more to 25% less than today. Further debate exists in terms of
interpretation of LGM climate from glacial records in other Turkish mountains. Akçar et
al. (2007) argued that the advances of glaciers in Kaçkar Mountains were parallel with
the altered position of Polar Front Jets which resulted in colder and drier conditions over
northern Anatolia. They suggested that the main accumulation of ice should have
occurred during the winter months, with lowered summer insolation to sustain glaciers.
Ceased moisture take-up from ice-growth cold Black Sea and prevailing periglacial
conditions surrounding the Black Sea may also produced drier conditions on the
northeastern part of the country. On the other hand, Sarıkaya et al. (2008) reconstructed
wetter conditions on Mount Sandıras, on the southwest coast of Turkey, during the LGM,
based on glacier-climate model and temperature proxies around the Eastern
Mediterranean. These two scenarios appear to be at variance. However it is possible that
drier and wetter conditions could coexist and regional mass balances and glacier
dynamics could have varied across the great distances (Hughes and Woodward, 2008).
Furthermore, it is likely that the proximity of Mount Sandıras to the moisture sources
97
(Sarıkaya et al., 2008) and local convective precipitation produced by unstable lower
troposphere due to the anomalously steep vertical temperature gradients in the central and
eastern Mediterranean may produce wetter conditions on the Mediterranean coasts
(Kuhlemann et al., 2008). Paleosol sequences on the Israeli coast (Gvirtzman and Wieder,
2000) and clumped thermometry data from Soreq Cave (Affek et al., 2008) support the
wetter conditions. Indeed, LGM GCMs revealed that most of the modeled precipitation
occurred adjacent to the coastal strips of the Eastern Mediterranean, particularly during
the winter months (Robinson et al., 2006). This implies that a marked moisture gradient
existed between the coastal and interior Mediterranean during the LGM. The GCM
output indicates that much of that winter precipitation over the Anatolian uplands falls as
snow, and is then released in a major spring thaw (Robinson et al., 2006) which probably
fed the lowland lakes that appear high during the LGM.
The analysis of Late Glacial advance suggests that 4.5-6.4oC of cooling and up to 50%
wetter conditions are necessary to sustain glaciers on Mount Erciyes. Early Holocene
glaciers were developed under a climate that was colder (2.1oC to 4.9oC) and up to twice
as wet as today. Late Holocene advance occurred under 2.4oC to 3oC cooler temperatures
and similar precipitation totals as today. These results are approximately within the range
of other paleoproxies in the Eastern Mediterranean (Fig. 6). Our overall paleoclimate
reconstructions show a general trend of warming for the last 22 ka, and an increase of
moisture until Early Holocene, and a decrease after that time. Between 1902 and 2008 the
Erciyes glacier has retreated approximately 290 m in elevation, and its length decreased
98
by 440 m. The retreat rate has accelerated after 1950. Modeling the glacier retreat
revealed a warming rate of 0.9-1.2oC per century. These glacier retreat rates and warming
trends are consistent with the warming observed in the past century (IPCC, 2007),
indicating that the size and position of the Erciyes glacier are good proxies for climate
change.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the US National Science Foundation (Grant 0115298)
and by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) (Grant
101Y002 for field works and Grant 107Y069 for cosmogenic dating). We are grateful to
Chris Zweck (University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ) for his help in glacier modeling. We
thank Kemal Akpınar and Bülent Akıl (General Directorate of İller Bankası, Ankara,
Turkey) for field assistance, and Erdal Şen (Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey) for
sharing his knowledge of the volcanology of Mount Erciyes and for field assistance. We
also thank Tim Corley (University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ) for his help in the
preparation of ion exchange columns. We thank editor Neil Roberts and two anonymous
reviewers for their helpful comments.
99
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124
FIGURES AND TABLES
125
126
Fig. 1. (from previous page) a) Location map of Mount Erciyes (white triangle) and
places discussed in the text (IAp: Italian Appennines, Si: Sicily, D: Durmitor Massif,
Montenegro, Pn: Pindus Mountains, O: Olympus, P: Pirin Mountains, S: Mount Sandıras,
G: Gölhisar Lake, U: Uludağ, De: Mount Dedegöl, EAc: Eski Acigöl, Al: Aladağlar, So:
Soreq Cave, K: Kaçkar Mountains, C: Mount Cilo, A: Mount Ağrı (Mt. Ararat). b) Map
of glacial valleys of Mount Erciyes. Ice flow line is shown by dotted line; c) Lower Aksu
Valley, d) Upper Aksu Valley, e) Üçker Valley and their glacial deposits. Sample
locations are shown by white circles with sample numbers. Moraine crests are shown by
white lines. Moraines: LGM: Last Glacial Maximum; LG: Late Glacial; EH: Early
Holocene; LH: Late Holocene. Outwash deposits: LGM Ow: Last Glacial Maximum
Outwash; EH Ow: Early Holocene Outwash; LH Ow: Late Holocene Outwash; R Ow:
Recent Outwash. RG: Rock Glacier and G: Glacier.
127
Fig. 2. Sample ER01-12 and the LGM left lateral moraine in the lower Aksu Valley. The
Late Holocene outwash plain and the Erciyes glacier are on the left and in the
background of the picture, respectively.
128
Fig. 3. Sample ER01-23 and the Early Holocene moraine overlain by the Late Holocene
terminal moraine in the right tributary of the Aksu Valley.
Ak
su
V.
Üç
ke
r
Ka V.
r ta
l
NW Lake
V.
V.
Ka
vro
nV
Ve
.
rçe
nik
Mu
V.
slu
U lu V .
da
g
Ha
ce
rV
.
129
Mount Erciyes samples
0
(a) GISP 2
(c) Üçker Valley
(b) Aksu Valley
0
(d) Turkey
?
M
5
5
8.2 cold event
M
M
?
Age, ka
Younger Dryas
Bølling-
15
?
M
Allerød
?
M
H1
10
?
15
M
?
Last Glacial
M
Maximum
20
M
M
?
H2
25
EH
LH
LGM
LG
EH
s.
Mt
as
dir
çka
r
Cl samples
Ka
s
36
.S
an
o
Reconstructed temp. C
.E
rci
ye
-50
Mt
-40
Mt
-30
30
ö
U lu l
da
g
Ala
da
gla
r
LG
eg
LGM
30
.D
ed
25
Mt
20
Age, ka
M
10
Fig. 4. a) Reconstructed air temperatures from the GISP 2 ice core in Greenland (Alley,
2000) and comparison of cosmogenic exposure ages from the b) Aksu and c) Üçker
Valleys of Mount Erciyes. Samples excluded from the moraine age calculations were not
plotted. LGM: Last Glacial Maximum (triangles); LG: Late Glacial (squares); EH: Early
Holocene (circles); LH: Late Holocene (diamonds). Open circles and diamonds indicate
samples from outwash deposits of EH and LH, respectively. d) Comparison of maximum
extents of the Late Quaternary glaciations of Turkey. Timing of maximum glaciations is
indicated as capital letter M, wherever possible. Vertical gray bars indicate possible range
of ages from the Kartal Lake and Northwest Valleys of Mount Sandıras (Sarıkaya et al.,
2008); the Kavron (Akçar et al., 2007) and Verçenik Valleys (Akçar et al., 2008) of the
Kaçkarlar Mountains; the Muslu Valley of Mount Dedegöl (Zahno et al., 2006; 2007),
Uludağ (Zahno et al., 2009) and the Hacer Valley of Aladağlar (Zreda et al., 2009).
130
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
3 4
1.5
6 km
6
8
2
1.0
km)
5
1
0.5
0
0.1
0
2
2.0
4
10
12
14
16
18
20
o
Wetter conditions
Temperature decrease, C
(1.3
LH
1.5
)
km
Precipiation multiplier
(5.8
2.5
LGM
m)
3.6 k
LG (
m)
2.5 k
EH (
3.0
Precipiation multiplier
3.5
1.0
Drier conditions
Modern precipitation line
Today's
conditions (~0.2 km)
0.5
Zero line
(No glacier)
0.1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Temperature decrease, oC
Fig. 5. Modeled length of the Aksu Valley glaciers during their maximum extents for
Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), Late Glacial (LG), Early Holocene (EH) and Late
Holocene (LH) as a function of temperature and precipitation changes from those of
today. The thick lines with full circles, which indicate boundary conditions from the
proxy data, show possible reconstructions of paleoclimate suggested by this study. Inset
shows the full model results.
131
Fig. 6. Summary of paleoclimate reconstructions proposed by this study (black boxes)
and comparison with other proxy records in the region; Eski Acıgöl (dark gray) (based on
Jones et al., 2007) and Soreq Cave (light gray) (based on Bar-Matthews et al., 1997).
Dimensions boxes; width: 1 sigma uncertainties on proposed ages, height:
paleoprecipitation reconstructions. Numbers on top and bottom of the boxes are
paleotemperature reconstructions proposed by this study. Vertical axis shows relative
precipitation normalized to the present. Grey dashed lines between boxes are indicative
only and are not based on analytical results.
132
Fig. 7. Observed retreat of the Erciyes glacier since 1902 from historical data (1902:
Penther (1905); 1930: Bartsch (1935); 1950: Erinç (1952); 1958: Klaer (1962); 1962:
Messerli (1964); 1983: Güner and Emre (1983); 2001: Sarıkaya et al. (2003); 2008: this
study). Empty circles on the pictures are points of references to compare photos. Dotted
line is the center line along which the glacier length is measured.
133
1.4
Glacier length (km)
1.2
1.0
0.9oC/century
0.8
1.2oC/century
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
300
200
100
0
Years before 2000
Fig. 8. Modeled retreat of the Erciyes glacier under constant warming rates. Dots are
observation points (from Fig. 7) and their linear fit is shown by the straight line.
m
k
i
h
g
f
e
d
c
b
a
3
3
2
3
2.5
2
3
3
3
3
3
1
2
1
2
1
4
Üçker Valley
ER01-39
ER01-40
ER01-41
ER01-43
ER01-44
ER01-45
ER01-46
ER01-47
ER01-48
ER01-49
ER01-51
ER01-52
ER01-53
ER01-55
ER01-56
ER01-57
ER01-64
38.535
38.535
38.534
38.538
38.540
38.540
38.539
38.535
38.535
38.534
38.534
38.538
38.538
38.534
38.534
38.534
38.532
38.543
38.543
38.543
38.557
38.559
38.559
38.559
38.557
38.556
38.555
38.555
38.553
38.553
38.556
38.546
38.546
38.545
38.545
38.545
38.545
38.545
38.546
38.546
38.546
38.561
38.561
38.557
(°N)
35.468
35.468
35.473
35.483
35.486
35.486
35.486
35.489
35.489
35.490
35.495
35.502
35.501
35.499
35.499
35.501
35.488
35.434
35.434
35.434
35.423
35.422
35.422
35.422
35.421
35.423
35.422
35.423
35.421
35.421
35.417
35.439
35.440
35.440
35.440
35.444
35.444
35.444
35.441
35.441
35.440
35.423
35.423
35.426
(°E)
3107
3101
3053
2909
2849
2849
2849
2859
2855
2839
2781
2603
2624
2693
2690
2657
2868
3056
3056
3056
2690
2673
2673
2673
2671
2693
2697
2711
2766
2756
2703
3081
3091
3102
3102
3229
3229
3229
3118
3101
3070
2693
2693
2764
(m)
0.5
0.5
2
1
0.5
1.2
0.8
1
1.2
0.8
0.5
1.5
0.5
0.8
0.2
1
0.7
0.4
0.7
0.4
1
0.5
0.6
1
0.8
0.7
1.5
2.5
0.6
0.6
1.5
1.3
0.4
1.5
1
2
2
2
1.5
0.7
1
1
0.8
0.4
0.978
0.978
0.987
0.994
0.997
0.997
0.997
0.997
0.997
0.997
0.998
0.997
0.997
0.996
0.996
0.996
0.996
0.957
0.957
0.957
0.996
0.996
0.996
0.996
0.996
0.996
0.996
0.996
0.993
0.993
0.993
0.984
0.984
0.984
0.984
0.983
0.983
0.983
0.984
0.984
0.984
0.997
0.997
0.997
0.869
0.870
1
0.961
0.914
0.983
0.948
0.966
0.982
0.949
0.924
1
0.944
0.966
0.899
0.984
0.935
0.864
1
0.864
0.982
0.937
0.948
0.983
0.968
0.957
1
1
1
1
1
0.967
0.858
0.980
0.934
0.999
0.999
0.999
0.979
1
1
0.982
0.966
0.914
Boulder Topography
Snow
e
height
correction correction
f
g
factor
factor
(m)
(-)
(-)
CaO
Fe2O3
K2O
Major elements h
MgO
MnO Na2O
P2O5
SiO2
TiO
CO2
15.48
14.87
15.64
14.96
15.92
15.42
14.94
15.64
15.82
15.61
16.01
15.07
15.21
15.52
15.68
15.42
15.95
16.24
16.53
16.42
16.07
16.05
15.20
15.33
15.94
15.65
15.53
15.64
16.69
16.02
16.56
15.41
15.20
14.89
15.43
15.77
15.90
15.69
14.96
14.97
15.99
15.76
14.81
14.99
4.12
3.94
3.91
4.25
4.36
4.42
3.92
3.70
3.96
3.87
3.94
3.53
3.81
3.89
3.96
4.10
3.95
4.85
4.52
4.29
4.51
3.53
4.10
3.91
4.55
4.35
4.30
4.39
4.84
4.51
4.85
3.93
3.91
3.73
4.41
4.40
4.06
4.19
3.66
3.80
4.51
4.09
3.79
4.71
3.96
3.53
3.57
3.63
4.24
3.87
3.77
3.52
3.53
3.50
3.17
3.62
3.35
3.41
3.47
3.49
3.45
4.14
2.85
3.41
3.79
3.84
3.96
3.74
4.13
3.83
3.88
4.04
4.21
4.01
3.93
3.25
3.40
3.25
4.03
4.00
3.21
3.79
3.35
3.33
4.09
3.44
3.86
3.29
2.15
2.17
2.21
2.19
2.16
2.18
2.52
2.43
2.27
2.24
2.28
2.56
2.31
2.20
2.30
2.13
2.39
2.15
1.44
2.18
2.19
2.50
2.27
2.50
2.13
2.30
2.22
2.24
1.90
2.25
2.09
2.42
2.44
2.26
2.22
2.22
2.25
2.21
2.19
2.29
2.14
2.09
2.44
2.07
1.85
1.61
1.64
1.99
1.92
1.92
1.88
1.49
1.57
1.58
1.18
1.62
1.50
1.51
1.67
1.63
1.59
2.26
0.85
1.14
2.03
0.65
1.80
1.77
2.14
1.87
1.94
1.98
1.91
2.17
1.78
1.51
1.62
1.48
1.96
2.00
1.42
1.62
1.68
1.58
2.07
1.66
1.83
2.23
0.084
0.058
0.056
0.061
0.066
0.065
0.066
0.049
0.051
0.053
0.049
0.053
0.053
0.051
0.056
0.055
0.052
0.070
0.024
0.051
0.066
0.031
0.055
0.061
0.068
0.066
0.062
0.068
0.060
0.062
0.067
0.052
0.056
0.052
0.066
0.069
0.047
0.060
0.059
0.056
0.069
0.052
0.067
0.069
3.65
3.50
3.80
3.75
3.94
3.55
3.87
3.81
4.05
3.96
3.91
3.88
3.63
3.95
4.00
3.74
4.00
3.79
3.29
4.02
3.75
3.72
3.74
3.77
3.90
3.80
3.82
3.75
4.07
3.33
3.96
3.84
3.72
3.67
3.70
3.87
3.89
3.84
3.54
3.72
3.90
3.08
3.69
3.49
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.07
0.11
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.08
0.08
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.09
0.04
0.06
0.10
0.06
0.04
0.06
0.14
0.08
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.04
0.16
0.06
0.07
0.12
0.06
0.13
66.72
69.08
67.62
66.05
65.92
67.15
68.03
67.75
68.12
67.57
67.49
68.10
68.53
67.38
67.11
67.26
67.72
64.54
66.63
66.56
66.93
67.71
66.25
67.77
66.50
67.03
66.23
67.31
64.85
64.82
65.07
68.38
69.23
69.67
67.62
67.09
68.78
67.59
67.88
69.79
67.25
67.08
67.95
67.28
0.56
0.51
0.49
0.48
0.61
0.53
0.52
0.47
0.50
0.49
0.45
0.50
0.48
0.48
0.49
0.48
0.49
0.65
0.65
0.71
0.54
0.55
0.55
0.51
0.55
0.50
0.52
0.56
0.75
0.68
0.69
0.43
0.46
0.44
0.56
0.55
0.45
0.57
0.44
0.47
0.57
0.45
0.50
0.42
1.24
1.52
0.40
1.24
0.79
0.73
0.66
1.29
0.69
0.63
0.66
0.94
0.23
0.73
0.38
0.57
0.75
0.65
2.49
0.92
0.67
1.94
1.03
0.54
0.35
1.29
0.52
0.00
0.73
2.19
0.52
0.55
0.23
0.80
0.25
0.49
0.57
0.69
2.02
0.40
0.33
2.82
0.69
1.60
(wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %) (wt. %)
Al2O3
26.4
359.7
26.0
93.6
277.6
151.7
25.9
29.6
28.6
30.8
32.1
26.2
29.1
25.1
28.7
26.5
31.1
51.8
236.7
50.0
34.8
119.8
101.5
10.5
51.8
542.9
34.5
33.3
121.6
510.3
228.4
37.3
137.0
61.5
220.1
253.5
162.7
24.7
46.4
80.7
139.9
141.6
92.3
40.0
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
(ppm)
Cl i
0.2
2.5
0.2
0.1
0.4
5.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.2
4.0
0.2
1.7
2.8
0.9
0.2
0.7
1.0
0.1
0.4
3.1
0.1
0.3
0.4
3.0
1.6
0.1
1.0
0.4
2.0
1.5
1.1
0.2
0.2
0.6
2.3
5.0
0.2
0.5
Trace elements k
Sm
Gd
U
Th
11.50
18.50
11.30
23.10
19.70
24.10
21.40
17.20
8.80
10.20
14.79
17.30
22.10
13.30
10.50
19.70
15.40
17.85
29.20
13.80
23.30
15.50
14.80
10.92
14.10
20.90
6.98
20.00
19.77
19.40
13.70
19.26
28.00
21.30
23.90
23.50
20.50
15.30
20.90
19.10
15.50
27.40
23.74
28.10
3.10
3.40
2.70
3.60
3.20
3.70
2.90
2.78
2.50
2.60
2.56
3.00
3.00
2.50
2.40
2.50
2.80
3.02
3.80
3.10
3.00
2.50
2.90
2.87
2.60
3.80
2.53
2.70
2.33
3.90
3.10
3.01
3.30
2.80
3.40
3.10
3.20
2.60
3.29
3.20
3.00
3.40
3.27
3.10
3.00
3.20
2.60
3.40
3.00
3.10
2.70
2.48
2.40
2.60
2.18
3.00
2.50
2.30
2.40
2.10
2.70
2.81
3.80
3.10
2.80
2.20
2.80
2.57
2.60
3.60
2.37
2.30
2.18
3.80
2.80
2.66
2.90
2.80
2.80
3.10
3.10
2.70
2.85
3.20
2.90
3.10
2.81
2.90
3.80
3.80
4.40
3.80
3.20
3.70
4.30
4.13
4.00
4.00
3.95
4.40
4.30
3.90
4.00
4.70
4.10
3.20
3.50
3.70
3.60
3.90
3.80
3.74
3.60
4.10
3.44
3.90
3.20
3.50
3.60
3.89
4.60
4.20
3.60
3.90
4.20
4.00
3.46
4.50
3.70
4.60
4.08
5.70
11.20
11.60
12.80
12.20
10.80
11.70
12.20
12.20
12.30
12.30
11.43
13.50
13.00
11.90
12.00
12.10
12.20
9.67
10.90
11.00
11.50
12.60
11.30
11.36
10.90
12.40
9.90
11.80
8.95
11.30
10.90
11.12
13.60
12.20
11.50
11.40
12.10
11.50
10.68
12.50
11.10
14.20
11.56
13.40
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
B
Water content of 0.5% and density of 2.6 g cm-3 were assumed for all samples. Temperature lapse rate of 6.36 oC km -1, sea-level air pressure of 1032.3 g cm-2 and sea-level temperature of 20.9 oC is assumed for all sample locations.
Measured average sampled depth used for thickness correction.
Decimal degrees from handheld GPS, nominal accuracy ±5 m.
From handheld GPS, nominal accuracy ±15 m.
Height of boulder from its embedded surface; measured or averaged/estimated when boulder irregular.
Calculated from measurements of inclination to the horizon of the sample locations at 45o azimuthal increments using a hand-held clinometer and from measurements of surface slope (dip).
Calculated by predicting the average annual snow cover on the top of boulders using the long term climate data from nearby meteorological stations.
Major element concentrations are reported as oxides in weight percent (wt. %). The detection limits are 0.01%.
Total Cl calculated from measurement of 35Cl/37Cl on spiked samples, de-spiked (i.e., converted to value in the rock), or measured by diffusion cells if not spiked.
Trace element concentrations are in parts per million (ppm). The detection limits are 0.1 ppm.
36
The ratio Cl/Cl measured with accelerator mass spectrometry on spiked samples, de-spiked (i.e., converted to value in the original rock sample).
3
6
3
1.25
2.5
2.5
3
1.5
2
3
2.5
3.5
2
2
3
2
1.5
2
2
3
4
3
1
1.5
2
2
2
(cm)
Thickness b Latitude c Longitude c Elevation d
Aksu Valley
ER01-01
ER01-02
ER01-03
ER01-04
ER01-05
ER01-06
ER01-07
ER01-08
ER01-09
ER01-10
ER01-11
ER01-12
ER01-13
ER01-14
ER01-15
ER01-16
ER01-17
ER01-18
ER01-19
ER01-20
ER01-21
ER01-22
ER01-23
ER01-24
ER01-25
ER01-26
ER01-27
Sample ID a
Table 1. Attributes, local corrections to production rates, and geochemical and isotopic analytical data for samples from Mount Erciyes.
1100
182
784
910
761
624
1861
778
941
672
663
2631
1138
1213
1466
608
833
77
54
76
235
378
500
1271
136
114
707
169
589
186
553
1202
322
1247
349
113
160
618
1217
390
357
603
578
1655
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
-15
46
6
84
37
36
24
62
43
34
32
31
1475
94
191
431
446
59
142
8
13
29
22
23
163
18
12
32
15
27
6
44
55
16
52
13
8
18
129
62
17
16
29
28
76
(10 )
Cl/Cl m
36
134
36
Table 2. Cosmogenic Cl inventories, production rates, ages of boulders and mean ages of glacial landforms on Mount Erciyes.
36
Sample ID
Surface
Clcosmogenic
4
-1
(10 atoms g )
Production rate a
-1
36
Cl boulder age
-1
b
Used? c
(ka)
(atoms g yr )
Landform age d
(ka)
Aksu Valley
ER01-12
ER01-13
ER01-14
Left lateral
moraine
116.4
138.8
203.4
±
±
±
5.7
7.0
17.2
61.6
128.4
90.4
19.3
11.0
23.1
±
±
±
0.9
0.6
2.0
1
0
1
20.7 ± 1.8 ext [2.2]
ER01-25
ER01-26
ER01-27
Right lateral
moraine
136.3
86.3
109.5
±
±
±
8.6
4.5
5.3
63.1
53.0
44.5
22.2
16.6
25.3
±
±
±
1.4
0.9
1.2
1
1
1
21.4 ± 2.6
ext
[2.9]
ER01-05
ER01-06
ER01-07
Right lateral
moraine
69.7
81.5
22.0
±
±
±
4.6
4.2
2.9
55.7
54.3
35.4
12.7
15.3
6.3
±
±
±
0.8
0.8
0.8
1
1
0
14.1 ± 1.3
ext
[1.5]
ER01-15
ER01-16
ER01-17
ER01-18
ER01-22
Right Lateral
moraine
74.2
67.4
126.4
120.3
93.7
±
±
±
±
±
3.5
4.0
5.5
5.5
4.9
53.8
65.8
61.2
93.0
55.7
14.0
10.4
21.2
13.1
17.2
±
±
±
±
±
0.7
0.6
0.9
0.6
0.9
1
1
0
1
1
13.7 ± 1.3
ext
[1.5]
ER01-23
ER01-24
Left lateral
moraine
48.6
76.8
±
±
2.5
4.3
56.2
73.3
8.7
10.6
±
±
0.5
0.6
1
1
9.6 ± 0.9 ext [1.1]
ER01-09
ER01-10
Outwash plain
77.5
39.9
±
±
12.2
1.9
126.7
42.6
6.2
9.5
±
±
1.0
0.5
1
1
8.7 ± 1.4 ext [1.5]
ER01-19
ER01-20
ER01-21
Terminal
moraine
36.8
35.2
24.4
±
±
±
4.0
5.2
5.4
111.6
91.8
53.4
3.3
3.9
4.6
±
±
±
0.4
0.6
1.0
1
1
1
3.8 ± 0.4 int [0.5]
ER01-04
ER01-08
ER01-11
Outwash plain
12.1
9.3
7.9
±
±
±
1.7
1.6
0.9
39.5
40.3
39.1
3.1
2.3
2.0
±
±
±
0.4
0.4
0.2
1
1
1
2.5 ± 0.3 ext [0.3]
ER01-01
ER01-02
ER01-03
Terminal
moraine
4.6
12.2
3.9
±
±
±
12.5
3.7
1.3
44.4
82.9
41.5
1.0
1.5
0.9
±
±
±
2.8
0.5
0.3
0
1
1
1.2 ± 0.3 ext [0.3]
ER01-43
ER01-44
ER01-45
ER01-46
Right lateral
moraine
141.6
345.9
153.6
80.1
±
±
±
±
6.0
17.2
8.4
2.8
63.9
102.8
74.4
45.3
22.8
35.0
21.2
18.1
±
±
±
±
1.0
1.8
1.2
0.6
1
0
1
1
20.4 ± 1.5
ER01-52
ER01-53
ER01-55
ER01-56
ER01-57
Moraine
complex
115.4
55.0
50.7
70.2
26.0
±
±
±
±
±
65.7
4.7
8.2
21.2
21.1
42.0
36.9
38.1
38.7
36.4
28.3
15.2
13.5
18.5
7.2
±
±
±
±
±
16.1
1.3
2.2
5.6
5.9
0
1
1
1
0
15.2 ± 2.0 ext [2.1]
Moraine
complex
47.9
93.2
33.1
37.3
43.5
33.4
34.5
42.0
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
2.1
5.0
3.7
2.2
1.7
1.7
1.8
3.1
43.7
116.2
47.7
43.2
43.6
41.4
40.0
42.9
11.1
8.1
7.0
8.7
10.1
8.1
8.7
9.9
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.7
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
9.2 ± 0.5 ext [0.7]
Üçker Valley
ER01-39
ER01-40
ER01-41
ER01-47
ER01-48
ER01-49
ER01-51
ER01-64
a
b
ext
[1.8]
Effective total production rate of 36Cl integrated over the sample thickness.
The uncertainties of boulder ages were given at the 1 sigma level and calculated by propagation of AMS reported analytical errors
on 36Cl/Cl ratio and 20% uncertainty was assumed for the calculated nucleogenic component.
c
Indicates whether or not the boulder age was used for the calculation of landform age; 1: used, 0: not used.
d
Weighted average of boulder ages with uncertainties, at 1 sigma level, that are based on boulder-to-boulder variability and with total
uncertainties which also include uncertainty on production rates of36Cl (in brackets; they should be used when comparing
cosmogenic ages with ages obtained from other dating methods).Type of uncertainity is also shown; internal (due to the analytical
errors), external (due to the spread of data). The larger of the two is reported.
135
136
APPENDIX D
REMARKABLY EXTENSIVE EARLY HOLOCENE GLACIATION IN TURKEY
Marek Zreda1, Attila Çiner2, Mehmet Akif Sarikaya1, Chris Zweck1, Serdar Bayarı2
1
2
[In revision to be resubmitted to Geology]
137
Abstract
Early Holocene moraines in the Taurus Mountains of south-central Turkey show that
glaciers were extraordinarily large, typical of the last glacial maximum (LGM, 21 ka)
rather than the interglacial Holocene, and that rates of glacier retreat and of temperature
rise exceeded those of the past century. Cosmogenic 36Cl ages of seven moraines in one
valley at altitudes between 1100 m and 3100 m above sea level range from 10.2 ± 0.2 ka
to 8.6 ± 0.3 ka. During that time the equilibrium line altitude ascended 1430 m and the air
temperature rose by 9°C. Deglaciation occurred in two phases. During the second, faster
phase, which lasted 500 yr, the glacier length decreased at an average rate of 1700
m/century, implying a warming rate of 1.44°C/century. Accounting for a possible local
amplification of the global climate signal and for the difference in the lengths of the
glacial and modern temperature records, this rate exceeds the global warming trend of the
past century, 0.6 ± 0.2°C, showing that natural causes can lead to fast and large climate
changes, and that the magnitude and the rate of climate change observed in the past
century are not unprecedented within the Holocene. If such extensive glaciation was
common throughout the region, it might have slowed Neolithic migration out of the
Fertile Crescent across the mountains, to the west, north and east.
138
1. Introduction
After millenia of generally glacial but variable climate, the warming trend at the end of
the Pleistocene epoch led to the establishment of a warm climate of the Holocene epoch
(the last 11.6 ky). Ice-core data suggest that the Holocene was climatically stable
(Dansgaard et al., 1993), but other paleoclimate proxy data (e.g., Bond et al., 1997;
deMenocal et al., 2000) show clear variations. Understanding climatic changes during the
Holocene provides long-term context for the assessment of the nature of the climate
change today. The global temperature rise of the past century (Folland et al., 2001) could
be considered unique within the Holocene under the assumption of a relatively stable
climate of the Holocene (Dansgaard et al., 1993), but unexceptional under the assumption
of large climatic variations (deMenocal et al., 2000). Additionally, understanding past
climatic variations is critical for the study of human evolution, particularly the transition
from nomadic to settled lifestyle and from hunting-gathering to farming, and the spread
on early Indo-European languages. In this paper, we present an early Holocene glacialgeological record from south-central Turkey, from which we infer the magnitude and
pace of glacial and climatic changes.
Glaciers are not among the first things usually associated with Turkey. But glaciers do
exist in Turkey today (Çiner, 2004), and, as noted first by Palgrave in 1872 (Palgrave,
1872), glacial-geological evidence shows that much bigger glaciers existed in Anatolia in
the past, providing information on climate changes (Erinç, 1952). Mountain glaciers are
139
sensitive to changes in climate (Oerlemans, 2001) because their temperature is close to
the melting point of ice (Nesje, 2005). Glaciers respond to various climatic perturbations,
mainly of temperature and precipitation (Nesje, 2005; Ohmura et al., 1992). Variations of
glacier size provide some of the clearest natural signals of climate change today (Nesje,
2005). By analogy, dating of moraines (deposits made by former glaciers) provides
information on past climates.
2. Geologic Setting
We dated moraines in the Aladağlar (in Turkish, ‘ala’ = ‘speckled’, ‘dağlar’ =
‘mountains’) of the Central Taurus Mountains of Turkey (Fig. 1). The Aladağlar bear
conspicuous evidence of former glaciers (Klaer, 1962; Klimchouk et al., 2006; Tekeli et
al., 1984). The highest part of the mountain range consists of Mesozoic carbonates
(Tekeli et al., 1984) with extensive karst that limits surface drainage (Klimchouk et al.,
2006). Former glaciers developed in cirques above 3000 m and flowed down deeply
incised valleys to their marginal positions. Numerous morphological features record
former glaciations in the Yedigöller (Seven Lakes) Plateau, a large depression just below
the summits of the Aladağlar, and in the Hacer (Rock) Valley, a deep (up to 1400 m), Ushaped glacial valley, the largest in the Aladağlar (14 km long), located on the east side
of the mountains (Fig. 1). Features of glacial erosion—cirques, glacially scoured bedrock,
striations, trim lines, narrow jagged ridges and pyramidal peaks—are common in the
Yedigöller area and in the upper valley, above 2000 m (Klimchouk et al., 2006). Features
140
of glacial deposition—moraines, glacial lakes and outwash deposits—are present at all
elevations. In the Hacer Valley and in the Yedigöller Plateau we mapped seven moraines
at elevations from ~3100 m to ~1100 m (A to G; Fig. 1; Table DR1). In the lower valley,
the moraines are large, well preserved and bouldery, with limestone boulders reaching 15
m in diameter (Table DR2). In the upper valley and in the plateau, the moraines are
smaller, and the boulders are less numerous and smaller than those in the lower valley.
Glacial outwash deposits dominate the landscape near the mouth of the valley and merge
with the fluvial sedimentary system below.
3. Methods
We collected and analyzed 22 samples from seven moraines (A through G; Fig. 1; Table
DR1, DR2 and DR3), of which 20 were boulders and two were glacially scoured bedrock
outcrops. For each analyzed sample we calculated (Data Repository Items) a cosmogenic
36
Cl exposure age (Table DR1) and then averaged the individual ages to obtain moraine
ages (Fig. 2; Table DR1). The averaging of individual cosmogenic ages is justified if
their variance is small (Zreda et al., 1999), which indicates predepositional uniformity of
clasts and postdepositional stability of the surface (Dzierzek and Zreda, 2007), and thus
assures that all samples come from the same statistical distribution. We show in Fig. 2
and report in Table DR1 the larger of the two calculated errors of the mean: the internal
error (based on the individual analytical errors; moraines A, D, E, F and G) and the
141
external error (based on the boulder-to-boulder spread; moraines B and C). This is the
precision of the calculated moraine ages.
The accuracy of
36
Cl ages depends on the accuracy of the cosmogenic production rate
estimates, which has two components: the variability among the samples in the
calibration data set, and the choice of a calibration data set if more than one exists. The
random uncertainty of the production rates is added, using the square rule for variances,
to the precision estimates, and is reported (in brackets) in Table DR1. This uncertainty
should be used when comparing
36
Cl ages to those obtained using independent dating
methods. Other available production rates (Data Repository Items), recomputed using the
software used here (Data Repository Items), gave 36Cl ages that are 12% older and 13%
younger than those calculated using our production rates (Table DR4); they provide
upper and lower limits of 36Cl ages.
Combinations of temperature and precipitation that could yield the glaciers in the
Aladağlar between 10210 years ago and 8560 years ago were calculated with an ice
flowline model (Data Repository Items).
4. Results and Discussions
Cosmogenic 36Cl ages of the moraines range from 10210 ± 160 years at the bottom of the
valley to 8560 ± 270 years on the high plateau (Fig. 2; Table DR1). They are
142
stratigraphically consistent and the age trends with altitude and distance from the summit
are clear (Fig. 2a). Ages of five moraines have precision between 1.5% and 3.5%. The
poorer precision obtained for moraines B (15%) and C (6.6%) is not critical because they
are between well dated moraines A (3.2%) and D (3.5%), and the ages of moraines B and
C fall on the trend line defined by moraines A and D (Fig. 2a). Possible reasons for the
observed large spread in individual boulder ages, particularly in moraine B, include
inheritance of
36
Cl from previous exposure episodes, making sample ages too old
(possibly sample AL01-114), and erosion, boulder rolling and cover on boulder tops, all
making ages too young (possibly sample AL01-116).
Deglaciation of the Hacer Valley occurred in two phases (Fig. 2a). During the first phase,
from 10210 years ago to 9060 years ago, the glacier was retreating at the average rate of
0.56 m/y vertically and 4.25 m/y horizontally. Between 9060 years ago and 8560 years
ago, the deglaciation rates increased four-fold, to 2.65 m/y and 17.1 m/y, respectively. At
face value, these rates fall in the range of modern short-term horizontal retreat rates of
glaciers (Oerlemans, 2001) (Fig. 3a). But they are much higher than the modern rates
when lengths of records are considered. Longer records have lower average deglaciation
rates because periods of glacier readvances are more likely included in longer records.
The longest historical record (450 years, Unterer Grindelwaldgletscher, Bernese Alps,
Switzerland in ref. (Oerlemans, 2001)) has an average horizontal retreat rate of only 2
m/y (Fig.3a), less than one-eighth of that from Hacer Valley calculated for the time span
of 500 years (9060 years ago to 8560 years ago). The average deglaciation rate for the
143
entire time interval between 10210 years ago and 8560 years ago is 8.4 m/y, which is
approximately 25 times higher than the rate inferred by extrapolating historical records
(Fig. 3a). These results show that deglaciation rates in early Holocene exceed by far those
in recent centuries, suggesting that glacier retreat observed today is not unprecedentedly
fast.
Based on the observed retreat pattern, we calculated rates of change of the equilibrium
line altitude (ELA; Fig. 2b) and of climate (Fig. 2c) that would result in the observed
deglaciation rates. The ELA trend mimics that for the altitude of the terminal moraines,
and changes from approximately 2080 m to 3510 m. The change of the ELA of
approximately 1430 m is typical of the difference between the LGM and today (Mark et
al., 2005), but is surprisingly high for the interglacial Holocene in which only small
variations of glacier size are expected (Dahl et al., 2002).
The large changes of the ELA (Fig. 2b) imply correspondingly large changes of
temperature and/or precipitation (Fig. 2c): shrinking the glacier from its full extent
(moraine G) to its smallest size (A) required a temperature increase of 9°C combined
with precipitation decrease of 960 mm/y. Because the glacier is more sensitive to
temperature changes than to precipitation changes (1°C is equivalent to 600 mm/y; Data
Repository Items), the temperature result is robust. Such large variations of temperature
were common during the LGM, but until now have not been reported for the Holocene,
144
which suggests that the early Holocene climate was more dynamic than previously
thought.
The average rate of change of temperature is 0.55°C/century for the entire duration of
1650 years, and 1.44°C/century for the last 500 years of the record. The first value is
similar to the rate observed in the past century (Folland et al., 2001), but represents an
average over 1650 years. The second value is much higher than the rate of temperature
change observed today, and it is integrated over five times longer time.
Two factors must be considered to compare the long-term warming rates in the Aladağlar
to the shorter-term global warming rate observed today. First, a part of the calculated
long-term value may be due to amplification of the global climate signal in high
mountains that are in the zone of influence of NAO (Beniston, 2005). To account for this,
the calculated value should be divided by a factor greater than one. In the European Alps
today, this factor is three (Beniston, 2005), and it may be applicable to the Aladağlar
because the two areas have similar responses to NAO forcing (Hurrell, 1995). Second,
long-term rates are always lower than shorter-term rates (Fig. 3b) because long-term rates
include possible cooling episodes. Thus, the rates calculated above should be multiplied
by a factor greater than one. We calculated a factor of 2-3 by extrapolating the 149-year
long global temperature trend to 500 years (Fig. 3b). Because these two corrections
cancel each other, the high rate of temperature increase calculated for the early Holocene,
145
1.44°C/century, is probably correct, and can be used to compare with modern global
warming trends.
What environmental conditions caused the glaciation of the Aladağlar in the early
Holocene? The area is in a mixed Mediterranean and continental climatic zone, with
precipitation maximum in the winter (Özyurt, 2005). Moisture comes from the south and
west, from the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Changes in paleoclimate were probably due to
shifts in the position of westerly storm tracks, the extension of the tropical low-pressure
system and of the Siberian high (Wick et al., 2003), possibly linked to the patterns of
Arctic Oscillations (Arz et al., 2003) (essentially the same as North Atlantic Oscillation,
NAO). Regional paleoclimatic reconstructions converge on a climate that was wetter
(Arz et al., 2003; Bar-Matthews et al., 1997; Collins et al., 2005; Fontugne et al., 1999;
Roberts et al., 2001; Wick et al., 2003) and colder (Aksu et al., 2002; Bar-Matthews et
al., 1997) than today.
We hypothesize that enhanced moisture delivery and reduced temperature were due to
variations in the dominant westerly wind flow, driven by the pressure difference between
the Icelandic Low and the Azores High, whose measure is the NAO index (Hurrell,
1995). A positive NAO index represents above normal pressure over the central North
Atlantic, and low pressure across the high latitudes of the North Atlantic. A high NAO
index winter is associated with storm tracks in the North Atlantic leading to strong
westerly flow and increased precipitation over Scandinavia. In contrast a low NAO index
146
causes a more southerly storm track, increasing winter precipitation and lowering
temperature in the Eastern Mediterranean (Beniston, 2005; Cullen et al., 2002; Hurrell,
1995). In addition to short-term variations, the NAO index displays century-scale
variations (Beniston, 2005), which shows that NAO can operate on geological time
scales. In the early Holocene, approximately doubled precipitation (Arz et al., 2003; BarMatthews et al., 2000), increased surface runoff (Collins et al., 2005), high lake levels
(Wick et al., 2003), decreased sea salinity (Rossignol-Strick, 1999), and sea-level
temperature lower than today (Aksu et al., 2002) suggest a possibility of prolonged
negative NAO conditions (Cullen et al., 2002) that might have lead to glaciation of the
Aladağlar. While a negative NAO phase makes the eastern Mediterranean climate cooler
and wetter today, are NAO-induced changes big enough to generate glaciers consistent
with the glacial record from the Aladağlar? The answer to this question has yet to
emerge.
Also unknown is whether the observed record is representative of a wider area or limited
to the Aladağlar. If the observed record is an isolated occurrence, which we think
unlikely because such large temperature changes cannot exist in isolation, it would
indicate anomalous local climatic conditions, and imply that climate was spatially highly
heterogeneous. If, in contrast, it is part of a broader pattern, which we favor, it would
mean that early Holocene climate in the region was more variable than hitherto thought.
These glacial conditions coexisted with Neolithic cultures of the Fertile Crescent, and
might have played a role in human migration, by blocking passages through mountains.
147
Our calculations show early Holocene ELAs as low as 2080 m and ice margins as low as
1100 m in Aladağlar. Similarly low ice margins elsewhere in the Taurus and Zagros
mountains could have made an impassable physical barrier between the cradle of
civilization (Iraq, Syria) and the areas to the west, north and east. The deglaciation ages
reported here coincide broadly with the spread of agriculture out of the Fertile Crescent
across the Taurus Mountains 8000-9000 years ago (Diamond and Bellwood, 2003), and
with the dispersal of early Indo-European languages 7800-9800 years BP (Gray and
Atkinson, 2003). Although speculative, the hypothesis of a connection between glaciation
and human migration seems plausible, and is testable with additional work in other
recently glaciated areas of the Taurus and Zagros mountains.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by grants from the US National Science Foundation (to Marek
Zreda) and the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (to Attila Çiner
and Serdar Bayari).
References Sited
Aksu, A.E., Hiscott, R.N., Kaminski, M.A., Mudie, P.J., Gillespie, H., Abrajano, T., and
Yasar, D., 2002, Last glacial-Holocene paleoceanography of the Black Sea and Marmara
148
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154
FIGURES
155
Fig. 1 Glacial deposits in the Yedigöller Plateau and the Hacer Valley (a), within the
Aladağlar (b; Ç - Çamardı; Y - Yahyalı), southcentral Turkey (c; A - Ankara), and
location of samples for cosmogenic
36
Cl dating. Separate moraines are labeled from A
(highest elevation) to G (lowest). Central flow line is shown in segments that are one
kilometer long (a). Moraines outside the Hacer Valley are shown as thick lines (b; (after
Klaer, 1962)).
156
Fig. 2 (a) Cosmogenic 36Cl ages of moraines, terminus altitude and length of the former
glaciers. Symbol size (area) is inversely proportional to the uncertainty of
36
Cl age (the
largest symbol represents 1.6% error, the smallest 15% error). (b) Glacier length and
ELA from inverse modeling of Hacer Valley glaciers. The length function (line) matches
the moraine positions (circles). (c) Temperature and precipitation changes that produced
the best fit of the ice flowline model to glacier length data. July temperature is shown;
temperature change is the same through the year. Annual precipitation is shown; most of
it falls during winter and spring, and the fraction of winter precipitation is assumed
constant in time.
157
Fig. 3 (a) Average rate of change of glacier length decreases with the length of record.
Open triangles are observed glacier length changes (Oerlemans, 2001); filled triangles
and fitted line define the maximum historical average retreat rates. Circles represent rates
of shrinking of Aladağlar paleoglaciers, and solid lines represent one standard deviation.
(b) Rate of change of temperature from modern measurements (Folland et al., 2001) and
from ice-flow modeling of paleoglaciers in the Aladağlar. Open triangles are modern
temperature data; filled triangles and fitted line define the upper limit. Filled circles are
rates of paleotemperature changes, and lines represent one standard deviation. Both
glacial retreat rates and temperature changes in the Aladağlar in the early Holocene are
above the respective maximum limits based on modern observations and measurements.
158
DATA REPOSITORY ITEMS
159
METHODS
Cosmogenic Dating
Sample collection, preparation and analysis
Rock samples were collected from top surfaces using hammer and chisel. They were
cleaned of carbonate crusts, ground to size fraction 0.25-1.00 mm, leached overnight in
deionized water, and dried. Samples were mixed with a 35Cl-enriched carrier, dissolved in
nitric acid in a high-pressure reaction vessel at 25°C, and AgCl containing Cl from the
sample and from the carrier was precipitated (Desilets et al., 2006a) and then purified of
sulfur using Ba precipitation (Zreda et al., 1991). 36Cl/Cl was measured using accelerator
mass spectrometry and
35
Cl/37Cl immediately following accelerator, both on the same
AgCl target, at prime Lab, Purdue University. Powdered aliquots of rocks were analyzed
for major elements using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, for U and Th using neutron
activation analysis, and for B and Gd using neutron activation prompt gamma analysis,
all at Activation Laboratories, Ontario, Canada. Total Cl was calculated from the
35
Cl/37Cl values.
160
Calculation of surface exposure ages
Cosmogenic 36Cl surface exposure ages were calculated using the accumulation equation
(Phillips et al., 1986) dN36/dt=P36-λ36N36, as implemented in the ACE (formerly
iCRONUS) cosmogenic dating software (Anderson et al., 2007), where N36 is the number
of atoms of 36Cl, t is the time, P36 is the production rate (atoms of 36Cl (g of rock)-1 y-1;
varies with sample and location), and λ36 is the 36Cl decay constant (2.303x10-6 y-1). The
following production rates were used: 71.6±3.7 atoms 36Cl (g Ca)-1 yr-1, 155.1±9.6 atoms
36
Cl (g K)-1 yr-1, and 676±40 fast neutrons (g air)-1 yr-1. These rates, called reference
production rates, are based on the calibration data set of (Phillips et al., 1996), augmented
by high-potassium samples from three additional sources: (Ivy-Ochs et al., 1996), (Zreda
et al., 1999), and (Phillips et al., 2008). They have been scaled to sea level and high
geomagnetic latitude using ref. (Desilets and Zreda, 2003; Desilets et al., 2006b), and to
modern geomagnetic field conditions (referenced to the 1945.0 Definitive Geomagnetic
Reference Field) using ref. (Pigati and Lifton, 2004). The main target element for
36
Cl
production in the Aladağlar limestones is Ca, accounting for 95%-99% of the total
production.
Other available production rates from Ca (Stone et al., 1996; Swanson and Caffee, 2001),
recomputed using the ace software, are 12% higher (Swanson and Caffee, 2001) and 13%
lower (Stone et al., 1996) than our production rates, resulting in age estimates that are
12% younger (using ref. (Swanson and Caffee, 2001)) and 13% older (using ref. (Stone et
161
al., 1996)). The latest estimate, by the members of the Cosmic-Ray prOduced NUclide
Systematics on Earth (CRONUS-Earth) Project, of the
36
Cl production rate from Ca is
approximately 75 atoms 36Cl (g Ca)-1 yr-1 (F.M. Phillips, Unpublished presentation at the
CRONUS-Earth Annual Meeting, Berkeley, 8-9 December 2007), which results in ages
being 5% younger. These changes in the production rates do not affect the calculated
absolute ages enough to invalidate the conclusions. If in future new production rate
estimates are available, the
36
Cl exposure ages can be recalculated using data in Tables
DR2 and DR3.
The reference production rates are valid for sea level (atmospheric depth 1033 g cm-2)
and high geomagnetic latitudes (geomagnetic cutoff rigidity <2 GV), and include the
necessary (universal) corrections for secular changes in paleomagnetic intensity, changes
in the position of the geomagnetic pole, and eustatic changes in sea level. Temporal
variations in the Earth’s geomagnetic field intensity were reconstructed using
archeomagnetic data (Yang et al., 2000) and stacked marine cores (Guyodo and Valet,
1999), and the position of the geomagnetic dipole axis using terrestrial sediments (Ohno
and Hamano, 1992; Ohno and Hamano, 1993).
The impact of sea-level changes on cosmogenic production was calculated using global
sea level data (Fairbanks, 1989; Shackleton, 2000). However, following the recent
suggestion (Osmaston, 2006) that Pleistocene sea-level changes should not be used to
162
correct atmospheric pressure, we also report ages without the eustatic correction (Table
DR4). Uncorrected ages are 150 years to 200 years younger than corrected ages.
The reference production rates were scaled to the sample sites using refs. (Desilets and
Zreda, 2003; Desilets et al., 2006b) and include additional corrections for environmental
factors: temperature, pressure, and lapse rate (Zreda et al., 2005). Corrections were also
made for topographic shielding, which we determined by measuring the inclination to the
horizon at 30° azimuthal increments using a hand-held clinometer; the lowering of
production rates due to topographic shielding was between 0.5% and 14.1%. Snow cover,
which is progressively thicker with increasing elevation, was found to reduce cosmogenic
production rates by up to 9%. Corrections for snow cover were calculated by estimating
the average annual snow thickness on boulder tops using the long term precipitation and
temperature data from nearby six weather stations (Global Historical Climatology
Network,
version
2,
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/ghcn-monthly/index.php,
accessed in May 2007) and interpolating them to Aladağlar by the method described in
ref. (Özyurt, 2005).
Calculation of ELA, Temperature and Precipitation
Extents of former glaciers were determined from the positions of moraines A through G.
Former ELAs, and temperature and precipitation changes were calculated using an ice
flowline model.
163
Ice flowline model
The ice flowline model was driven by mass balance changes computed from climate
variations using differences from present day precipitation and temperature while
assuming present day lapse rates. In forward mode, we input climatic (monthly
temperature, precipitation, lapse rates), topographic (valley elevation) and model
(positive degree day coefficients for ice and snow, standard deviation of monthly
temperatures, deformational ice flow coefficient) information, and the model calculates
climatic and glaciological states (altitude of ice margin, equilibrium-line altitude (ELA,
an elevation separating the accumulation zone above from the ablation zone below), mass
balance, and ice thickness). In inverse mode, we calculate all possible combinations of
temperature and precipitation that would yield the position of the ice margin at a given
time, and then determine the most likely (optimum) combination.
For each month snowfall and snowmelt as a function of elevation was computed and
water equivalent used as mass balance. Snow and ice melt rates were computed using a
positive degree day model (degree days for snow and ice 3 and 8 mm day-1 °C-1 water
equivalent, respectively, standard deviation of monthly temperatures 3°C). The mass
balance along an assumed central glacier flowline (Fig. 1 in main text) was then used in
the continuity equation for ice dynamics assuming that glacier velocities are proportional
to local shear stresses. Time integrated mass flux changes then determined ice thickness.
164
Sliding was not implemented into the ice flowline model as it was considered to be of
secondary importance during the significant retreat simulated by the model. This model
has been applied recently in Turkey (Sarikaya et al., 2008) and in Hawaii (Pigati et al.,
2008).
Sensitivity of the Hacer Glacier to Temperature and Precipitation
Precipitation increase and temperature decrease result in expansion of glaciers. But
different glaciers display different sensitivity to the two parameters. The Hacer Valley
glacier is much more sensitive to temperature than to precipitation (Fig. DR1), indicating
that the temperature reconstruction is robust.
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165
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36
Cl in rocks by isotope dilution: innovations, validation and error
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field during the past 800 kyr: Nature, v. 399, p. 249-252.
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The exposure age of an Egesen moraine at Julier Pass, Switzerland measured with the
cosmogenic radionuclides: Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae, v. 89, p. 1049-1063.
Ohno, M., and Hamano, Y., 1992, Geomagnetic poles over the past 10,000 years:
Geophysical Research Letters, v. 19, p. 1715-1718.
166
Ohno, M., and Hamano, Y., 1993, Global analysis of the geomagnetic-field: time
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Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity, v. 45, p. 1455-1466.
Osmaston, H.A., 2006, Should Quaternary sea-level changes be used to correct glacier
ELAs, vegetation belt altitudes and sea level temperatures for inferring climate changes?:
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Özyurt, N.N., 2005, Investigation of the groundwater residence time distribution in the
Aladag (Kayseri-Adana, Turkey) karstic aquifer [PhD thesis]: Ankara (Turkey),
Hacettepe University.
Phillips, F.M., Leavy, B.D., Jannik, N.O., Elmore, D., and Kubik, P.W., 1986, The
accumulation of cosmogenic chlorine-36 in rocks: a method for surface exposure dating:
Science, v. 231, p. 41-43.
Phillips, F.M., Zreda, M.G., Flinsch, M.R., Elmore, D., and Sharma, P., 1996, A
reevaluation of cosmogenic
36
Cl production rates in terrestrial rocks: Geophysical
Research Letters, v. 23, p. 949-952.
167
Phillips, F.M., Zreda, M.G., Plummer, M.A., Elmore, D., and Clark, D.H., 2008, Glacial
geology and chronology of Bishop Creek and vicinity, eastern Sierra Nevada, California:
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. (accepted pending revisions).
Pigati, J.S., and Lifton, N.A., 2004, Geomagnetic effects on time-integrated cosmogenic
nuclide production rates with emphasis on
14
C and
10
Be: Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, v. 226, p. 193-205.
Pigati, J.S., Zreda, M., Zweck, C., Almasi, P.F., Elmore, D., and Sharp, W., 2008, Ages
and inferred causes of Late Pleistocene glaciations on Mauna Kea, Hawaiì: Journal of
Quaternary Science, v. 23, p. 683-702.
Sarikaya, M.A., Zreda, M., Çiner, A., and Zweck, C., 2008, Cold and wet Last Glacial
Maximum on Mount Sandıras, SW Turkey, inferred from cosmogenic dating and glacier
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temperature, carbon dioxide, and orbital eccentricity: Science, v. 289, p. 1897-1902.
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168
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169
DATA REPOSITORY FIGURE AND TABLES
170
Fig. DR1 Parameter space for the ice flowline model of the Hacer Valley. Temperature
change of 1oC is equivalent to precipitation change of 600 mm/y.
171
Table DR1 Cosmogenic 36Cl ages (rounded to the nearest 10 years) of boulders from moraines A through
G in the Yedigöller Plateau and in the Hacer Valley, and length and terminus elevation for the former
glaciers. Moraines are sorted by elevation (age), from highest (youngest) to lowest (oldest). Uncertainties
of moraine ages are based on analytical uncertainties and on boulder-to-boulder variability, and total
uncertainties (in brackets) also include uncertainties on production rates of 36Cl. Glacier length is measured
along the flow line from the western wall in the Yedigöller Plateau (Fig. 1 in main text).
Boulder ID Boulder age(1)
(y)
AL01-101
AL01-102
AL01-103
Moraine Moraine elevation
(m)
Moraine age(2)
(y)
Length ELA
(km) (m)
∆T
(°C)
8650 ± 420
8250 ± 510
8740 ± 490
A
3080
± 17
8560 ± 270
(± 520)
3.3
3510
0
AL01-113 8190 ± 420
AL01-114 11340 ± 580
AL01-116 6930 ± 320
B
2578
± 6
8750 ± 1,310
(± 1,390)
6.0
3030
-2.7
AL01-118
AL01-119
AL01-120
8290 ± 410
8070 ± 410
9880 ± 460
C
2345
± 77
8770 ± 580
(± 730)
6.6
3000
-3.0
AL01-127
AL01-128
9270 ± 520
8900 ± 360
D
1745
± 0
9060 ± 320
(± 560)
11.8
2240
-7.2
AL01-107
AL01-121
AL01-122
AL01-124
AL01-125
9240
9330
9610
9280
8600
460
560
360
540
510
E
1643
± 9
9250 ± 220
(± 520)
14.1
2210
-7.5
AL01-108 9320 ± 340
AL01-110 10130 ± 540
AL01-111 9270 ± 530
F
1501
± 18
9540 ± 280
(± 560)
15.4
2170
-8.0
AL05-172 10010 ± 320
AL05-173 10220 ± 240
AL05-174 10360 ± 250
G
1097
± 10
10210 ± 160
(± 550)
17.2
2080
-9.0
±
±
±
±
±
Notes:
(1) Boulder age ± 1 standard deviation based on uncertainties in chemical and isotopic analyses.
(2) Weighted mean of boulder ages ± 1 standard error of the mean, calculated as the larger of
the internal error based on analytical uncertainties (moraines A, D, E, F and G) and the external
error based on boulder-to-boulder variability (moraines B and C), excluding the uncertainties on
the production rates; the figures in brackets are standard error of the mean calculated including
the uncertainty on the production rates of 36Cl.
172
Table DR2 Sample attributes and local corrections to production rates.
Sample ID(a, b)
Thickness(c)
Latitude(d)
Longitude(d)
Elevation(e)
Sea-level
pressure
(cm)
(°N)
(°E)
(m)
AL01-101
AL01-102
AL01-103
1
1
2
37.806
37.807
37.804
35.187
35.189
35.195
AL01-113
AL01-114
AL01-116
3
2
2
37.812
37.812
37.811
AL01-118
AL01-119
AL01-120
3
2
3
AL01-127
AL01-128
Sea-level
temperature
Lapse
rate
Boulder
height(f)
(g cm-2)
(°C)
(-°C/km)
(m)
(-)
(-)
3075
3099
3065
1031.72
1031.72
1031.72
21.25
21.25
21.25
6.38
6.38
6.38
0.4
0.5
bedrock
0.995
0.995
0.972
0.9306
0.9431
0.9106
35.219
35.219
35.219
2585
2580
2575
1031.72
1031.72
1031.72
21.25
21.25
21.25
6.38
6.38
6.38
1.2
bedrock
0.6
0.92
0.859
0.92
0.9816
0.9233
0.9568
37.811
37.812
37.813
35.226
35.227
35.227
2340
2291
2293
1031.72
1031.72
1031.72
21.25
21.25
21.25
6.38
6.38
6.38
3
4
5
0.859
0.912
0.938
1
1
0.96
2.5
3
37.807
37.807
35.282
35.282
1745
1745
1031.72
1031.72
21.25
21.25
6.38
6.38
2
3
0.984
0.93
1
1
AL01-107
AL01-121
AL01-122
AL01-124
AL01-125
3
3
2
2.75
3
37.800
37.811
37.811
37.812
37.811
35.304
35.293
35.292
35.287
35.286
1636
1941
1938
1904
1905
1031.72
1031.72
1031.72
1031.72
1031.72
21.25
21.25
21.25
21.25
21.25
6.38
6.38
6.38
6.38
6.38
1.5
2.5
7
6
8
0.967
0.93
0.919
0.956
0.937
0.9983
1
1
1
1
AL01-108
AL01-110
AL01-111
2.5
3
1
37.802
37.804
37.806
35.317
35.318
35.318
1520
1520
1485
1031.72
1031.72
1031.72
21.25
21.25
21.25
6.38
6.38
6.38
2
2
2
0.974
0.982
0.982
1
1
1
AL05-172
AL05-173
AL05-174
5
4
3
37.806
37.802
37.802
35.339
35.341
35.341
1109
1091
1092
1031.72
1031.72
1031.72
21.25
21.25
21.25
6.38
6.38
6.38
1
8
15
0.985
0.983
0.984
1
1
1
Notes:
(a) Water content of 0.5% was assumed.
(b) Density of 2.6 g cm-3 was assumed.
(c) Average sampled depth; measured.
(d) From handheld GPS, nominal accuracy ±5 m.
(e) From handheld GPS, nominal accuracy ±15 m.
(f) Measured; when boulder irregular - averaged or estimated.
(g) Calculated from measurements of angle to topographic features and of surface slope (dip).
(h) Calculated using positive-degree day factors, and with climate data averaged over the past 30 years.
Topography
correction
factor(g)
Snow
correction
factor(h)
43.44
43.74
43.65
43.32
43.37
43.54
43.61
43.57
43.32
43.36
44
43.52
44
43.56
43.51
43.65
AL01-118
AL01-119
AL01-120
AL01-127
AL01-128
AL01-107
AL01-121
AL01-122
AL01-124
AL01-125
AL01-108
AL01-110
AL01-111
AL05-172
AL05-173
AL05-174
0.04
0.04
0.06
0.04
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.03
0
0
0.33
0.34
0.31
0.32
0.3
0.29
0.32
0.35
0.35
0.34
0.38
0.34
0.38
0.34
1.51
0.32
0.47
0.93
0.42
0.4
0.36
0.33
(wt. %)
MgO
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.06
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.06
0.02
(wt. %)
Al2O3
0.08
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.12
0.05
0.06
0.13
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.09
0.1
0.08
0.19
0.08
0.25
0.09
0.11
0.26
0.15
0.09
(wt. %)
SiO2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.03
0
0
0
0.01
0
0.01
0
0
0.01
0.02
0
(wt. %)
P2O5
0.07
0
0.03
0.04
0
0.03
0
0
0
0.01
0.01
0
0
0.03
0.01
0
0.07
0
0
0.02
0
0.04
(wt. %)
K2O
55.91
56.04
55.81
56.36
55.76
55.29
56.09
55.9
55.87
56.12
55.83
55.76
56.1
56.08
54.39
55.9
54.84
55.24
55.76
54.58
55.51
55.03
(wt. %)
CaO
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(wt. %)
TiO
0
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.002
0
0.002
0
0
0
0
0.002
0
0
0
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
(wt. %)
MnO
0.01
0.02
0.02
0
0.08
0
0.02
0.04
0.16
0.16
0.15
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.04
0.01
0
0.1
0.02
0.03
0.09
0.04
(wt. %)
Fe2O3
±
±
±
±
±
0.1
0.4
0.1
0.5
0.1
25.3 ± 0.1
22.8 ± 0.2
26.3 ± 0.1
22.8 ± 0.1
19.6 ± 0.4
9.8 ± 0.2
6.6
11.6
13.4
25.2
14.5
17.1 ± 0.4
20.6 ± 0.2
12.4 ± 0.2
20.3 ± 0.1
11.2 ± 0.1
26.5 ± 0.8
21.0 ± 0.6
25.8 ± 0.4
36.4 ± 0.3
23.1 ± 0.5
30.0 ± 0.1
(ppm)
Cl(d)
Sm
Gd
U
Th
0
0
0
0
0
2.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.4
0
0
0.8
0
0
0
0
0
0.02
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.02
0
0.02
0
0
0.01
0
0
0
0.02
0
0
0
0
0.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.01
0
0.01
0
0
0.01
4.4
4.2
3.7
1.24
2.1
5.52
0.1
0.6
0.3
0.7
0.7
1
0.4
0.2
0.8
0.5
0.59
2.1
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.41
0
0
0
0
0.3
0
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.1
0.2
0
0
0.3
0.2
0.1
1.2
0
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
B(e)
Notes:
(a) Water content of 0.5% was assumed.
(b) Density of 2.6 g cm -3 was assumed.
(c) Major element concentrations are reported as oxides in weight percent (wt. %). The detection limits are 0.01%.
(d) Total Cl calculated from measurement of 35Cl/37Cl on spiked samples, de-spiked (i.e., converted to value in the rock).
(e) Trace element concentrations are in parts per million (ppm). The detection limits are 0.1 ppm.
(f) The ratio 36Cl/Cl measured with accelerator mass spectrometry on spiked samples, de-spiked (i.e., converted to value in the original rock sample).
44
43.66
43.69
AL01-113
AL01-114
AL01-116
0
0
0.02
(wt. %)
(wt. %)
44.65
43.89
44
Na2O
CO2(c)
AL01-101
AL01-102
AL01-103
Sample ID (a, b)
Table DR3 Geochemical and isotopic analytical data.
±
±
±
±
±
357
247
162
131
218
1469 ± 45
1636 ± 36
1451 ± 34
2061 ± 74
2583 ± 127
4550 ± 241
7349
5108
4522
2410
3718
3195 ± 158
2425 ± 97
5209 ± 246
3127 ± 159
6948 ± 323
2996 ± 129
4657 ± 203
2536 ± 109
3336 ± 159
5109 ± 295
3868 ± 215
(10-15)
Cl/Cl(f)
36
173
174
36
Table DR4 Cosmogenic Cl ages of boulders and mean ages of moraines. Also shown are alternative chronologies calculated
with the use of other published production rates, and an alternative chronology calculated without sea-level corrections.
36
Cl age, y(a,b)
Surface
Sample
A
AL01-101
AL01-102
AL01-103
Average
8,650
8,250
8,740
8,562
±
±
±
±
418
514
487
274
520
AL01-113
AL01-114
AL01-116
Average
8,190
11,340
6,930
8,746
±
±
±
±
425
582
315
1,314
1,389
AL01-118
AL01-119
AL01-120
Average
8,290
8,070
9,880
8,773
±
±
±
±
406
412
463
575
732
AL01-127
AL01-128
Average
9,270
8,900
9,057
±
±
±
515
365
316
564
AL01-107
AL01-121
AL01-122
AL01-124
AL01-125
Average
9,240
9,330
9,610
9,280
8,600
9,254
±
±
±
±
±
±
455
555
357
535
511
218
525
AL01-108
AL01-110
AL01-111
Average
9,320
10,130
9,270
9,545
±
±
±
±
337
535
528
275
564
AL05-172
AL05-173
AL05-174
Average
10,010
10,220
10,360
10,214
±
±
±
±
318
245
247
157
550
B
C
D
E
F
G
Uncertainty(c)
36
36
Cl age, y(d)
Cl age, y(e)
no sea-level correction Stone + D&Z scaling
internal
8,460
8,080
8,540
8,375
±
±
±
±
409
504
477
268
509
external
8,030
11,160
6,760
8,577
±
±
±
±
external
8,120
7,910
9,680
8,595
36
Cl age, y(f)
Swanson + D&Z scaling
9,677
9,230
9,778
9,579
±
±
±
±
468
575
545
307
582
7,498
7,151
7,576
7,422
±
±
±
±
362
445
422
238
451
420
573
308
1,311
1,384
9,163
12,687
7,753
9,784
±
±
±
±
475
651
353
1,470
1,554
7,099
9,830
6,007
7,581
±
±
±
±
368
504
273
1,139
1,204
±
±
±
±
398
404
454
563
717
9,274
9,028
11,053
9,815
±
±
±
±
455
461
518
644
819
7,186
6,995
8,564
7,605
±
±
±
±
352
357
401
499
635
internal
9,070
8,700
8,857
±
±
±
504
357
309
552
10,371
9,957
10,133
±
±
±
576
409
353
631
8,035
7,715
7,851
±
±
±
446
317
274
489
internal
9,070
9,120
9,400
9,080
8,420
9,059
±
±
±
±
±
±
445
543
349
524
500
213
514
10,337
10,438
10,751
10,382
9,621
10,353
±
±
±
±
±
±
509
620
399
599
572
244
587
8,009
8,088
8,330
8,044
7,455
8,022
±
±
±
±
±
±
394
481
309
464
443
189
455
internal
9,110
9,950
9,040
9,339
±
±
±
±
329
526
518
280
558
10,427
11,333
10,371
10,679
±
±
±
±
377
599
591
307
631
8,079
8,781
8,035
8,274
±
±
±
±
292
464
458
238
489
internal
9,830
10,040
10,170
10,030
±
±
±
±
312
240
242
154
540
11,199
11,434
11,590
11,427
±
±
±
±
356
274
276
176
615
8,677
8,859
8,980
8,853
±
±
±
±
276
212
214
136
477
Notes:
(a) Red figures are uncertainties based on sample-to-sample variability only
(b) Blue figures are total uncertainties (red + production rate uncertainties)
(c) Uncertainty (red) is external (spread) or internal (analytical). The larger of the two is reported.
(d) Correction of production rates for secular variations in sea level was neglected.
(e) Ages calculated with 40Ca production rate of Stone (Stone et al., 1996), recalculated using D&Z (Desilets et al., 2006b) scaling factors.
(f) Ages calculated with 40Ca production rate of Swanson (Swanson and Caffee, 2001), recalculated using D&Z (Desilets et al.,2006b)
scaling factors.
References cited:
Desilets, D., Zreda, M., and Prabu, T., 2006, Extended scaling factors for in situ cosmogenic nuclides: New measurements at low latitude:
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 246, p. 265-276.
Stone, J.O., Allan, G.L., Fifield, L.K., and Cresswell, R.G., 1996, Cosmogenic chlorine-36 from calcium spallation: Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, v. 60, p. 679-692.
Swanson, T.W., and Caffee, M.L., 2001, Determination of 36Cl production rates derived from the well-dated deglaciation surfaces of
Whidbey and Fidalgo Islands, Washington: Quaternary Research, v. 56, p. 366-382.
175
APPENDIX E
CONTERMINOUS WET AND DRY LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM CLIMATES OF
THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
Mehmet Akif Sarıkaya1, Marek Zreda1, Chris Zweck1, Attila Çiner2
1
2
[in preparation for submission to Science]
176
Abstract
The reconstruction of the last ice-age paleoclimate and the understanding of the glacial
atmospheric circulation mechanisms of the Eastern Mediterranean have been remained
problematic. The moisture conditions obtained from various paleoclimate proxies were
incongruous for the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ~23,000 to 19,000 years ago). Here,
we used five mountain glaciers of Turkey to constrain a direct measure of the ice-age
precipitation of the region. Results showed that mountains influenced by the
Mediterranean Sea received more precipitation (up to 2 times) than today, during the
LGM. Northeast Black Sea Mountains were drier (~60%) because of the ceased moisture
take-up from the cold Black Sea. Relatively warmer and moister air originated from the
Mediterranean Sea and overlying cold and dry air pooled over the interior uplands
created a boundary between the wet and dry LGM climates somewhere on the Anatolian
plateau.
Was the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) climate of circum-Mediterranean drier or wetter
than present? Debate on the Eastern Mediterranean LGM moisture levels was emerged
from the apparent conflict between the paleo-botanical evidence for widespread cold
steppe biomass (1) with virtually absence of trees (2) (indicating semi-arid climate) and
geomorphologic evidence of high paleo-lake levels (3) (implying wetter conditions).
Different scenarios have been suggested to explain this discrepancy (4), but none has
been emphasized on any regional heterogeneity? Wetter and drier conditions may have
177
been acted together in different parts of the Mediterranean during the LGM. Further
conflicting scenarios were proposed for the LGM atmospheric circulation patterns and
moisture sources responsible for the high paleo-lakes (5) and the advances of
Mediterranean glaciers (6, 7). A wealth of paleoclimate proxies in the Eastern
Mediterranean makes this region valuable to make inferences about paleo-environmental
changes. Nevertheless, the complexity of the nature of these proxies and dynamics of the
LGM atmosphere in the Mediterranean create incongruity among the published
paleoclimate data (4, 8, 9), which emphasize the need for more direct constrains on the
past regional climate patterns.
The large scale features of today’s atmospheric circulations may have been
geographically displaced, or subjected to different seasonal or inter-annual variations
with different intensities (10). Dynamic structure of the ice-age Mediterranean
atmosphere was probably affected by the large ice sheets on the northern Europe due to
the southerly displacement of polar oceanic/atmospheric fronts (5, 7) and possible glacial
time Arctic Oscillations (11). Was there any boundary between the cold air masses from
the north and relatively warmer humid air masses from the south? The mismatch of the
sea-level (12) and higher altitude proxy temperature reconstructions was associated to the
steeper lapse rates (6), and therefore instability of the lower atmosphere. The possibility
of different air masses on top of each other on the northern sector of the Mediterranean
may have created that vertical temperature gradient. The answers of these questions were
recorded in a variety of environmental archives from sea level (12) to high altitudes (6)
178
and direct assessments of these questions are critical to understand the past climate
changes and to solve the inconsistencies on model-model (8) and model-proxy
paleoclimate reconstructions.
Mountain glaciers are very sensitive indicators of climate change and they react in a
relatively simple way to it (13). They promptly respond to the minute changes on climate
via changing their mass balances, and therefore sizes, which can be used as a climate
proxy (Data supplement S1). By analogy, past glaciers in the Eastern Mediterranean
mountain settings (Data supplement S2) offer direct and valuable information on the
timing of past climate changes and modeling them under prescribed climatic conditions
can be used to infer magnitude of these changes. Recent improvements in understanding
of Late Pleistocene glacial chronologies by cosmogenic glacial dating in Turkish
mountains (14-17) provide a unique and valuable opportunity to infer paleoclimate of
Turkey and understand the past atmospheric circulation patterns in surrounding regions.
LGM glaciers on Turkish mountains started to advance at least 26 ka (thousands years)
ago (14, 15) (Data supplement S2 and Table S2) and continued until about 18 ka ago
(14), with several retreats and re-advances (16) after the local maximum at around 21 ka
ago (17), which is coeval with the glacial maximum of Mediterranean mountains (18) and
closely correlated with the global LGM chron (~23 to 19 ka ago) (19) recorded in the
North Atlantic ice cores and marine sediments. In this study, we have used a glacier flowline model (16) (Data supplement S1 and Table S1) to simulate LGM glacier extents of
179
five Turkish Mountains (Fig. 1) by changing the modern day climatic conditions
(temperature and precipitation). Paleoclimatic inferences were made by matched length
of modeled and field observed ice extents (Fig. S1). The results (Fig. 2) indicate a large
window of climatic conditions that could produce LGM glaciers, thus, independent LGM
paleoclimate proxies, either paleotemperature or paleoprecipitation, from the region were
needed to narrow that range.
The paleotemperature records (20) of the LGM on the Eastern Mediterranean suggest that
the region was about 8-11oC colder than modern, in a good agreement with predictions
made by the climate models (20, 21) and calculated temperature reductions based on the
Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) differences between LGM and modern (Fig. S2). In
contrast, there is no clear agreement regarding the contemporary precipitation amounts.
Because of the LGM paleoprecipitation estimates are not consistent (3, 4), and it is harder
to extrapolate in greater distances than paleotemperatures due to the fact that they can be
affected easily by atmospheric circulations and local climatic conditions, we used the 811oC colder than today paleotemperature range, which is less ambiguous, to infer LGM
moisture conditions in five locations of Turkey.
According to the model results (Fig. 2), during the LGM, northeast of Turkey were drier
than today, southwest coast of Turkish Mediterranean were wetter and interior and
northwest to southeast regions were somewhat similar to modern values. The Kaçkar
Mountains were dry during the LGM, with the precipitation range 1.02 to 0.42 times
180
relative to modern (Fig. 2). On the contrast, Mount Sandıras was up to 2 times wetter
(16), in a range of 2.06 to 1.07 times relative to modern. LGM precipitation amounts on
Uludağ, Mount Erciyes and Mount Cilo were closer to today’s values in a range of 1.36
to 0.67, 1.2 to 0.75 and 1.39 to 0.89 times relative to modern, respectively. Our analysis
reveal an irregular LGM moisture pattern show that the paleo-atmospheric circulations
were different than today.
The anomalies between the ELA based (high altitude) and SST-based (sea level) LGM
coolings on Mediterranean were interpreted as the implication of a steeper vertical
temperature lapse rates which is potentially enhancing the instability of the atmospheric
layers, and derived the local convections and consequently produced anomalous
precipitation on the western Mediterranean (6). Our calculations showed similar
instabilities on the Eastern Mediterranean (Fig. 1). Our glacier modeling analysis
revealed that LGM glaciers on the coastal mountains of Turkish Mediterranean were
occurred under a pronounced precipitation conditions (doubling on Mount Sandıras).
Higher anomalies of temperature reductions between the high altitude and sea-level (~46oC near Mount Sandıras) (Fig. 1) imply the glacier growth was not purely dependent on
the temperature reduction, but also precipitation may have played an important role (9).
Marked difference on the LGM temperatures between sea-level and higher elevations in
land (Fig. 1), recognized also by others (22), might have been responsible for
Mediterranean type LGM monsoons (5) probably mostly occurred during winter and
spring months, when the temperature difference is greater between sea and land (12).
181
This also explains the thick turbidities (23) and high winter sediment yields (24) in
Eastern Mediterranean basins and pronounced seasonality effect on the lake levels and
pollen records (25), and why the Mediterranean lakes were high prior and during the
LGM (3-5), whereas there was widespread steppe vegetation implying the semi-arid
conditions at the same time.
Today, southwest and northeast Turkey are the wettest parts of the country (26), receives
more than a meter of precipitation annually. But during the LGM, our model indicates
that the moisture was ceased on the northeast Kaçkar Mountains while it was further
enhanced on the southwest Turkey. This obviously implies a considerable difference on
the atmospheric circulation patterns between LGM and today, which may be related with
the southerly displacement of the polar front (to ~46oN on the North Atlantic, same
latitude as Black Sea) (7) and expanded anticyclones originated due to the existence of
large ice sheets on the northern latitudes (8). General circulation models indicate an
enhanced sea-level pressure gradient towards to Black Sea (21), which produced glacial
anticyclones that brought cold and dry air from the ice sheets and North Atlantic towards
southern latitudes. Southerly LGM wind patterns were recorded in thick (>5m), extensive
losses on the northern Black Sea region (27). These cold air incursions from the north
enhanced the sea-ice growth in the Black Sea, especially during the winter months, and
increased permafrost on the surrounding lands (8), which further cooled the air, ceased
the moisture take-up from the Black Sea and produced dry and cold conditions in the
surrounding regions (28). Today, the only source of moisture for the Kaçkar Mountains is
182
the year-round orographic precipitations from the Black Sea (26). Enriched ice growth on
the cold Black Sea during the LGM significantly ceased that moisture take-up from the
sea. Nevertheless, it could be still cold enough to produce glaciers on the Kaçkar
Mountains and Caucasus during the LGM.
LGM moisture levels of the interior regions of Turkey were somewhat similar to modern
values (Fig. 2), which imply a negative moisture gradient away from the Mediterranean
Sea. Today, the same phenomenon acts in a comparable fashion; precipitation drops
considerably from coastal areas to upland interiors of Anatolia. The land elevation along
the coast of Mediterranean increases rapidly creating a natural climatic barrier between
coastal areas and the interiors. Such a spatial heterogeneity, though amplified, acted
during the LGM while the maritime influence of Mediterranean considerably decreased
and continentally increased markedly at the same time towards to inland Anatolia.
Glacial time lakes in the central and eastern Anatolia (3) raised their water levels due to
spring thaw of winter precipitation, mostly as snow, falls on coastal mountains of
Mediterranean.
We hypothesize that enhanced moisture delivery to northern Mediterranean and
pronounced land-sea temperature contrast during LGM were possibly linked to the
glacial time patterns of Arctic Oscillations, comparable to today’s North Atlantic
Oscillation (NAO) (29) defined by an index related with the pressure difference between
the Icelandic Low and the Azores High. Despite the presence of glacial ice sheets, which
183
would have strongly influenced glacial wintertime atmospheric circulation over the North
Atlantic (11), the NAO apparently existed during LGM with four centers, one of them
placed over the Mediterranean/Iberia (11). Today, NAO is more a winter time
phenomenon and strongly correlated with the Eastern Mediterranean (30) and Turkish
climates (26, 31). A low NAO index causes more southerly storm tracks, increasing
winter precipitation on southern Turkey, causing relatively dry northeast and lowering
temperature outside of the coastal areas of Turkey (31). A possibility of prolonged
negative LGM NAO conditions in Eastern Mediterranean similar to today’s
consequences might have lead to the observed pattern of paleoclimatic conditions reveled
by our glacier model.
The intense LGM precipitation over the coastal mountains of Mediterranean was related
to the pronounced negative glacial-NAO conditions and high Mediterranean SSTs, which
are too warm compared to the overlying cold air (8). This cold and dry air was originated
from the southerly displacement of the polar front and pooled over the upland interior
Anatolia, making this region colder and drier than Mediterranean coast. These two air
masses met at the southern border of Anatolian plateau; warm air from south could not
penetrate into the interior because of the cold air on top and dumped all its moisture to
the coastal mountains. Thus, there was a boundary between these two air masses
somewhere on the Anatolia. Earlier studies viewed the LGM climate of the region as a
whole and suggesting it was dry (3, 20). But our analysis reveled that the region has a
spatial heterogeneities in term of moisture levels. Wetter regions were significantly
184
affected by the maritime Mediterranean while interior regions were under cold and dry
conditions. Wetter conditions in the northern Mediterranean could represent a local
monsoon like phenomenon, generated by the pronounced contrast of sea-land
temperatures (6, 12). This hypothesis well explain why the coastal areas received
extraordinary precipitations while the interiors and northeast coast of Turkey, somewhat
similar and drier than today, respectively.
References and Notes
1.
H. Elenga et al., Journal of Biogeography 27, 621 (2000).
2.
W. van Zeist, H. Woldring, D. Stapert, Palaeohistoria 7, 53 (1975).
3.
N. Roberts, Quaternary Research 19, 154 (1983).
4.
P. C. Tzedakis, Quaternary Science Reviews 26, 2042 (2007).
5.
S. P. Harrison, G. Yu, P. E. Tarasov, Quaternary Research 45, 138 (1996).
6.
J. Kuhlemann et al., Science 321, 1338 (2008).
7.
D. Florineth, C. Schluchter, Quaternary Research 54, 295 (2000).
8.
A. Jost et al., Climate Dynamics 24, 577 (2005).
9.
H. B. Wu, J. L. Guiot, S. Brewer, Z. T. Guo, Climate Dynamics 29, 211 (2007).
10.
M. L. Wigley, G. Farmer, in Paleoclimates, Paleoenvironments and Human
Communities in the Eastern Mediterranean Region in Later Prehistory, J. L.
Bintliff, W. van Zeist, Eds. (B.A.R., Oxford, 1982), vol. International Series
I33(i), pp. 3-37.
185
11.
F. Justino, W. R. Peltier, Geophysical Research Letters 32, (2005).
12.
A. Hayes, M. Kucera, N. Kallel, L. Sbaffi, E. J. Rohling, Quaternary Science
Reviews 24, 999 (2005).
13.
J. Oerlemans, Glaciers and Climate Change. (Sweets and Zeitlinger BV, Lisse,
2001), pp. 148.
14.
N. Akçar et al., Journal of Quaternary International, 164-165, 170 (2007).
15.
N. Akçar et al., Journal of Quaternary Science 23, 273 (2008).
16.
M. A. Sarikaya, M. Zreda, A. Ciner, C. Zweck, Quaternary Science Reviews 27,
769 (2008).
17.
M. A. Sarıkaya, M. Zreda, A. Çiner, Quaternary Science Reviews (accepted),
(2009).
18.
P. D. Hughes, J. C. Woodward, Journal of Quaternary Science 23, 575 (2008).
19.
A. C. Mix, E. Bard, R. Schneider, Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 627 (2001).
20.
S. A. Robinson, S. Black, B. W. Sellwood, P. J. Valdes, Quaternary Science
Reviews 25, 1517 (2006).
21.
E. Barron, T. H. van Andel, D. Pollard, in Neanderthals and modern humans in
the European landscape during the last glaciation, T. H. van Andel, W. Davies,
Eds. (University of Cambridge, Cambridge, 2003), pp. 57-78.
22.
M. D. Jones, C. N. Roberts, M. J. Leng, Quaternary Research 67, 463 (2007).
23.
R. G. Rothwell et al., Sedimentary Geology 135, 75 (2000).
24.
R. E. L. Collier et al., Geology 28, 999 (2000).
25.
I. C. Prentice, J. Guiot, S. P. Harrison, Nature 360, 658 (1992).
186
26.
M. Türkeş, E. Erlat, Theoretical and Applied Climatology 92, 75 (2008).
27.
B. Buggle et al., Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 1058 (2008).
28.
C. E. Cordova et al., Quaternary International 197, 12 (2009).
29.
J. W. Hurrell, Y. Kushnir, M. Visbeck, Science 291, 603 (2001).
30.
H. M. Cullen, A. Kaplan, P. A. Arkin, P. B. Demenocal, Climatic Change 55, 315
(2002).
31.
E. Tan, Y. S. Ünal, in Europian Geophysical Society. (Nice, 2003), vol. 5.
32.
We thank the US National Science Foundation (NSF Grant 0115298) and the
Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK Grants
101Y002 and 107Y069).
187
FIGURES
188
Fig. 1. Map of the study area. The ELA-based temperature depressions and the SST
difference between LGM and modern in the Eastern Mediterranean are shown in blue and
black dotted lines, respectively. The color map shows the difference between these two;
high anomaly areas indicate steeper lapse rates and unstable layering of the lower
troposphere, thus producing local convective precipitation (6). Red and blue arrows show
the trajectories of moist/warm and cold/dry air masses, based on LGM wind patterns
(27), respectively. Blue areas represent the maximum glaciated regions during LGM.
189
Fig. 2. Glacier model results. Modeled length (in km) of (A) Uludağ, (B) Mount
Sandıras, (C) Mount Erciyes, (D) The Kaçkar Mountains and (E) Mount Cilo LGM
glaciers as a function of temperature and precipitation changes from those of today. The
maximum extents of LGM glaciers are shown in thick color lines. (F) The combination of
results for LGM glaciers and a possible LGM temperature range (8-11oC colder than
today) obtained from different proxies in the region are shown as vertical dotted lines.
190
SUPPORTING ONLINE MATERIAL
191
Data supplement S1: Glacier model
The glacier modeling procedures applied in this study involves the use of a physicallybased, one dimensional ice flow line model (S1,S2). It simulates the flow of ice enforced
by the annual mass balance gradient at any point of the topographic flow line of a glacier.
The mass balance is calculated by the difference of the net accumulation and ablation of
snow, and used to create the glacier growth and formation of steady-state glaciers
according to the equations of ice flow (S3, S4). Since the simulated ice extent is a
function of prescribed climatic conditions, the model allows user to match modeled and
field observed extent of the glacier to draw inferences about the past climates. This
forward modeling approach eliminates the need of estimate Equilibrium Line Altitudes
(ELAs) from indirect methods (such as Accumulation Area Ratio method) to make
inferences about paleoclimate.
Calculation of Mass Balance
An important boundary condition for the glacier model is the annual surface ice mass
balance. The mass balance was calculated by using the ice accumulation and ablation
(melt water runoff). The total annual accumulation of snow is determined using the
projected modern monthly precipitation total and mean temperatures, which have the
largest impact on glacier mass balance (S3). In the model, accumulation of ice is
predicted by snowfall modeled as precipitation occurring below zero oC. Above those
192
temperatures, no accumulation of ice is occurred. Below zero oC, all precipitation was
occurred as snow. Yearly ablation of ice/snow is predicted by using the positive degree
day factors, which assume a correlation between the sum of positive air temperatures and
the amount of ablation (S5). We assume that melting rate is set proportional to the yearly
sum of positive degree days at the surface. The expected annual sum of positive degree
days ( PDD) is evaluated by (S5, S6):
PDD = σ
12
∫
0


T sur
30.40.3989 exp  −1.58 mon
σ


1.1372

sur 
 Tmon
 + max  0,
dt

σ



(1)
sur
Where, Tmon
is the mean monthly surface temperatures and σ is the standard deviation of
monthly temperatures to account for the daily cycle and random atmospheric fluctuations
(S6). PDD is used to melt snow or ice by using the degree day factors of 3 mm day-1 oC-1
(water equivalent) for snow and 8 mm day-1 oC-1 for ice (S7). Finally, glacier mass
balance is calculated as snow accumulation minus ablation.
Ice flow
Based on annual mass balance, ice thicknesses are calculated using a one dimensional
finite difference flow model:
193
∂h
∂q
=− +b
∂t
∂x
(2)
Where h is the ice thickness, t time, q mass flux, x distance down the central flow line
and b mass balance. The model simulates the glacier response to changes in mass
balance by varying the mass flux until a steady state thickness profile and extent is
reached.
All glacier reconstructions shown are in steady state equilibrium with
prescribed climates.
Mass flux is computed in the model as ice thickness times velocity v , with velocity
assumed to arise from internal deformation:
 ∂h  3
q = hv = A( ρg) h  
 ∂x 
3
5
(3)
Where ρ is the ice density, g acceleration due to gravity and A the flow rate parameter
(0.5 x 10-16 kg-3 m3 yr2). Sensitivity tests suggest that the glacier thicknesses are sensitive
to A but not the glacier lengths, which in steady state reconstructions are essentially
limits of positive down-valley mass balance integrals. We also explored introducing a
width factor to account for the variable width of the glacier (particularly in the
accumulation zone) but found that for the geometry of valleys we used the effect was
minimal. Introducing a sliding factor increased the glacier lengths by a few percent,
194
indicating a slight model overestimation of either precipitation rate increases or
temperature decreases if sliding occurred in Turkish glaciers during the LGM.
Local Climate Parameterizations
The calculation of mass balance requires climatic input parameters of modern monthly
temperature and precipitation estimates along the ice flow line (Fig. S1). Such climatic
data are usually missing on modeled elevations, thus they needed to be extrapolated to
these elevations. The best estimates are made by interpolating the climate variables from
surrounding meteorological stations.
Long term monthly mean temperature and precipitation data were downloaded from the
Global Historical Climatology Network (Version 2, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate
/ghcn-monthly/index.php, accessed in January 2009). We restricted to use of
meteorological station data that have at least ~30 years of coverage between 1960 and
1990. On the northern slope of Uludağ, there are four meteorological stations on various
elevations. Thus, a linear fit used to extrapolate the needed climatic inputs on higher
elevations. In other places, precipitation amounts are interpolated inside a 200 km radius
of the mountain by the krigging method using the ArcGIS software (version 9.1), for each
month. Temperature reconstructions is made by the interpolating the measured monthly
temperatures from nearby stations by using the local monthly lapse rates, measured by
nearby radiosonde stations (downloaded from National Oceanic and Atmospheric
195
Administration / Earth System Research Laboratory, http://raob.fsl.noaa.gov, accessed in
January 2009). The annual (all months), winter (December, January and February; DJF)
and summer (June, July and August; JJA) estimates of precipitation sums, average
temperatures and average temperature lapse rates on the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM)’s
ELAs (Fig. S2) of studied mountains are given in Table S1.
Data supplement S2: Regional settings and site details
Present day glaciers and paleoglaciers in Turkey occur in three major regions: 1) the
Taurus Mountain Range (Fig. S1 A), along the Mediterranean coast and southeast
Turkey, 2) The Pontic Mountain Range, along the Eastern Black Sea coast and 3)
volcanoes and independent mountains scattered across the Anatolian plateau (S8). The
Taurus Mountain Range has two-thirds of the previously glaciated mountains. Among
them, Mount Cilo (4135 m), in the southeast Turkey, supports a 1.5 km long retreating
glacier today (S9, S10). In the central Taurus, Aladaglar (3756 m) (S11) and Bolkarlar
(3524 m) (S10) constitute two of the most important mountains where past glaciers were
present. On the western part of Turkey, although there are no active glaciers today,
smaller glaciers were present during LGM, particularly on the western parts of the Taurus
range (S1). On the Pontic Mountain Range, several valleys of Kaçkar Mountains; Kavron
Valley (3932 m) (S12), the Verçenik Valley (3710 m) (S13) and Karagöl (3107 m) and
Karadağ (3331 m) mountains were supported glaciers (S14). In the interior of the
country, a number of independent mountains and volcanoes sustained glaciers (S8).
196
Mount Ağrı (5165 m) (also known as Ararat), has an ice cap with several outlet glaciers
(S10). Mount Erciyes (3917 m) in the central Turkey shows successive evidence of past
glacial activity (S15) since LGM.
Site Details
Mount Sandıras
Mount Sandıras (also known as Çiçekbaba), westernmost glaciated mountain in the
country (37.1oN, 28.8oE, 2295 m above mean sea level), is located in the Taurus
Mountain Range, 40 km away from the coast of Mediterranean sea (S1). Three small
valleys on the north side of the mountain were filled with ~1.5 km long glaciers that
terminated at an altitude of 1900 m (Fig. S1 B). The geological formation exposed on the
mountain is the upper part of the Lycian Allochthons (S16) which consists of
serpentinized harzburgite, pyroxenite, pedifrom dunite and chromitite (S17). The modern
climate in southwest Turkey is characterized by dry/hot summers and wet/temperate
winters. Eastward storm tracks originated either from the Atlantic Ocean or from the
Mediterranean Sea (S18) bring most of the winter precipitation on Mount Sandıras.
The glacial landforms on Mount Sandıras were mapped and described in detail
somewhere else (S1, S19, S20). Recently, nine boulders from terminal moraines of Mount
Sandıras were dated by cosmogenic
36
Cl (Table S2) (S1). The glacial activity on Mount
197
Sandıras correlates with LGM, with a maximum glaciation occurred approximately
20.4±1.3 ka (thousands years) ago, when glaciers started to retreat and the most extensive
moraines were deposited. The glaciers advanced and retreated by 19.6±1.6 ka ago, and
then again by 16.2±0.5 ka (S1). Since then, the mountain shows no evidence of glacial
activity and, now it is free of ice.
Uludağ
Uludağ (means “almighty mountain” in Turkish: “Ulu” means almighty and “dağ” means
mountain; ancient name was Olympos Mysios) is located about 50 km southeast of the
Marmara Sea (40.1oN, 29.2oE, 2543 m). It forms a single WNW-ESE trending mountain
range, with a short, relatively flat topped crest about 12 km long and 800 m wide. Uludağ
largely consist of high-grade metamorphic rocks and granite intrusions (S21) and the
summit area mainly consist of muscovite bearing calcite-marbles (S22). Current climate
of the region is under the influence of the Mediterranean type climate (S23) with dry/mild
summers and wet/temperate winters.
Uludağ has several cirques and valleys that previously occupied by glaciers (S24). Today,
there is no recent glacier existed in the mountain (S25). Nine independent cirques were
occupied by past glaciers on the northeast slopes of the mountain (S24). Birman, J.H.
(S26) made a quick survey, and differentiated four main moraine sets in Çayırlı Valley, 4
km east of Uludağ ski resorts (Fig. S1 C). These moraines were associated by the Early,
198
Middle, Late and Post Wisconsin glaciations using the relative age techniques such as
moraine stability, degree of erosion, and weathering content (S26). Recently,
26
10
Be and
Al cosmogenic exposure ages of moraines indicates that local LGM was occurred by
20.3 ka ago (S27). Morphologically constrained subsequent glacier oscillations were
dated to the Lateglacial period and show distinct phases of glacier re-advances by around
16.1 ka, around 13.3 ka, and around 11.5 ka ago (S27). We used Late Wisconsin
moraines of Uludağ to correlate LGM glaciations on other mountains of Turkey.
Mount Erciyes
Mount Erciyes, the highest mountain in the central Turkey (38.5oN, 35.5oE, 3917 m), is a
stratovolcano rising more than 2800 m above its base. The volcanism developed in two
evolutionary stages (S28). The first stage began with basaltic lava flows, and terminated
with extensive ignimbritic eruptions ~3 Ma ago (S29). The second stage involved
basaltic, andesitic, dacitic, and rhyolitic lavas, and terminated with pyroclastic eruptions
and debris avalanches (S28). The interior Turkey is characterized by continental climate
with hot/dry summers and cold/moderately wet winters (S23).
Mount Erciyes has two major and three minor valleys that were previously occupied by
glaciers (S15). Forty-four boulders from moraines of Mount Erciyes dated with
36
Cl by
(S15). The glacial activity on the mountain is represented by four periods. LGM glaciers
were the extensive ones, reaching 6 km in length and descending to an altitude of 2150 m
199
(Fig. S1 D). These glaciers started retreating between 21.3±0.9 ka ago (Table S2). The
glaciers readvanced and retreated by 14.6±1.2 ka ago during the Late Glacial, and again
by 9.3±0.5 ka ago during the Early Holocene. The latest advance took place 3.8±0.4 ka
ago. The recent glacier descending down to 3450 m on the northwest face of the summit
area (Fig. S1 D) remained from the last advance (possibly during the Little Ice Age)
(S15).
Kaçkar Mountains
Mount Kaçkar (40.9oN, 41.2oE, 3932 m) is situated in the Eastern Black Sea Mountains
(also called as Kaçkarlar) in the Pontic Range of the northeast of Turkey, lying
approximately 40 km south of the coast of Black Sea. The Eastern Pontides comprises
Mesozoic to Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic units on top of pre-Jurassic to upper
Mesozoic metamorphic and magmatic rocks (S30). The modern climate in the Eastern
Black Sea Mountains is characterized by yearlong humid climate generally due to the
orographic precipitation resulted by the air masses coming from the Black Sea (S23).
Mount Kaçkar is the highest peak of the several hundred km long Pontic Range bearing
numerous cirques and U-shaped valleys descending down to lower elevations. Recently,
moraines and glacier related landforms of two valleys of Mount Kaçkar were dated by
cosmogenic
10
Be (S12, S13). Twenty-two samples from Kavron Valley (Fig. S1 E) and
nineteen samples from Verçenik Valley revealed that advance of paleoglaciers on Mount
200
Kaçkar started before about 26 ka ago and ended about 18 ka ago (Table S2). After an
unknown magnitude of recessions of glaciers, a Late Glacier advance took place around
13±0.8 to 11.5±0.8 ka in the Kavron Valley (S12). Little Ice Age moraines are appear to
be absent in both valleys (S12). A few recent glaciers exist in the high elevations with
less than 1 km lengths (Fig. S1 E).
Mount Cilo
Mount Cilo (37.5oN, 44oE, 4135 m), the second highest mountain of Turkey after Mount
Ağrı (Mount Ararat), is located at the highest crest of Taurus-Zagros Mountains on the
corner of southeast border of Turkey. The mountain range consists largely of Paleozoic
and Mesozoic metamorphic and volcanic rocks (S31) along with folded Mesozoic
limestone and Tertiary terrestrial sedimentary rocks (S32). The climate on the TaurusZagros range is Mediterranean type (S23). Precipitation falls during fall, winter and
spring months due to the cyclonic disturbances that travel along the Taurus range from
the west (S33) and Arabian anticyclones from the south (S31).
Studies on glaciers on Mount Cilo were started as early as the same time of studies in
other places in Turkey (S34) nevertheless there is no numerical age results, yet. (S9) and
(S31) studied extensively the Late Quaternary glacial deposits as well as the recent
glacier activities on the mountain. They mapped the glacial extent in the northern valleys
(Fig. S1 F). Consecutive moraine ridges that marked the past glacial extents were
201
supplied by the glaciers on the north facing cirques at elevations about 3500 m. The age
of the maximum extent is assigned as Würm by relative methods (S9). Currently, there
are six recent glaciers reaching to about 1.5 km in length in the mountain (Fig. S1 F).
References
S1.
M. A. Sarıkaya, M. Zreda, A. Ciner, C. Zweck, Quaternary Science Reviews 27,
769 (2008).
S2.
J. S. Pigati et al., Journal of Quaternary Science 23, 683 (2008).
S3.
W. S. B. Paterson, The Physics of Glaciers. (Pergamon, Oxford, ed. Third, 1994).
S4.
W. Haeberli, Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quarternaria 18, 191 (1996).
S5.
R. J. Braithwaite, Journal of Glaciology 41, 153 (1995).
S6.
C. Zweck, P. Huybrechts, Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 110,
(2005).
S7.
R. J. Braithwaite, Y. Zhang, Journal of Glaciology 46, 7 (2000).
S8.
A. Ciner, in Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology, Part I: Europe, J.
Ehlers, P. L. Gibbard, Eds. (Elsevier Publishers, Amsterdam, 2004), pp. 419–
429.
S9.
H. Bobek, Annals of glaciology 27, 50 (1940).
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A. Kurter, Ed., Glaciers of Middle East and Africa—glaciers of Turkey, vol.
1386-G-1 (USGS Professional Paper, 1991), vol. 1386-G-1, pp. 30.
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S11.
M. Zreda, C. Zweck, M. A. Sarıkaya, in American Geophysical Union
Conference. (San Fransisco, USA, 2006), vol. PP43A-1232.
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N. Akçar et al., Journal of Quaternary International 164-165, 170 (2007).
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N. Akçar et al., Journal of Quaternary Science 23, 273 (2008).
S14.
A. F. Doğu, İ. Çiçek, G. Gürgen, H. Tuncel, Ankara University Turkish
Geography Bulletin 5, 29 (1996).
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M. A. Sarıkaya, M. Zreda, A. Çiner, Quaternary Science Reviews (accepted),
(2009).
S16.
A. S. Collins, A. H. F. Robertson, Journal of the Geological Society, London 155,
759 (1998).
S17.
A. S. Collins, University of Edinburgh (1997).
S18.
L. R. Stevens, H. E. Wright, E. Ito, Holocene 11, 747 (2001).
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X. de Planhol, Compte Rendu Sommaire de la Societe Geologique de France, 263
(1953).
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A. F. Doğu, Ankara University Turkish Geography Bulletin 2, 263 (1993).
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A. I. Okay, M. Satir, M. Zattin, W. Cavazza, G. Topuz, Geological Society of
America Bulletin 120, 893 (2008).
S22.
T. Imbach, in Active tectonics of northwestern Anatolia; the MARMARA polyproject; a multidisciplinary approach by space-geodesy, geology, hydrogeology,
geothermics and seismology, T. Imbach, C. Schindler, M. Pfister, Eds. (v/d/f,
Zurich, Switzerland, 1997), pp. 239-266.
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S23.
Y. Ünal, T. Kindap, M. Karaca, International Journal of Climatology 23, 1045
(2003).
S24.
S. Erinç, Review of the Geographical Institude of the Istanbul University 11-12,
79 (1949).
S25.
I. Atalay, Introduction to Geomorphology of Turkey. (Ege University Press,
Izmir, 1987).
S26.
J. H. Birman, Geological Society of America Bulletin 79, 1009 (1968).
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C. Zahno, N. Akçar, V. Yavuz, P. W. Kubik, C. Schlüchter, in 62th Geological
Conference of Turkey. (Ankara, Turkey, 2009).
S28.
E. Sen, B. Kurkcuoglu, E. Aydar, A. Gourgaud, P. M. Vincent, Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research 125, 225 (Jul, 2003).
S29.
F. Innocenti, R. Mazzuoli, G. Pasquare, F. Radicati di Brozolo, L. Villari,
Geological Magazine 112, 349 (1975).
S30.
A. İ. Okay, Ö. Şahintürk, in Regional and Petroleum Geology of the Black Sea
and Surrounding Region, A. G. Robinson, Ed. (American Association of
Petroleum Geologists Memoirs,, 1997), vol. 68, pp. 291-311.
S31.
H. E. Wright, Eiszeitlalter und Gegenroart 12, 131 (1962).
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İ. E. Altınlı, Bulletin of Minerals Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey 66,
35 (1966).
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K. W. Butzer, Bonner Geogr. Abhandl 24, 157 (1958).
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F. R. Maunsell, The Geographical Journal 18, 121 (1901).
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B. Messerli, Geographica Helvetica 22, 105 (1967).
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S36.
J. Ehlers, P. L. Gibbard, Eds., Quaternary glaciations-Extent and chronology Part
I: Europe, vol. 1 (2004), vol. 1, pp. 475.
205
SUPPLEMENTARY ONLINE MATERIAL FIGURES AND TABLES
206
Fig. S1. Digital elevation models (DEMs) of studied areas. Color coding for elevation is
same for all sub-figures (A) General DEM of Turkey and surrounding region. DEMs and
elevation counters in meters of (B) Mount Sandıras, (C) Uludağ, (D) Mount Erciyes, (E)
Kaçkar Mountains and (F) Mount Cilo. LGM Ice flow lines which glacier models applied
are indicated with solid black lines. White areas are LGM moraines. Maximum ice extent
of LGM glaciers obtained from (1) for Mount Sandıras, from (26) for Uludağ, from (15)
for Mount Erciyes, from (12) for Kaçkar Mountains and from (9) for Mount Cilo are
shown by black arrows. Modern glaciers are indicated as blue regions.
207
Fig. S2. Map of ELAs of modern (green lines) and LGM (brown lines) glaciers (adapted
from (35)). Blue areas are maximum extents of LGM glaciers (adapted from (36)).
1000
562
35
5.8
-0.6
12.9
6.33
5.12
7.19
Annual average temperature at LGM's ELA (oC)
Winter (DJF) average temperature at LGM's ELA ( oC)
Summer (JJA) average temperature at LGM's ELA ( oC)
Year average temperature lapse rate (oC km -1)
Winter (DJF) average temperature lapse rate ( oC km -1)
Summer (JJA) average temperature lapse rate ( oC km -1)
none
none
none
2970
3000-3500
Modern glacier type
Modern glacier ice limit (m)
Modern glacier length (km)
Modeled modern ELA (m)
Modern ELA from (34 ) (m)
Annual precipitation at LGM's ELA (mm)
Winter (DJF) precipitation at LGM's ELA (mm)
Summer (JJA) precipitation at LGM's ELA (mm)
Valley
1900
1.5
1998
2300-2400
LGM glacier type
LGM ice limit elevation, (m)
LGM glacier length (km)
Modeled LGM ELA (m)
LGM ELA from (34 ) (m)
2
2230
1778
3.3
NE
Kartal Lake
37.1
28.8
2295
Valley name
Latitude (oN)
Longitude (oE)
Peak elevation (m)
Model range (km)
Model start elevation (m)
Model end elevation (m)
Standart deviation of monthly temp (oC)
Aspect
Mt. Sandıras
Mountain name
5.33
5.06
6.02
4.1
-3.3
11.2
1574
617
180
none
none
none
3087
3000-3500
Valley
1850
2.9
2126
2200-2330
6.42
5.24
7.25
-0.4
-8.6
7.6
721
227
85
Cirque
3450
0.26
3553
3650
Valley
2150
5.8
2695
2700
6.8
3650
2051
3.95
NW-N
Aksu
38.5
35.4
3917
Çayırlı
40.1
29.2
2543
5.6
2400
1363
3.9
NNE
Mt. Erciyes
Uludağ
5.33
5.53
5.10
0.9
-6.4
8.8
1252
346
275
Cirque
3220
0.98
3550
3500
Valley
2020
9.4
2488
2300-2500
15
3650
1454
3.2
N
Kavron
40.9
41.2
3932
Kaçkar Mts.
Table S1 Physical and climatological properties of modeled mountains
7.84
7.77
8.32
1.2
-13.5
13.2
2080
855
87
Valley
2840
0.9
3412
3500-3600
Valley
2048
8.7
2512
2800
13.6
3350
1592
3
N-NW
Uludoruk
37.5
44.0
4135
Mt. Cilo
208
209
Table S2 Cosmogenic ages of LGM moraines of Sandıras (1), Erciyes (15) and Kaçkar Mountains (12, 13)
Sample ID
Surface
designation
Latitude Longitude Elevation
(m)
(oN)
(oE)
Boulder age
(ka)
Surface Age
(ka)
Mount Sandıras
SA02-609
SA02-610
SA02-611
Kartal Lake A1
Kartal Lake A1
Kartal Lake A1
37.100
37.100
37.100
29.854
28.853
28.853
1899
1902
1902
22.1 ± 3.3
19.6 ± 1.0
20.6 ± 2.1
20.4 ± 1.3
SA02-612
SA05-618
Kartal Lake A2
Kartal Lake A2
37.100
37.100
28.849
28.852
1949
1914
17.2 ± 2.9
20.6 ± 1.3
19.6 ± 1.6
Mount Erciyes
ER01-12
ER01-14
Aksu LLM
Aksu LLM
38.553
38.556
35.421
35.417
2766
2703
19.3 ± 0.9
23.1 ± 2.0
20.7 ± 1.8
ER01-25
ER01-26
ER01-27
Aksu RLM
Aksu RLM
Aksu RLM
38.561
38.561
38.557
35.423
35.423
35.426
2693
2693
2764
22.2 ± 1.4
16.6 ± 0.9
25.3 ± 1.2
21.4 ± 2.6
ER01-43
ER01-45
ER01-46
Üçker RLM
Üçker RLM
Üçker RLM
38.538
38.540
38.539
35.483
35.486
35.486
2909
2849
2849
22.8 ± 1.0
21.2 ± 1.2
18.1 ± 0.6
20.4 ± 1.5
Kaçkar Mountains
TRK-5
TRK-6
TRK-7
TRK-8
TRK-9
TRK-10
TRK-11
TRK-12
TRK-13
TRK-14
TRK-16
TRK-17
TRK-18
TRK-26
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Upper Kavron LGM
Mezovit LGM
40.881
40.882
40.882
40.883
40.883
40.883
40.884
40.886
40.887
40.887
40.889
40.886
40.886
40.854
41.136
41.136
41.136
41.136
41.136
41.136
41.136
41.134
41.133
41.133
41.135
41.140
41.138
41.142
2414
2380
2378
2338
2338
2339
2328
2273
2251
2256
2297
2452
2397
2849
24.6
26.0
19.9
20.6
19.2
18.3
20.3
21.5
20.1
22.4
21.1
23.9
22.2
20.7
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.9
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.1
1.5
1.4
1.3
between 26.0±1.2
ka and 18.3±0.9 ka
TRV-6
TRV-8
TRV-9
TRV-10
TRV-11
Vercenik LGM
Vercenik LGM
Vercenik LGM
Vercenik LGM
Vercenik LGM
40.801
40.795
40.795
40.795
40.797
40.921
40.902
40.903
40.903
40.905
1971
2200
2190
2180
2095
21.9
23.5
24.4
26.1
18.8
±
±
±
±
±
1.3
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.0
between 26.1±1.2
ka and 18.8±1.0 ka
210
APPENDIX F
SUMMARY OF THE LATE QUATERNARY GLACIAL CHRONOLOGY OF
TURKEY
30
25
20
15
10
5
-40
o
-50
Allerød
Bølling-
LGM
(b) Kartal
Lake Valley
LGM
LG
EH
(d) Aksu Valley
36
LH
Cl samples
LGM
LG
EH
(e) Üçker Valley
EH
(f) Hacer Valley
SUMMARY OF THE LATE QUATERNARY GLACIAL CHRONOLOGY OF TURKEY
LG
(c) NW
Valley
Aladaglar
M
M
M
M
M
M
?
M
M
M
M
?
?
?
? ?
?
(g) Turkey
Verçenik (Akçar et al., 2008) Valleys of the Kaçkarlar Mountains; Muslu Valley of Mount Dedegöl (Zahno et al., 2006; 2007); Uludağ (Zahno et al., 2009).
Sandıras (APPENDIX B); the Aksu and Üçker Valleys of Mount Erciyes (APPENDIX C); the Hacer Valley, Aladağlar (APPENDIX D); the Kavron (Akçar et al., 2007) and
maximum glaciations is indicated as capital letter M, wherever possible. Vertical gray bars indicate possible range of ages from the Kartal Lake and Northwest Valleys of Mount
Open circles and diamonds indicate the samples from outwash deposits of EH and LH, respectively. g) Comparison of the Late Quaternary glaciations of Turkey. Timing of
moraine age calculations were not plotted. LGM: Last Glacial Maximum (triangles); LG: Late Glacial (squares); EH: Early Holocene (circles); LH: Late Holocene (diamonds).
Mount Sandıras (see Table 1), d) the Aksu and e) Üçker Valleys of Mount Erciyes (see Table 2) and f) the Hacer Valley of Aladağlar (see Table 3). Samples excluded from the
a) Reconstructed air temperatures from the GISP 2 ice core in Greenland (Alley, 2000) and the cosmogenic exposure ages from b) the Kartal Lake and c) Northwest Valleys of
Reconstructed temp. C
-30
Heinrich 2
event
Maximum
Last Glacial
Heinrich 1
event
Younger Dryas
8.2 cold event
(a) GISP 2
Mount Erciyes
M
t
.E
rc i
ye
s
Mt. Sandiras
as
dir
Mt
.S
an
lar
Ala
d
ag
Ka
ç
ka
r
Mt
s.
Mt
.
Age, ka
Ka
rt
a
l
La
NW
ke
V.
V
Ak .
su
V.
Üç
k
er
Ha V.
ce
r
Ka V.
v ro
nV
Ve
.
r
çe
nik
Mu
slu V.
Ulu V.
da
g
De
de
g
ö
Ulu l
da
g
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Age, ka
211
212
Table 1
36
Cl ages of boulders and moraine ages of Mount Sandiras glaciation (from Appendix B)
36
Sample ID
Surface
Cl boulder age
a
Used? b
(ka)
Landform age
c
(ka)
Kartal Lake Valley
SA02-609
SA02-610
SA02-611
A1
22.1
19.6
20.6
±
±
±
3.3
1.0
2.1
1
1
1
20.4 ± 1.3 ext [1.6]
A2
17.2
19.2
21.9
34.7
±
±
±
±
2.9
0.8
0.9
1.3
1
1
1
0
19.6 ± 1.6 ext [1.8]
SA05-616
SA05-616-A
B1
14.8
17.2
±
±
1.2
0.6
1
1
16.5 ± 1.1 ext [1.3]
SA05-613
SA05-617
SA05-617-A
B2
5.1
16.4
16.0
±
±
±
0.3
0.8
0.7
0
1
1
16.2 ± 0.5 ext [0.8]
SA02-612
SA05-618
SA05-618-A
SA05-619
Northwest Valley
a
The uncertainties of boulder ages were given at the 1 sigma level and calculated by
propagation of AMS reported analytical errors on 36Cl/Cl ratio and 20% uncertainty was
assumed for the calculated nucleogenic component. The suffix A of the sample name
indicates the replicates, which were averaged before adding to the moraine age
calculations.
b
Indicates whether or not the boulder age was used for the calculation of landform age; 1:
used, 0: not used.
c
Weighted average of boulder ages with uncertainties, at 1 sigma level, that are based on
boulder-to-boulder variability and with total uncertainties which also include uncertainty
on production rates of 36Cl (in brackets; they should be used when comparing
cosmogenic ages with ages obtained from other dating methods). Type of uncertainity is
also shown; internal (due to the analytical errors), external (due to the spread of data).
The larger of the two is reported.
213
Table 2
36
Cl ages of boulders and moraine ages of Mount Erciyes glaciation (from Appendix C)
36
Sample ID
Surface
Cl boulder age
a
Used? b
(ka)
Landform age
c
(ka)
Aksu Valley
ER01-12
ER01-13
ER01-14
Left lateral
moraine
19.3
11.0
23.1
±
±
±
0.9
0.6
2.0
1
0
1
20.7 ± 1.8
ER01-25
ER01-26
ER01-27
Right lateral
moraine
22.2
16.6
25.3
±
±
±
1.4
0.9
1.2
1
1
1
21.4 ± 2.6 ext [2.9]
ER01-05
ER01-06
ER01-07
Right lateral
moraine
12.7
15.3
6.3
±
±
±
0.8
0.8
0.8
1
1
0
14.1 ± 1.3 ext [1.5]
ER01-15
ER01-16
ER01-17
ER01-18
ER01-22
Right Lateral
moraine
14.0
10.4
21.2
13.1
17.2
±
±
±
±
±
0.7
0.6
0.9
0.6
0.9
1
1
0
1
1
13.7 ± 1.3 ext [1.5]
ER01-23
ER01-24
Left lateral
moraine
8.7
10.6
±
±
0.5
0.6
1
1
9.6 ± 0.9 ext [1.1]
ER01-09
ER01-10
Outwash plain
6.2
9.5
±
±
1.0
0.5
1
1
8.7 ± 1.4 ext [1.5]
ER01-19
ER01-20
ER01-21
Terminal
moraine
3.3
3.9
4.6
±
±
±
0.4
0.6
1.0
1
1
1
3.8 ± 0.4
int
[0.5]
ER01-04
ER01-08
ER01-11
Outwash plain
3.1
2.3
2.0
±
±
±
0.4
0.4
0.2
1
1
1
2.5 ± 0.3
ext
[0.3]
ER01-01
ER01-02
ER01-03
Terminal
moraine
1.0
1.5
0.9
±
±
±
2.8
0.5
0.3
0
1
1
1.2 ± 0.3
ext
[0.3]
ER01-43
ER01-44
ER01-45
ER01-46
Right lateral
moraine
22.8
35.0
21.2
18.1
±
±
±
±
1.0
1.8
1.2
0.6
1
0
1
1
20.4 ± 1.5
ext
[1.8]
ER01-52
ER01-53
ER01-55
ER01-56
ER01-57
Moraine
complex
28.3
15.2
13.5
18.5
7.2
±
±
±
±
±
16.1
1.3
2.2
5.6
5.9
0
1
1
1
0
15.2 ± 2.0
ext
[2.1]
Moraine
complex
11.1
8.1
7.0
8.7
10.1
8.1
8.7
9.9
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.7
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
9.2 ± 0.5
ext
[2.2]
Üçker Valley
ER01-39
ER01-40
ER01-41
ER01-47
ER01-48
ER01-49
ER01-51
ER01-64
ext
[0.7]
a
36
propagation of AMS reported analytical errors on Cl/Cl ratio and 20% uncertainty was
assumed for the calculated nucleogenic component.
b
Indicates whether or not the boulder age was used for the calculation of landform age; 1:
used, 0: not used.
c
Weighted average of boulder ages with uncertainties, at 1 sigma level, that are based on
boulder-to-boulder variability and with total uncertainties which also include uncertainty
36
on production rates of Cl (in brackets; they should be used when comparing
cosmogenic ages with ages obtained from other dating methods). Type of uncertainity is
also shown; internal (due to the analytical errors), external (due to the spread of data).
The larger of the two is reported.
214
Table 3
36
Cl ages of boulders and moraine ages of Aladaglar glaciation (from Appendix C)
36
Sample ID
Surface
Cl boulder age
a
Used? b
(ka)
Landform age
c
(ka)
Hacer valley
AL01-101
AL01-102
AL01-103
A
8.7
8.3
8.7
±
±
±
0.4
0.5
0.5
1
1
1
8.56 ± 0.27 int [0.52]
AL01-113
AL01-114
AL01-116
B
8.2
11.3
6.9
±
±
±
0.4
0.6
0.3
1
1
1
8.75 ± 1.31 ext [1.39]
AL01-118
AL01-119
AL01-120
C
8.3
8.1
9.9
±
±
±
0.4
0.4
0.5
1
1
1
8.77 ± 0.58 ext [0.73]
AL01-127
AL01-128
D
9.3
8.9
±
±
0.5
0.4
1
1
9.06 ± 0.32 int [0.56]
AL01-107
AL01-121
AL01-122
AL01-124
AL01-125
E
9.2
9.3
9.6
9.3
8.6
±
±
±
±
±
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.5
1
1
1
1
1
9.25 ± 0.22 int [0.52]
AL01-108
AL01-110
AL01-111
F
9.3
10.1
9.3
±
±
±
0.3
0.5
0.5
1
1
1
9.54 ± 0.28 int [0.56]
AL05-172
AL05-173
AL05-174
G
10.0
10.2
10.4
±
±
±
0.3
0.2
0.3
1
1
1
10.21 ± 0.16 int [0.55]
a
propagation of AMS reported analytical errors on 36Cl/Cl ratio and 20% uncertainty was
assumed for the calculated nucleogenic component.
b
Indicates whether or not the boulder age was used for the calculation of landform age;
1: used. All boulder ages are used
c
Weighted average of boulder ages with uncertainties, at 1 sigma level, that are based
on boulder-to-boulder variability and with total uncertainties which also include
uncertainty on production rates of 36Cl (in brackets; they should be used when
comparing cosmogenic ages with ages obtained from other dating methods). Type of
uncertainity is also shown; internal (due to the analytical errors), external (due to the
spread of data). The larger of the two is reported.
215
References
Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schlüchter, C., 2007.
Paleoglacial records from Kavron Valley, NE Turkey: Field and cosmogenic
exposure dating evidence. Quaternary International 164-165, 170-183.
Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schlüchter, C., 2008. A
case for a downwasting mountain glacier during Termination I, Verçenik valley,
northeastern Turkey. Journal of Quaternary Science 23 (3), 273-285.
Alley, R.B., 2000. The Younger Dryas cold interval as viewed from central Greenland.
Zahno, C., Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schlüchter, C.,
2006. Surface exposure dating of Quaternary palaeoglacial records from Anatolia.
4th Swiss Geoscience Meeting, Bern.
Zahno, C., Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Kubik, P., Schluchter, C., 2007. Determination of
cosmogenic surface ages of paleoglaciers of southwest Anatolia and paleoclimatic
interpretations (in Turkish). VI. Quaternary workshop of Turkey, Istanbul
Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Zahno, C., Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Kubik, P.W. and Schlüchter, C., 2009. Late Pleistocene
Glaciations at the Uludağ Mountain. 62nd Geological Conference of Turkey.
Ankara, Turkey.
216
APPENDIX G
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF TURKISH GLACIERS AND GLACIATED MOUNTAINS
217
Map shows digital elevation model and locations of glaciers and glaciated mountains of
Turkey. Stars indicate those mountains that have recent glaciers. Numbers are given from
west to east.
(1) Mount Sandıras
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Location, decimal degrees (Latitude oN-Longitude oE)
Highest peak elevation, meters
Name of glacier valleys
Number of recent glacier(s)
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
Type of glacial deposits
Chronology of past glaciation(s)
Çiçekbaba or Sandras
Southwest Turkey
Western Taurus
Gölgeli Dağları
Çiçekbaba
37.1 oN-28.8 oE
2295
Kartal Lake
Middle
Northwest
None
3000-3500
Terminal and hummocky moraines
in Kartal Lake Valley (cosmogenic
36
Cl)
LGM*: 20.4±1.3 ka ago and
19.6±1.6 ka ago
218
LGM ELA, meters
in Northwest Valley (cosmogenic
36
Cl)
Late Glacial*: 16.5±1.1 ka ago and
16.2±0.5 ka ago
2000
References
*Sarıkaya, M.A., Zreda, M., Çiner, A., Zweck, C., 2008, Cold and wet Last Glacial Maximum on
Mount Sandıras, SW Turkey, inferred from cosmogenic dating and glacier modeling,
Doğu, A.F., 1993. Glacier shapes on the Mount Sandıras (in Turkish). Turkish Geography
Bulletin, Ankara University 2, 263-274.
Messerli, B., 1967. The glacial and the present glacial stage in Mediterranean (in German).
Geographica Helvetica 22, 105-228.
de Planhol, X., 1953. Glacial forms in Sandras Dağ and the limits of quaternary snow line in SW
Anatolia (in French). Compte Rendu Sommaire de la Societe Geologique de France, 263265.
Philippson, A., 1915. Travel and research in western Asia Minor (in German). Gotha, Petermanns
Geigr. Mitteilungen Heft 1-5, 167-183.
(2) Uludağ
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
Keşişdağ
Northwest Turkey
Independent
Uludağ
Kartaltepe
40.1 oN-29.2 oE
2543
Çayırlı
Kilimli
Karagöl
Aynalı and six unnamed
None
3000-3500
Terminal moraines
LGM*: before 20.3 ka ago
Late Glacial*: before 16.1 ka ago,
13.3 ka ago and 11.5 ka ago
2200-2330
219
References
*Zahno, C., Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Kubik, P. W., Schlüchter, C., 2009. Late Pleistocene
Glaciations at the Uludağ Mountain. 62th Geological Conference of Turkey. 13-17 April
2009, Ankara, Turkey.
Atalay, I., 1987. Introduction to geomorphology of Turkey (in Turkish), 2nd Edition. Ege
University press, İzmir, Turkey.
Birman, J.H., 1968. Glacial reconnaissance in Turkey. Geological Society of America Bulletin
79, 1009-1026.
Erinç, S., 1949. Research on glacial morphology of Mount Uludağ (in Turkish). Review of the
Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 11-12, 79-94.
Louis, H.L., 1944. Evidence for Pleistocene glaciation in Anatolia (in German). Geologische
Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481.
(3) Mount Honaz
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
Southwest Turkey
Western Taurus
Honaz
Honaz
37.7 oN-29.3 oE
2571
Northern Valley
None
3600
Terminal moraines
2600
Erinç, S., 1957. About glacial evidences of Honaz and Bozdağ (in Turkish). Turkish Geography
Bulletin 8, 106-107.
220
Erinç, S., 1955. Periglacial features on the Mount Honaz (SW Anatolia) (in Turkish). Review of
the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 2, 185-187.
Yalçınlar, İ., 1955. Morphological studies on glaciation of Honaz-Dag and the chain of Boz-Dag
(western Turkey) (in French). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of
Istanbul 2, 45-55.
Darkot, B., Erinç, S., 1954. Geographical observations in the south-west of Anatolia (in French).
Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 1, 149-167.
Yalçınlar, İ., 1954. On the presence of the Quaternary glacial forms on Honaz Dag-and-Boz Dag
(western Turkey) (in French). Compte Rendu Sommaire de la Société Géologique de
France 13, 296-298.
(4) Akdağ
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
Southwest Turkey
Western Taurus
Akdağ
Uyluktepe
36.6 oN-29.6 oE
3016
None
3500
Terminal moraines
2200-2400
Doğu, A.F., Çiçek, İ., Gürgen, G., Tuncel H., 1996. Geomorphology of Akdağ and its effect on
human activities (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin, Ankara University 7, 95-120.
Onde, H., 1954. Forms of glaciers in the Lycien Massif of Akdağ (southwest Turkey) (in French).
Conrés Géologique International 15, 327-335.
de Planhol, X., 1953. Glacial forms in Sandras Dag and the limits of quaternary snow line in SW
Anatolia (in French). Compte Rendu Sommaire de la Societe Geologique de France, 263265.
Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481.
221
(5) Beydağ
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
Southwest Turkey
Western Taurus
Beydağ
36.6 oN-30.2 oE
3086
None
3600
Terminal moraines
2400-2600
Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481.
(6) Mount Barla
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
Southwest Turkey
Central Taurus
Barla
Gelincik
38.1 oN-30.7 oE
2800
Northern Valley
None
3750
Lateral and terminal moraines
2400
222
References
Ardos, M., 1977. Geomorphology and Pleistocene glaciation of Mount Barla and surrounding (in
Turkish). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 20-21, 151168.
Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481.
(7) Mount Davraz
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
Davras
Southwest Turkey
Central Taurus
Davraz
37.6 oN-30.8 oE
2637
None
3750
Terminal moraines
2400
Ardos, M., 1977. Geomorphology and Pleistocene glaciation of Mount Barla and surrounding (in
Turkish). Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 20-21, 151168.
Monod, O., 1977. Geological research in the Western Taurides south of Beyşehir, Turkey (in
French). Unpublished thesis, University of Paris, 442 pp.
(8) Mount Dedegöl
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Southwest Turkey
Central Taurus
223
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
Dedegöl
Dipoyraz
37.6 oN-31.3 oE
2997
A few small glaciers?
3300-3500
(cosmogenic 10Be)
LGM*: between 26 and 19 ka ago
2350-2400
References
*Zahno, C., Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Kubik, P., Schluchter, C., 2007. Determination of cosmogenic
surface ages of paleoglaciers of southwest Anatolia and paleoclimatic interpretations (in
Turkish). VI. Quaternary workshop of Turkey, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul,
Turkey.
Delannoy, J.J., Maire, R., 1983. Dedegöl massif, Western Taurus, Turkey (in French).
Recherches de géomorphologie glaciaiere et karstique. Bulletin de l’Association de
Géographie Française 491, 43-53.
Monod, O., 1977. Geological research in the Western Taurides south of Beyşehir, Turkey (in
French). Unpublished thesis, University of Paris, 442 pp.
(9) Geyikdağ
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
South central Turkey
Central Taurus
Geyikdağ
36.8 oN-32.2 oE
2850
Namaras
Susam
None
-
224
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
3200
Lateral, terminal and hummocky
2000
References
Çiner, A., Deynoux, M., Çörekçioğlu, E., 1999. Hummocky moraines in the Namaras and Susam
Valleys, Central Taurids, SW Turkey. Quaternary Scicence Reviews 18, 659-669.
Arpat, E., Özgul., N., 1972. Rock glaciers around Geyikdağ, Central Taurids (in Turkish).
Bulletin of the Mineral Research and Exploration, Ankara 80, 30-35.
(10) Mount Ilgaz
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
North central Turkey
Ilgaz
Ilgaz
41.1 oN-33.9 oE
2587
?
None
3500
?
?
Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481.
(11) Bolkardağ
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Bolkarlar
Central Taurus
Bolkar
Medetsiz
37.4 oN-34.6 oE
3524
225
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
Maden
Karagöl
Ganimet
Gökoluk
A few small glaciers?
3450-3700
1900-2075 (north face)
2200-2000 (south face)
References
Altın, B.N., Altın, T., 2007. Distribution and effect of glacial morphology in Bolkardağ. V.
Quaternary workshop of Turkey, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Kurter, A., 1991. Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey, In: Williams, R.S.,
Ferrigno, J.G., (Eds.), Satellite Image Atlas of the World. USGS Professional Paper
1386-G-1, pp. 1-30.
Kurter, A., Sungur, K., 1980. Present glaciation in Turkey. In: World Glacier Inventory,
International Association of Hydrological Sciences 126, Switzerland, pp. 155-160.
Klaer, W., 1969. Glacia-morphological problems in the near east high mountains. Erdkunde 23, 3,
192-200.
79, 1009-1026.
Blumenthal, M.M., 1956. Geology of northern and western Bolkardağ region (in Turkish).
Bulletin of the Mineral Research and Exploration, Ankara 7, 153 pp.
Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481.
(12) Aladağlar
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Central Taurus
Aladağ
Demirkazık
226
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
37.8 oN-35.2 oE
3756
Hacer
Maden
Körmenlik
Susuz
Emli and many others
1?
Lolut?
3450
Terminal moraines
in Hacer Valley (cosmogenic 36Cl)
Early Holocene*: Between 8.6±0.3
and 10.2±0.2 ka ago
2200-1900
References
*Zreda, M., Çiner, A., Sarıkaya, M.A., Zweck, C., Bayarı, S., 2009. Remarkably extensive early
Holocene glaciation in Turkey. (In revision).
Bayarı, S., Zreda, M., Çiner, A., Nazik, L., Törk, K., Özyurt, N., Klimchouk, A. and Sarıkaya,
M.A., 2003. The Extent of Pleistocene ice cap, glacial deposits and glaciokarst in the
Aladaglar Massif: central Taurids Range, southern Turkey, Proceedings of XVI INQUA
Congress, p. 144-145.
1386-G-1, pp. 1-30.
Tekeli, O., Aksay, A., Ürgün, B.M., and Işık, A., 1984. Geology of the Aladağ Mountains, in
Tekeli, O., and Göncüglu, M.C., eds., The Geology of the Taurus Belt: Ankara, MTA
Publications, p. 143-158.
Spreitzer, H., 1971, Recent glacier, limits of glacial and periglacials in Central Taurus
(primarily the example of the Cilician Ala Dag) (in German). Mitteilungen des
Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereines für Steiermark, 101, 139-162.
Klaer, W., 1962. Investigations on climate genetic geomorphology in the high mountains of Asia
front (in German): Heidelberg, Kayserschen Verlagsbuchhandlung, 135 p.
Spreitzer, H., 1958, Past and recent high levels of the glaciers of the Cilician Ala Dağ in
the Taurus (in German). Innsbruck, Geographische Forschungen, 190, 265-281.
227
Spreitzer, H., 1956. Investigations in Cilician Ala Dağ in the Taurus (in German).
Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Geographischen Gesellschaft, 98, 1, 57-64.
Blumenthal, M. M., 1952. The high mountains of Taurids Aladağ, recent research on its
geography, stratigraphy and tectonics (in German). Bulletin of the Mineral Research
and Exploration, 6, 136p.
(13) Mount Erciyes
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
Central Turkey
Independent volcano
Erciyes
Büyük Erciyes
38.5 oN-35.4 oE
3917
Aksu
Üçker
Öksüzdere
Topaktaş
Saraycık
1 (and 1 rock glacier)
Aksu
Valley
0.06
0.26
3550
Lateral, terminal and hummocky
moraines, Outwash deposits
in Aksu Valley* (cosmogenic 36Cl)
LGM: 21.9±1.1 ka ago
Late Glacial: 14.1±1.3 ka ago
Early Holocene: 9.6±0.9 ka ago
Late Holocene: 3.8±0.4 ka ago
in Üçker Valley* (cosmogenic 36Cl)
LGM: 20.4±1.5 ka ago
Late Glacial: 15.2±2.0 ka ago
Early Holocene: 9.2±0.5 ka ago
2700 (north face)
3000 (south face)
References
*Sarıkaya, M.A., Zreda, M., Çiner, A., 2009. Glaciations and paleoclimate of Mount Erciyes,
central Turkey, since the Last Glacial Maximum, inferred from 36Cl cosmogenic dating
and modeling. Quaternary Science Reviews (accepted).
228
Sarıkaya, M.A., Çiner, A., Zreda, M., 2003. Late Quaternary glacial deposits of the Erciyes
Volcano (in Turkish), Yerbilimleri 27, 59-74.
1386-G-1, pp. 1-30.
Güner, Y., Emre, Ö., 1983. Pleistocene glaciation on Mount Erciyes and its relation to volcanism.
Bulletin of Geomorphology 11, 23-34 (in Turkish).
79, 1009-1026.
Messerli., B., 1964. The glacier at Erciyes Dagh and the problem of the recent snow line in the
Anatolian and Mediterranean Area. Geographica Helvetica 19 (1), 19-34.
Klaer, W., 1962. Investigations on climate genetic geomorphology in the high mountains of Asia
front (in German): Heidelberg, Kayserschen Verlagsbuchhandlung, 135 p.
Erinç, S., 1952. Glacial evidences of the climatic variations in Turkey. Geografiska Annaler 34,
89-98.
Erinç, S., 1951. The glacier of Erciyes in Pleistocene and Post-glacial epoch. Review of the
Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 1 (2), 82-90 (in Turkish).
Blumenthal, M. M., 1938, Mount Erciyes, 3916m (in German). Die Alpen, 14, 3, 82-87.
Bartsch, G., 1935. The area of Erciyes Daği and the city of Kayseri in central Anatolia. Jahrbuch
der geographischen Gesellschaft zu Hannover für 1934 und 1935, 87-202.
Bartsch, G., 1930, Preliminary report on a trip to Central Anatolia (in German). Jahrbuch der
Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Hannover.
Philippson, A., 1906. A glacier at the Erdsehias-Dagh (Argaeus) in small Asia (in German).
Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde Eiszeitforschung und Geschichte des Klimas. Annales de
glaciologie 1 (1), 66-68.
Penther, A., 1905. A journey into the territory of the Erdschias Dagh (Asia Minor) 1902 (in
German). Abhandlungen der k.k. Geographischen gesellschaft in Wien 6 (1).
Ainsworth W.F. 1842. Travels and researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea and
Armenia. J.W. Parker, London.
229
(14) Mount Soğanlı
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
Cosmogenic Chronology of past glaciation(s)
LGM ELA, meters
References
Central Turkey
Central Taurus
Tahtalı
Akdağ
38.4 oN-36.2 oE
2967
Dökülgen
Aygörmez
3550
2610
Ege, İ., Tonbul., S., 2005. The relationship of karstification and glaciation in Soğanlı Mountain
(in Turkish). V. Quaternary workshop of Turkey, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul,
Turkey.
(15) Mount Karagöl
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
Northeast Turkey
Western Pontics
Karagöl
40.5 oN-38.2 oE
3107
Karagöl
Yedigöz
Artabil
Few small glaciers
Cirque
0.08
0.4
2900
Terminal moraines
2600-2700
230
References
1386-G-1, pp. 1-30.
de Planhol, X., Bilgin, T., 1964. Periglacial, Quaternary glacier and current massive of Karagöl
(Pontic mountains, Turkey) (in French). Revue de Géographie Alpine, 497-512.
Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481.
Palgrave, W.G., 1872, Vestiges of the glacial period in northeastern Anatolia. Nature, 5, 444-445.
(16) Karadağ
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
Northeast Turkey
Western Pontics
Gavur
Aptalmusa
40.4 oN-39.1 oE
3331
1
Avliyana
Cirque
0.045
0.15
3500
Terminal and hummocky moraines
2600-2850
1386-G-1, pp. 1-30.
(17) Mount Mercan
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Northeast Turkey
Munzur Mountains
231
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
Mercan
Gedik
39.5 oN-39.2 oE
3368
3600-3700
Terminal and ground moraines
2750
Türkünal, S., 1990. Mountain chains and mountains of Turkey (in Turkish). Bulletin of the
Chamber of Geological Engineers of Turkey. 30, 42 pp.
Bilgin, T., 1972. Glacial and periglacial morphology of Eastern Munzur mountains (in Turkish).
Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 1757, 69
(18) Mount Keşiş
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
Mount Esence
Northeast Turkey
Independent
Keşiş
39.8 oN-39.8 oE
3477
Yaylalar
Peyler
3600-3700
Lateral and ground moraines
2750
232
References
Akkan, E., Tunçel, M., 1993. Glacial shapes on Esence (Keşiş) mountains (in Turkish). Turkish
Geography Bulletin, Ankara University 2, 225-240.
Rundschau 34 (7-8), 447-481.
(19) Kaçkar Mountains
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
Eastern Blacksea Mountains
Northeast Turkey
Eastern Pontics
Kaçkar
Hunut
Üçdoruk
Altıparmak
Bulut
Soğanlı
Kaçkar
40.9 oN-41.2 oE
3932
Kavron
Göller
Verçenik
Lazgediği
Kindevul
At and many others
5
Kaçkar I
Kaçkar II
Kaçkar III
Krenek
Dübe
Valley and Cirque
<1
<1
3100-3200 on north face
3550 on south face
Lateral, terminal, hummocky and
ground moraines
in Kavron Valley (cosmogenic 10Be)
LGM*: between 26.0±1.2 ka and
18.3±0.9 ka ago
Late Glacial*: between 13.0±0.8 ka
and 11.5±0.8 ka ago
in Verçenik Valley (cosmogenic10Be)
233
LGM ELA, meters
LGM**: 26.1±1.2 ka and 18.8±1.0
ka ago
2300-2500 on north face
2600-2700 on south face
References
**Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schluchter, C., 2008. A case for
a downwasting mountain glacier during Termination I, Verçenik valley, northeastern
Turkey. Journal of Quaternary Science 23 (3), 273-285.
*Akçar, N., Yavuz, V., Ivy-Ochs, S., Kubik, P.W., Vardar, M., Schluchter, C., 2007. Paleoglacial
records from Kavron Valley, NE Turkey: Field and cosmogenic exposure dating
evidence. Quaternary International 164-165, 170-183.
Gürgen, G., 2003. Glacial morphology of North of Çapans Mountains (Rize) (in Turkish). Gazi
University Education Faculty Journal 23, 159-175.
Doğu, A.F., Çiçek, İ., Gürgen, G., Tuncel, H., 1996. Glacier shapes, yaylas and tourism on the
Mount Üçdoruk (Verçenik) (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin, Ankara University
5, 29-51.
Doğu, A.F., Çiçek, İ., Gürgen, G.,Tuncel, H., Somuncu, M., 1994. Glacial shapes, yaylas and
tourism on the Göller (Hunut) Mountain (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin,
Ankara University 3.
Doğu, A.F., Somuncu, M., Çiçek, İ., Tuncel, H., Gürgen, G., 1993. Glacier shapes, yaylas and
tourism on the Kaçkar Mountains (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin, Ankara
University 157–183.
79, 1009-1026.
Gall, H., 1966. Glaciation observations in Lasistan mountains (North Anatolian Ranges) (in
German). Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Geographischen Gesellschaft 108 (2-3), 262286.
89-98.
Yalçınlar, İ., 1951. Glaciations on the Soğanlı-Kaçkar mountains and Mescid Dağ (in French).
Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 1-2, 50-55.
234
Erinç, S., 1949. Past and present glacial forms in Northeast Anatolian mountains (in German).
Geologische Rundschau 37, 75-83.
Leutelt, R., 1935. Glacio-geological observations in Lasistan Mountains (in German). Zeitschrift
für Gletscherkunde 23, 67-80.
Krenek, W., 1932. Glaciers in Pontic Mountains (in German). Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 20
(1-3), 129-131.
Stratil-Sauer, G., 1927. The Eastern Pontus (in German). Geographische Zeitschrift 4, 105-111.
(20) Mount Mescid
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
Mescit
Northeast Turkey
Independent
Mescid
Mescid
40.4 oN-41.3 oE
3239
3600-3700
Moraines
2750
Atalay, İ., 1984. Glacial morphology of Mount Mescit (in Turkish). Ege Geography Bulletin 2,
129-138.
Yalçınlar, İ., 1951. Glaciations on the Soğanlı-Kaçkar mountains and Mescid Dağ (in French).
Review of the Geographical Institute of the University of Istanbul 1-2, 50-55.
(21) Mount Süphan
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
East Turkey
Independent volcano
Süphan
Sandık
38.9 oN-42.8 oE
235
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
4058
Crater
A few
Hızır and unnamed
Valley
3
1.5
3700-4000
Terminal moraines
-
Yavaşlı, D.D., Ölgen, M.K., 2008. Recent glacier change in Mount Süphan using remote sensing
and meteorological data. Third international Balwois - Water observation and
information system for decision for Balkan countries conference, Ohrid, Republic of
Macedonia, 27-31 May 2008.
Deniz, O., Doğu, A.F., Yıldız, M.Z., Saraçoğlu, H., Kerimov, G., 2003. Glacial morpholog of
Süphan Dağ and its tourism potential (in Turkish). First international geography
workshop on “Anatolian and Caucasian high mountains from Pleistocene to modern”, 1013 June 2003, Van.
1386-G-1, pp. 1-30.
(22) Mount Hasanbeşir
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
Kavuşşahap
Southeast Turkey
Eastern Taurus
Kavuşşahap
Hasanbeşir
38.2 oN-42.9 oE
3503
Northwest
1
Northwest
Mountain
0.06
0.3
3400
Terminal moraines
-
236
References
1386-G-1, pp. 1-30.
Klaer, W., 1965. Geomorphological investigations of Van Lake mountain ranges (East Anatolia)
(in German). Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, N.F. 9 (3), 346-355.
Schweizer, G., 1972. Climatic and geomorphological evidence of glaciations on the high-front
region of Asian mountain range (Iran and East Anatolia) (in German). In: Geoecology of
the high mountain regions of Eurasia. Erdwissenschaftliche Forschung 4, 221-236.
(23) Balık Gölü
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
East Turkey
A lake west of Mount Ağrı
39.9 oN-43.6 oE
2804
Balık Gölü
4300
Terminal moraines
-
79, 1009-1026.
(24) Mount Cilo
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Buzuldağ
Southeast Turkey
Western Taurus
Cilo
Uludoruk (Reşko)
37.5 oN-44 oE
237
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
4135
Uludoruk (Mia Hvara)
Beyazsu
Erinç (Suppa Durak)
İzbırak (Gelyasin)
and many unnamed
9
Uludoruk (Mia Hvara) East
Uludoruk (Mia Hvara) Middle
Uludoruk (Mia Hvara) West
Erinç (Suppa Durak)
İzbırak (Gelyasin)
Poyraz
and 3 unnamed
Valley to cirque
<4
< 1.5
3600
2600-2800
1386-G-1, pp. 1-30.
Altınlı, İ.E., 1966. Geology of eastern and southeastern Anatolia, Bulletin of Minerals Research
and Exploration Institute of Turkey 66, 35-76.
Wright, H.E., 1962. Pleistocene glaciation in Kurdistan. Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart 12, 131-164.
Erinç, S., 1953. From Van to Mount Cilo (in Turkish). Turkish Geography Bulletin, Ankara
University 3 - 4, 84 - 106.
89-98.
İzbırak, R., 1951. Geographical research in Lake Van and in the Hakkari and Cilo Mountains (in
Turkish). Turkish Geographical Bulletin, Ankara University 67 (4), 149 pp.
Maunsell, F.R., 1901. Central Kurdistan. The Geographical Journal 18 (2), 121-141.
238
Bobek, H., 1940. Recent and Ice time glaciations in central Kurdish high mountains (in German).
Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde 27 (1-2), 50-87.
Ainsworth W.F. 1842. Travels and researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea and
Armenia. J.W. Parker, London.
(25) Mount Sat
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
Mount İkiyaka or Dolampar
Southeast Turkey
Western Taurus
Sat
Dolampar
37.4 oN-44.3 oE
3794
1
Geverok
Unnamed
Valley
< 0.8
<1
3500
Terminal moraines
2600
1386-G-1, pp. 1-30.
(26) Mount Ağrı
Also known as
Region
Mountain range name
Mountain name
Highest peak name
Ararat
East Turkey
Independent volcano
Ağrı
Büyük Ağrı
39.7 oN-44.3 oE
5165
239
Glacier name(s)
Type of glacier(s)
Area, km2
Length, km
Recent ELA, meters
LGM ELA, meters
References
Several
Ice cap and outlet
< 10
<3
4300
Terminal moraines
3000
1386-G-1, pp. 1-30.
79, 1009-1026.
Blumenthal, M.M., 1958. From Mount Ağrı (Ararat) to Mount Kaçkar (in German). Bergfahrten
in nordostanatolsischen Glenzlanden. Die Alpen 34, 125-137.
Blumenthal, M.M., 1956. Glaciations of Ararat (Northeast Turkey) (in German). Geographica
Helvetica 11 (4), 263-264.
240
APPENDIX H
SAMPLE PREPARATION PROCEDURES FOR MEASUREMENTS OF
COSMOGENIC 36Cl IN ROCKS BY ACCELERATED MASS SPECTROMETRY
Note: The electronic files mentioned in this appendix
AgeCalculator.xls
SpikeCalculator.xls
are given in the Supplementary CD attached to this dissertation.
241
ROCK SAMPLES FROM THE FIELD
PRETREATMENT
- Crushing
- Grinding
- Sieving
LEACHING
Leach silicates in 5% nitric acid overnight
Leach carbonates in milliQ water overnight
-
POWDERING
3 vials from each sample
1) For whole rock chemistry and other analysis
2) For total chlorine determination
3) For spare. Keep at a safe and dry place
SEND TO
WHOLE ROCK
CHEMISTRY
LAB
TOTAL CHLORINE
DETERMINATION
SPIKE CALCULATIONS
-
DISSOLUTION OF SAMPLES
(BOMB COOKING)
Silicate samples; 6 hours in 130oC oven
Carbonate samples; 3 hours at room temp
CHLORINE EXTRACTION
SEND TO AMS LAB
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1. GENERAL CLEANING PROCEDURES
There are designated areas in the laboratory for equipments at various stages of
cleanliness. Fallowing proper procedures is essential to making sure no problems occur.
Right after the usage of laboratory utensils, remove any labels, rinse them at least 3 times
with tap water to prevent the samples dry inside. Don’t discard any chemicals to the
sinks; place them in to the specific containers. Don’t pour samples, or crushed rocks into
the sinks. Be careful with the open containers, acids and plugged in equipments. Fallow
common laboratory safety rules all the time. Always recycle items such as aluminum
foils, broken glass into the specific containers. Laboratory should be tidy and clean.
Follow Figure 1 for cleaning laboratory dishes;
DIRTY
Wash with
soap
Rinse
with
MQ
Rinse with
NH4OH
Rinse
with
MQ
Rinse with
HNO3
CLEAN
Figure 1: The flowchart for cleaning procedures
Washing with soap
First, wash all laboratory glassware and teflon dishes with soap (Alconox-detergent
powder) and sponge or scrubber. It is important to make sure that all teflon dishes are
cleaned only using sponge, so they are not scratched! If they are scratched from inside,
samples can be trapped on them. Glass beakers can be cleaned using scrubber, glass
bottles and test tubes can be cleaned using approximate sized test tube cleaning brush.
Make sure to thoroughly scrub the rims, bottoms and inside of utensils, so that there are
no samples left. Since no brush will clean inside pipettes, 5% nitric acid (HNO3) should
be sprayed inside.
243
After washing all material with soap under the running tap water, rinse them 3 times with
milliQ water, and place them on a clean towel to let them dry.
How to use MilliQ water dispenser
(Barnstead Nanopure ultrapure water system Model # D4741)
- Press on/off button to change from SBY (Stand by).
- Wait until the MΩ-cm is about 18.0
- Turn on the hose. Fill the milliQ water container. Use milliQ water only
from that container.
- Press on/off button to turn to SBY. It can be shut off, if you are not
planning to use for a long time (weeks, or months).
Rinsing with ammonium hydroxide
Next, clean with ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). Use from the cleaning bottle of
NH4OH. It can be used several times. It smells bad, and vapors are toxic. This should be
done under the hood. Beakers and bottles may be filled with NH4OH while test tubes and
pipettes should be immersed in the bucket of cleaning NH4OH.
Rinse with milliQ water 3 times. Don’t use tap water at this stage. Place on a clean towel
in the specified place. Let it dry.
Rinsing with nitric acid
Boil some HNO3. It can be used several times. Vapors are toxic. This should be done
under the hood. Rinse the same way as with the NH4OH. Let acid be in contact with
cleaned surfaces for 2 minutes.
Rinse with milliQ water 3 times. Place on a clean towel in the specified place. Let it dry.
When it is dry, put them into the proper shelves to be used for the next time.
244
2. PRETREATMENT
This section describes the physical pretreatment stages of target sample preparation. The
aim of the pretreatment is to reduce the sample grain size to an appropriate size and to
maximize the yield of desired grain size. Samples are first brushed to remove undesirable
organics, carbonates, and dust. If the samples were not reduced in size in the field, they
can be broken into fragments suitable for crushing in the lab. Then, samples are crushed,
ground and sieved (Figure 2).
Samples
from the
field
Crushing
Grinding
Sieving
Samples
ready for
leaching
Figure 2: The flowchart for pretreatment of samples
2.1 Crushing
Use a jaw crusher for crushing the rocks. The feeding size of the crusher is ~5 cm and
output size is ~1 cm. First, install the crushing plates. Clean all parts of the crusher
including the collection tray with compressed air gun. The machine must be clean from
sand size material before and after the crushing in order to prevent the cross
contamination. Place the collection tray, and turn on the machine. Always wear ear and
eye protection as well as dust mask when operating the jaw crusher. Begin feeding
chunks of rocks into the jaws. This machine occasionally throws out rock fragments from
the jaws, so hold a wood plate cover on the jaw opening. When all the rock crushed, all
of the sample in the collection tray should be approximately 1 cm in diameter. Turn off
the machine. Pour the crushed sample back into the original sample bag. Clean the
crusher thoroughly before starting the next sample.
245
2.2 Grinding
Use a grinding machine. Start with bolting the grinding plates to the appropriate places
on the grinder. When bolting the plates make sure that it is aligned with the rotating
wheel. The gap between the plates determines the output size of the grinder. Thus, setting
the gap is very important not to lose samples as finely grained. Place the sampling tray.
Close the rotating plate doors, wear eye, ear, and respiratory protection, and start the
grinder. Pour the crushed sample slowly into the feeder. If the machine jams, turn the
power off, clear the jam and resume. After grinding some of the sample, look at the
results. If there are too much coarse grain sample, or if it is over-pulverized, then readjust
the grinding plate gap. When finished crushing the sample, pour the sample back into the
original bag and clean the machine thoroughly before loading the next sample. Brush the
grinding plates and interior surfaces with the stiff wire brush. Make sure there are no
particles left around the plates. Blow compressed air to grinding plates and into the
sample tray.
2.3 Sieving
Assemble a stack of sieves as follows: pan at the bottom, a 0.3 mm opening sieve (300
micron) on top of the pan and then a 1 mm opening sieve, and a lid on the top. Pour the
grinded sample into the uppermost sieve. Shake it by your hands, or use a shaker, with
circular motions. Label a new clean bag with the sample name, “un-leached”, and the
grain-size fractions (0.3 – 1 mm). Dump the contents of sieve 0.3 mm into the bag.
Repeat until the entire sample has been sieved. Clean the sieves thoroughly before
sieving the next sample. Clean them by brushing the mesh with a brass brush.
246
3. LEACHING
Before leaching the samples, make sure to know the lithologies of the rocks. Silicate and
carbonate rocks have different leaching procedures. An easy way to identify carbonate
rocks is placing a drop of 5% HNO3 on to the rock. If it reacts vigorously, it is a
carbonate.
3.1 Leaching Silicates
1) Obtain a clean 1 liter glass beaker.
2) Label the beaker on side and on the bottom with the sample name using a
permanent marker.
3) Pour in crushed samples.
4) Rinse with milliQ water stir with glass sticks until the water is clear. Prevent
pouring off the samples to the sink. Pour off water as much as you can.
5) Pour 5% HNO3 until it submerges all the samples and cover the top of the beaker
with aluminum foil.
6) Let stand overnight (~12 h).
7) Pour out HNO3 into the waste container.
8) Rinse thoroughly with milliQ water, check acidity with pH paper. If it is neutral,
pour out water as much as you can.
9) Place in a laboratory oven at 90oC degrees Celsius overnight (~12 h).
10) Place the dry, clean, leached sample in a new bag labeled as fallows; Sample
name, “5% HNO3 leached”, grain size fraction (“0.3-1 mm”).
247
How to prepare 5% HNO3
1) Use this formula to dilute chemicals
V1.C1=V2.C2
Where; V1: initial volume (or mass), C1: initial concentration, V2: final volume
(or mass) (the sum of initial volume (or mass), V1 and the volume (or mass) of
added milliQ water), C2: final concentration
2) For example: To make 2.5 liter of 5% HNO3, mix ~180 ml 70% HNO3
with enough milliQ water (~2320 ml) to make 2.5 liter solution.
3.2 Leaching Carbonates
1) Obtain a clean 1 liter glass beaker.
2) Label the beaker on side and on the bottom with the sample name using a
permanent marker.
3) Pour in crushed samples.
4) Rinse with milliQ water stir with glass sticks until the water is clear. Prevent
pouring off the samples to the sink. Pour off water as much as you can.
5) Pour milliQ water until it submerges all the samples and cover the top of the
beaker with aluminum foil.
6) Let stand overnight (~12 h).
7) Pour out the water.
8) Rinse thoroughly with milliQ water, pour out water as much as you can.
9) Place in a laboratory oven at 90oC degrees Celsius overnight (~12 h).
10) Place the dry, clean, leached sample in a new bag labeled as fallows; Sample
name, “milliQ water leached”, grain size fraction (“0.3-1 mm”).
248
How to use the laboratory oven
(Thelco Laboratory Oven, Model # 130DM)
1) Press on/off button. Actual temp shows the temperature inside the oven.
2) Press TEMP button one time. Using the arrows, set the desired temperature
and press SET button. This is your desired temperature.
3) Press TIMER button to set the time. Using arrows enter the desired time in
hours and press START/STOP button. If you want to heat the oven
continuously, press the TIMER button again.
4. POWDERING
Samples and equipment need to be kept extremely clean at this stage, because of the high
potential for cross contamination during powdering. Nothing should be handled with bare
hands. Tweezers should be used to handle things in direct contact with samples. Only
materials that will not be in direct contact with sample may be touched with gloves.
Cleaning the powdering equipment
1) Wash inside of the vessels, the steel balls with soap and scrub with rough scrub
sponge until the balls shine. Rinse with tap water. Note: you may touch with
gloves at this step. 5% HNO3 rinsed tweezers should be used after this step to
handle things in direct contact with samples.
2) Rinse balls, inside of the vessels with 5% HNO3.
3) Final rinse everything with milliQ at least 3 times and place in a glass dish lined
with Kim-Wipes.
4) Using Kim-Wipes, wipe the equipment dry. Use tweezers to hold Kim-Wipes and
wipe the excess water out of inside of vessels.
5) Put vessels and balls in the oven and let them completely dry at 90oC for about 10
minutes
249
Powdering
1) Place one steel ball in each large side vessels. Pour leached sample until the balls
are immersed. Place the other ball on top of the samples. Place the other end of
the vessels. Make sure that the two vessels match (either Right or Left).
2) Make sure that you keep track of what sample goes in each vessel. Take a piece of
paper and make two columns with Left and Right headers. Write sample number
under the each column. This prevent of mixing sample numbers when you are
opening the vessels.
3) Tape the rim of the opening of the vessels. This will prevent of spilling samples
while crushing or incase of accidental drop of the vessels.
4) Insert vessels in powdering machine. Place right vessel on right, and the left
vessel on left. Crank first outer dials and then inner dials to hold vessels in place
as tight as possible to prevent vessels from coming loose during shaking.
5) Powdering machine should always run with approximately two equal weight
vessels. Never run just one.
6) Close safety lid and press timer button. If appropriate time and power set, press
start.
Appropriate timer and power sets for powdering
(Retsch Mill, Model #MM 2000)
Carbonates: 10 min @ power 80
Silicates: 5 min @ power 70
Collecting samples
7) Label 3 new 5 ml glass vial. Use printed sample names and a clear tape for a
better labeling. Write sample number on the top of each vial cap.
8) Lay down 4 clean weighing papers on the table. Put on open 3 vials in the center
of the 3 papers with clean instrument.
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9) Remove the vessels from the machine. Remove the tapes and carefully pour the
powdered sample to the weighing paper that doesn’t have a vial. Be careful at this
step not to loose sample to out of the paper.
10) Remove the steel balls from the pile of sample using clean tweezers.
11) Pour sample from the paper into the vials. Use disposable plastic funnels for each
sample.
12) Fill the vials as much as you can. One full of vessel of sample should fill 2 ½
vials.
13) Vacuum and clean area around powdering machine to remove dust.
Prepare 3 vials of powdered samples; each is about 5 grams.
1. Vial: send to whole rock chemistry laboratory to measure major and minor
element content of the rock.
2. Vial: use for total chlorine determination.
3. Vial: Keep at a safe and dry place. It is a spare for future use.
Sending samples to whole rock chemistry
Here, we used ActLabs Inc., Ontario Canada for measurements of whole rock chemistry.
Use first vial for whole rock chemical analysis. At least 5 grams of samples is needed.
1) Close tight the cap of the vial. Make sure that it is appropriately labeled.
2) Attach a piece of paper towel by a tape around the vial to prevent breaking during
shipping. Write down the sample name on the towel as well.
3) Prepare a “request for analysis” form from the ActLAb’s web site which is
http://www.actlabs.com/geochem_home.htm and always refer to that web site for
any changes on ordering processes
251
4) Choose “WRA+trace 4Litho” for whole rock and trace element analysis. Boron
analysis doesn’t come in this package. For only silicate samples, add “B-Total
(PGNAA) 0.5” analysis. You may want to know water content of the samples.
ActLabs doesn’t measure water content. If needed, send a vial of powdered rock
sample (about 5 grams) to SGS (http://www.geochem.sgs.com/). The analyze
code is PHY09V H2O+ contained.
5) Place all packed samples and a copy of request form into a box. Send the box to
Activation Laboratories Ltd.
1428 Sandhill Drive
Ancaster, Ontario
Canada L9G 4V5
Tel: 1.905.648.9611 or 1.888.228.5227 (ACTLABS)
Fax: 1.905.648.9613
5. TOTAL CHLORINE DETERMINATION
This procedure estimates the total Cl content of the samples for further analysis. Its
precise determination is going to be made from measurement on spiked samples after the
AMS measurement.
Setting up diffusion cells
1) Once cells have been cleaned, make sure that they are appropriately labeled and
dry.
2) Use an empty data table for diffusion cells or make your own with the following
headings: Number Cell# from 1 to 12 and 13 to 24 and blank.
Cell#
Sample ID
Mass Empty Mass in
Mass Out
mV
ppm Cl
252
3) Cells from 1-4 and 13-16 are only for standard solutions. Don’t use cells from 1724 for carbonates. Use a piece of Teflon tape for the cells 1-12. Especially when
measuring carbonates and if they are loose.
4) Standards solutions are solutions with a known concentration of Cl. Decide upon
which standards to use. The range of the solutions should be in between the range
of the approximate Cl content of the samples. Let say if your samples’ Cl content
is in between ~10-150 ppm; 5, 50, 100, 200 ppm standards are an example of a
good choice. 2 sets are standards necessary. One set is for cells from 5-12 and one
set is for 17-24. Write down standard solutions and sample ID’s on the data sheet.
How to make standard solutions
One you prepare a set of standard solutions, it is good for a long time, as long as its
cap is tight, and kept in dry place
3) Prepare a 1000 ppm NaCl stock solution
4) Use this formula to dilute chemicals
V1.C1=V2.C2
Where; V1: initial volume (or mass), C1: initial concentration, V2: final volume (or
mass) (the sum of initial volume (or mass), V1 and the volume (or mass) of added
milliQ water), C2: final concentration
5) For example: To make 250 ml of 50 ppm standard solution, mix 12.5 ml of
1000 ppm stock solution with 237.5 ml milliQ water
5) Make up a reducing solution. Both silicates and carbonates. Put in labeled
reducing bottle. For 24 cells
12.0 g
KOH
0.6 g
Na2SO3
64 g
milliQ water
6) Make up an oxidizing solution for silicates. Put in labeled oxidizing bottle. For
24 cells.
0.8 g
KMnO4
11.2 g
milliQ water
3.8 ml
50% H2SO4
! add under the fume hood
253
64 g
HF
7) Make up an oxidizing solution for carbonates. Put in labeled oxidizing bottle.
For 12 cells.
0.4 g
KMnO4
5.6 g
milliQ water
1.9 ml
50% H2SO4
27 ml
HF
5 ml
HNO3
Loading standard solutions
8) Weigh empty cell and write the mass under the “Mass empty” column. Zero the
balance. Use Mettler AT201 high accuracy balance.
9) Using designated pipettes, drop 0.200 ± 0.01 g standard solutions into the outer
chamber of the cells which are designated for standards.
10) Weigh the cell and record the weight of the standard on “Mass in” column
11) Close the lid of the cell to prevent the evaporation of solution.
Loading samples
12) Add 0.200 ± 0.01 g of sample to the outer chamber of the cells.
13) Weigh the cell and record the weight of the sample on “Mass in” column.
14) Don’t load the blank cell.
Loading reducing and oxidizing solutions
15) Move all cells under the fume hood and place so that they are tilted with
sample/standard solution perched on the upper side of the cell.
16) Measure 2.5 ml reducing solution to the inner chamber of the cells including the
blank cell.
254
17) Measure 3.0 ml oxidizing solution to the outer chamber of the cells including the
blank cell. Make sure that not to let oxidizing solution contact the sample. That’s
why cells should be tilted.
18) Close cell lids and place horizontally on the table shaker. Shake for 16-20 hours at
about 80 on dial. Don’t exceed 20 hours. They are ready to be measured.
Measuring diffusion cells
1) Change filling solution of ion selective electrode. Make sure to rinse off electrode
with milliQ. Refer to the electrode manual for detailed introduction how to use it.
2) Open the blank cell.
3) Pipette off the outer solution with the designated garbage pipette. Clear all
droplets from the rim of the inner chamber and from the outer chamber with KimWipe. Be careful not to touch the inner solution!
4) Weigh cell, write down in the “Mass out” column of the data sheet.
5) Put electrode in the blank cell for at least 30 min. The bottom of the electrode
should be fully immersed in the solution but should not touch the bottom of cell.
Record mV potentials at the beginning and end of this period. The aim of this
process is to record the blank content of the solution and to introduce the chemical
characteristics of the reducing solution to the electrode to have easier and accurate
reading of the samples in the further steps.
Measuring samples
6) Open diffusion cells ones at a time.
7) Pipette off the outer solution with the designated garbage pipette. Clear all
droplets from the rim of the inner chamber and from the outer chamber with KimWipe. Be careful not to touch the inner solution!
8) Weigh cell; write down in the “Mass out” column of the data sheet.
9) Rinse the electrode with milliQ water. Shake off any droplets of water while
holding the hole on the upper side of the electrode closed. Don’t wipe with any
255
other material like paper or towel. This is the best way not to contaminate the
electrode with the previous sample.
10) Put electrode inside the inner chamber of the cell and press “Measure”. If it beeps
immediately, press “Measure” again. It should take about 1-2 min to measure the
sample.
11) Record measurement of potential in mV and write down. Make sure it is
measuring mV.
12) Rinse diffusion cells with milliQ water after use and put on clean towel to dry.
Cleaning diffusion cells
1) Make sure that cells are emptied after the measurements and rinsed well with
milliQ water at least 3 times.
2) Heat up about 600 ml HNO3 until boiling in an acid washed glass beaker.
3) Heat up the Diffusion Cell Cleaning Solution (D-Cell) until it is very hot. It
probably not comes to a boil, but it should still be at high temperature. Use a 1
liter glass beaker to heat the D-cell. Place few broken glass sticks on the bottom
of the beaker and add some water. Place D-cell bottle inside this beaker.
4) Place cells on aluminum tray, open side up.
5) Pour D-cell into the cells, outer and inner chamber. Let sit 2 min.
6) Back up D-cell into its bottle. It is good for several usages. When it is old, pour it
into the waste basket for disposal and prepare a new one. If D-cell does not yet
discarded, but turned to green, rather than the red, pour some K2Cr2O7 (it is in the
acid storage under the fume hood) into D-Cell before use.
7) Rinse the cells with milliQ.
8) Place cells back on aluminum tray, open side up.
9) Pour the boiling HNO3 into the cells, outer and inner chamber. Let sit 2 min.
10) Back up HNO3 into its bottle. It is good for several usages. When it is old, recycle
it as general cleaning HNO3. Acid from the cleaning bottle should never be used
for diffusion cells.
256
11) Rinse the cells with milliQ.
12) Place them on a new towel for drying. When they are dry, check the labels and
keep them in order at its drawer.
How to prepare D-Cell solution
1) Using a clean beaker, measure 1 liter of H2SO4 from its original bottle which is
in the acid storage cabinet under the fume hood.
2) Add 35 ml K2Cr2O7 saturation solution using the designated graduated
cylinder.
How to make 1000 ppm NaCl stock solution
Always do by mass not by volume
1) Calculate formula weight of NaCl.
NaCl = Na (23 g/mol) + Cl (35.5 g/mol) = 58.5 g/mol
2) Calculate mass fraction of Cl in NaCl.
Cl/NaCl = 35.5/58.8 = 0.61
3) Each gram of NaCl contains 0.61 grams of Cl.
4) Use this formula.
M1.C1=M2.C2
Where; M1: initial mass, C1: initial concentration, M2: final mass (the sum of initial
mass and the mass of added milliQ water), C2: final concentration
5) For example; to make 250 g of 1000 ppm stock solution, mix 0.41 g of NaCl
(60oC oven dried for 24 h) with 249.59 g milliQ water.
6) Record and write down on the bottle everything that you add
Data input and calculating total Cl
257
1) Open the file “DiffCellsCalculator.xls”. An example of the view of the
spreadsheet is given in Figure 3.
Figure 3: A view of the DiffCellsCalculator.xls
2) Blue cells are data input cells. Input the data you were collected during the
measurements.
3) Yellow cells are outputs. First four rows from the measurements of standard
solutions should be as close as the known concentration. Therefore, eliminate the
erroneous ones by deleting the grey cells for that standard. At the end, you should
as close as the original standard solutions concentrations. Read the total Cl
concentrations in ppm from the yellow cells.
4) Highlight the ppm values that you decide and write down to the laboratory data
sheet. Save the excel file and close the program.
258
6. SPIKE CALCULATIONS
Before dissolution of any sample, it is necessary to estimate the amount of sample and
spike used, to ensure the certain AMS requirements are met.
What is Spike?
In nature, there are three isotopes of Chlorine (Cl);
35,36,37
Cl. 35Cl and 37Cl are stable;
36
Cl is radioactive. AMS measures the ratio of R/S: radioactive to stable;
36
Cl/(35Cl+37Cl). Due to the constraints of the AMS system (see below), a known
amount of carrier should be added to sample so that a reliable R/S can be measured.
This is known as spiking or isotope dilution method. Spikes have no 36Cl, but known
ratio of S/S (35Cl/37Cl).
How to prepare Spike stock solution?
Prepare a stock solution of spike, and use from this bottle by diluting it to about 250
ppm Cl. First, 250 mg Sodium Chloride –
35
Cl (99.66%
35
Cl + 0.34%37Cl) from
Sigma-Aldrich company (Lot # 125H3767) oven dried for 24 hours at 100oC. Then
weighed on a precise balance (=0.2480 g) and mixed with 249.7533 g milliQ water
(use diluting formulas). The resulting solution has 991.987 ppm Na35,37Cl. Note on the
bottle all measurements and the concentration of Cl.
The AMS requirements at the PRIME Lab (Purdue University, Indiana) were as follows:
•
RATIO S/S: Natural Ratio of 35Cl/37Cl (S/S) is 3.12. Addition of spike increases
this ratio. The AMS can measure down to 3.12. But, precision is increased above
10. But do not exceed 40.
•
RATIO R/S: The precision of AMS increases with this ratio and decreases below
100x10-15. Therefore, don’t go below 100.
259
•
SAMPLE SIZE: Samples (target AgCl) at the end of the extraction processes
should be more than 2 mg. Make ideal target yield >8 mg of AgCl. This ensures
the sufficient sample survive losses in purification and rinses.
Estimating sample R/S
Before acid digestion, rock’s R/S should be estimated using the age calculation
spreadsheet (“AgeCalculator.xls”). Beforehand, you should need roughly estimated
cosmogenic age of the sample. Open the excel file (Figure 4). Yellow areas are the input
cells, blue areas are the output.
Figure 4: A view of the AgeCalculator.xls
260
For each sample, copy and paste a column and enter the following data for each sample:
-
Sample ID
-
and any additional sample info: Sample location name, valley name, …etc
-
Sample volumetric water content: Ideally it should be measured. This is not the
meteoric water content. This is the H2O content that inside the mineral structure;
water of crystallization. ActLab doesn’t measure it. Sent a vial of powdered rock
sample to SGS (http://www.geochem.sgs.com/). The analyze code is PHY09V
H2O+ contained. If you don’t have this data enter 0.005 for silicates, LOI value
from the ActLab for carbonates.
-
Sample bulk density: Enter 2.6 g/cm3 for rock samples
-
Sample thickness: It should be measured in the field during the sample
collection. Enter that value in cm.
-
Latitude (°N): Sample latitude in decimal degrees (0-90o)
-
Longitude (°E): Sample longitude in decimal degrees (0-360o)
-
Elevation (m): Sample elevation in meters
-
Sea-level pressure (g/cm2): Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank
-
Sea-level temperature (C): Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank
-
Lapse rate (-K/km): Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank
-
Vertical movement wrt sea level (m/y; up is positive): Enter the value. If you
don’t know leave it blank
-
or total movement over exposure duration (m): Enter the value. If you don’t
know leave it blank
-
Topography correction factor: Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank
-
Snow correction factor: Enter the value. If you don’t know leave it blank
-
Geochemistry: Enter the following major element oxide results from ActLab;
CO2, Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P2O5, K2O, CaO, TiO2, MnO2, Fe2O3, and minor
element results in ppm; B (usually Boron is not measured as trace elements. Add
Boron analysis for silicates during the order of ActLab measurements), Sm, Gd,
U, Th. Enter the Cl concentration in ppm from diffusion cell measurements with a
261
fixed 5% uncertainty. If you don’t have geochemical results yet from the ActLab,
use from similar previous measurements or guess from geochemistry of similar
lithologies.
Several trial and error iterations guessing R/S will lead to a value that produces the
sample’s expected age for that particular location and chemistry.
Calculating Spike amount and mass of sample
1) Open the file “SpikeCalculator.xls” (Figure 5). Yellow cells are input, green cells
are output.
Figure 5: A view of the SpikeCalculator.xls
262
2) Enter the ppm Cl value from the diffusion cells
3) Enter 5 for the gram rock cooked. Usually we cook 5 gram of crushed/leached
sample. But sometimes, for more yield, you may want to cook more than 5 grams.
4) Enter naturally accruing R/S ratio, estimated from previous steps.
5) Calculate S/S and R/S ratios in the limits of AMS requirements by changing the
spike mass. Recently, we are using only NaCl spike. Don’t use KCl spike. Enter
spike concentration when you prepare a new spike solution.
6) S/S ratio should be more than 10 and R/S ratio should be bigger than 100, and
yield should be bigger than 8 mg. However, ratio constraints generally take
priority over yield requirements. Often several digestions are necessary to yield
enough target samples. Depending on the uncertainty of the initial age and
subsequent R/S estimate, ratio constraints should be applied conservatively, as an
overestimate of sample age may reduce sample R/S to an unacceptable level when
spiked.
7) Write down followings on a data sheet (Figure 6); Sample ID, rock type, R/S
(estimated during the age calculations), estimated age, amount of spike added,
expected S/S, R/S, yield, cooking count (How many times you should cook?).
Figure 6: An example of data record sheet for rock digestion bombs
263
8) During the cooking of the sample, fill this data sheet. Write down bomb number
and gram of rock that you add inside the bomb, and ppm concentration and the
amount of spike added. Each column is for only one sample. Repeated bombs
should be written in the numbered rows as much as 10.
After the AMS measurements, de-spike calculations are made according to Desilets et al.
(2006) by using “DespikeCalculator.xls” [Desilets, D., Zreda, M., Almasi, P.F. and
Elmore, D., 2006. Determination of cosmogenic Cl-36 in rocks by isotope dilution:
innovations, validation and error propagation Chemical Geology 233 (3-4), 185-195.]
7. DISSOLUTIONS OF SAMPLES
In order to extract Cl from the rock sample, it should be digested by strong acids in the
acid digestion bombs. A suitable bomb can be Parr # 4748 stainless steel large capacity
bombs (Figure 7 and Table 1). They can contain 125 ml of solution and take about 5
grams of rock sample, and operate at maximum 250oC and at 1900 psig pressure.
Figure 7: The Parr #4748 large capacity acid digestion bomb
264
Table 1: Manufacturer part list of Parr #4748 digestion bomb
There must be always adequate free space above the charge in the bomb. For rock, leave
at least 33% of the capacity of the cup as free space. Use 125 ml PTFE cups designed for
the digestion bombs to dissolve the rock samples. Be careful not scratch the inside of the
cups and always acid clean before using them.
Dissolution of samples follows different procedures for carbonate and silicate rocks.
7.1 Dissolution Procedures for Silicate Samples
1) Add correct amount of rock sample (crushed and leached) to a clean PTFE cup.
(This is calculated in previous section). Use a sensitive balance with a precision of
0.01 g.
2) Add correct amount of NaCl spike to the PTFE cup. (This is also calculated in
previous section). Use a sensitive balance.
3) Record the exact amounts to the data sheet provided at the end of spike
calculations.
4) Move the PTFE cups under the hood and arrange all bomb parts for swift
assembly.
265
5) Add 5 ml of 70% HNO3 to serve as a sensible warning system of skin exposure to
sample solution possibly containing HF. HNO3 is also an oxidizing agent that
speeds digestion reactions in certain silicate rocks.
6) Add 40 ml of 45% HF (use baker analyzed grade), and swiftly assemble the
bomb. Silicate samples will react strongly upon exposure to HF. For this reason,
HF is added to the cup immediately before sealing.
7) Slide the filled cup into the bomb and raise the bottom plate slightly to release any
trapped air.
8) Place the thinner corrosion disc on top of the PTFE cover and thicker rupture disc
on top of the corrosion disc. Note that PTFE cover will rupture and digestion
media will be sprayed from the top plate if the corrosion and rupture discs are not
included in the assembly.
9) Add the pressure plate and two spring washers, topped by the compression rings.
10) Torque the screws to approximately 7 Newton-meters (60 in-lb) using a torque
and Allen-head socket.
11) Place the bombs in a 130oC oven for 6 hours. The combination of acids,
temperature, time and pressure will effectively dissolve all samples.
12) After digestion, remove the bombs from the oven and allow the bombs to cool to
ambient temperature on an aluminum plate or a metal table top. Do not place
them in water or in a freezer. The internal forces will sometimes distort the liner,
making it difficult to remove the liner from the bomb body. After extended use,
the tapered rim on the PTFE cup will become thin and cover may be deformed to
a point where it will be impossible to maintain a tight seal. In these cases the cup
and the cover must be replaced.
13) Place the bomb under the fume hood. Loosen the screws in a star pattern about
one half turn per screw until they are all loose. Internal pressure may be strong.
Wait until the bomb completely cooled to the laboratory temperature.
14) Slide off the sample cup from the bomb. Carefully pry the cover off. Use plastic
spatula.
266
15) Add 10 ml of 0.1 M AgNO3 in to the cup.
16) Decant the content to a 250 ml Teflon centrifuge bottle. Don’t use glass bottles
since HF reacts with glass!
17) Add some deionized water to sample cup and rinse the leftover sample to the
centrifuge bottle.
18) Cover the top of the centrifuge bottle with a Parafilm and let it stand overnight for
Cl extraction processes.
How to make 0.1 M AgNO3?
Add 4.25 g 99.9% AgNO3 to 250 ml deionized water.
Keep it in light proof bottles.
7.2 Dissolution Procedures for Carbonate Samples
Carbonate samples react strongly to acids, liberating large amount of CO2 gas. For this
reason, the sample must be isolated from the acid until the bomb is fully sealed. This is
accomplished by freezing the sample in a small block of ice prior to bomb loading.
Preparing ice structure for loading the sample
Two clean cylindrical polycarbonate vials are arranged such that the larger vial is filled
with deionized water while the smaller vial inserted inside the larger vial and the
assembly frozen (Figure 8). The aim is creating a negative mold of the smaller vial.
267
Figure 8: The ice structure for loading carbonate samples
The exact amount of rock sample is poured into this mold. Deionized water is added on
top of the sample and frozen. The method isolates the sample completely from the acid
by about 5 mm of ice. Once the sample is isolated, the following loading procedure is
applied.
1) Add correct amount of NaCl spike to the PTFE cup. Write down the amount
added.
2) Add 20 g of cold 70% HNO3. Use refrigerated acid.
3) Move the sample cup under the hood and arrange all bomb parts for swift
assembly.
4) Remove the ice structure from the cylinder by a pair of tweezers cleaned with 5%
HNO3, grip the ice from its rim and place inside the sample cup. Warming the
outer surface of the cylinder by rubbing by hand will make easier the ice structure
to be free.
5) Swiftly close the cover of the PTFE cup and slide the cup into the bomb.
6) Place the thinner corrosion disc on top of the PTFE cover and thicker rupture disc
on top of the corrosion disc. Note that PTFE cover will rupture and digestion
media will be sprayed from the top plate if the corrosion and rupture discs are not
included in the assembly.
7) Add the pressure plate and two spring washers, topped by the compression rings.
268
8) Torque the screws to approximately 7 Newton-meters (60 in-lb) using a torque
and Allen-head socket.
9) Place the bomb at the laboratory temperature for 3 hours. Shake the bomb at least
once during the digestion to encourage Cl isotopic equilibrium between gas and
liquid.
10) After digestion, remove the bombs from the oven and allow the bombs to cool to
ambient temperature on an aluminum plate or a metal table top. Do not place
them in water or in a freezer. The internal forces will sometimes distort the liner,
making it difficult to remove the liner from the bomb body. After extended use,
the tapered rim on the PTFE cup will become thin and cover may be deformed to
a point where it will be impossible to maintain a tight seal. In these cases the cup
and the cover must be replaced.
11) Place the bomb under the fume hood. Loosen the screws in a star pattern about
one half turn per screw until they are all loose. Internal pressure may be strong.
Wait until the bomb completely cooled of the laboratory temperature. As the CO2
generated in non-condensable at laboratory temperatures, the bomb will be
pressurized upon opening. Some skill is needed to open the bomb slowly enough
so that the sample cup content is not sprayed out. Agitating the bomb before
opening will considerably complicate the process.
12) Slide off the sample cup from the bomb. Carefully pry the cover off. Use plastic
spatula.
13) Add 10 ml of 0.1 M AgNO3 in to the cup.
14) Decant the content to a 250 ml centrifuge bottle.
15) Add some deionized water to sample cup and rinse the leftover sample to the
centrifuge bottle.
16) Cover the top of the centrifuge bottle with a Parafilm and let it stand overnight for
Cl extraction processes.
269
Cleaning bomb sample cups
1) After the using the cups, they should be rinsed with water. Tap water can be used
at this step.
2) Thoroughly clean inside and the inner rims of the cup and the cover with water
and detergent. Be careful not to scratch the inside of the cups. Use sponge, not
scrubber. Rinse the caps with milliQ water.
3) Boil about 200 ml %70 HNO3 for each cup, and pour into the cups. Cover the lid
of the cup and wait at least 2 minutes. Recycle the acid for only cleaning the cups.
4) Rinse the cups with milliQ and let them dry for the next use.
8. CHLORINE EXTRACTION
The goals of the Cl extraction phase are 1) to separate Cl from the rock matrix that is
digested at the previous stages, 2) to collect as much as Cl as possible, 3) to remove the
isobar 36S that interfere in the AMS measurement, 4) and prepare the suitable target form
(AgCl for 36Cl AMS measurements).
The isobaric interference of 36-Sulfur (36S) is an important problem in AMS
measurements of 36Cl. Effective chemical procedures should be applied to remove S from
samples. Traditionally, precipitation of BaSO4 is used to separate S from the rock matrix.
S precipitation steps should be applied several times for a satisfactory separation. An
alternative method uses ion exchange columns to separate S from chloride. Sample
solution is passed through an exchange resin, SO4-2 is absorbed, and Cl- released.
8.1 Precipitation Method
After Cl is liberated from the rock matrix, it is precipitated as AgCl under acidic
conditions (pH=1 to 2) by adding 0.1 M AgNO3. Consequent steps of precipitating
270
BaSO4 are applied to remove the isobar
36
S. To do this, AgCl is dissolved under basic
conditions by using high purity NH4OH, and 1ml of saturated Ba(NO3)2 is added to
precipitate BaSO4. Then the sample is left at room temperature overnight. AgCl will reprecipitate if the solution is re-acidified. Each of the steps of adding BaSO4 is called
“Barium steps” and applied at least 3 times.
The following procedure is applied to the samples were waited overnight after the
dissolution of samples in the bomb.
Before Barium
1) Centrifuge for 15 minutes at setting 5 (~2000 RPM).
2) Decant acid which stayed over the sediment. Be careful not to pour sediment
which has AgCl.
3) Add small amount of milliQ and repeat step 1 and 2 two more times.
4) Check the pH of the decanted liquid by a pH paper. If it has high pH, repeat the
neutralizing steps one more time.
First Barium
5) Add 20 ml of NH4OH to dissolve AgCl.
6) Add 1 ml of Ba(NO3)2 to precipitate BaSO4.
7) Let stand overnight.
8) Centrifuge 20 minutes at setting 5 (~2000 RPM).
9) Transfer liquid to 200 ml glass centrifuge bottles. Use pipette if needed. Add
small amount of milliQ and repeat step 5 and 4 two more times.
10) Acidify using concentrated HNO3 until you see white precipitate which is AgCl.
Care should be applied to acidify the strong basic solution. Each time add a drop
of acid and let it react before adding more.
271
11) Add small amount (~1-2 cm3) of AgNO3. Just squirt in.
Second Barium
13) Decant acid. Keep sediment.
18) Transfer liquid to 50 ml glass test tubes.
19) Acidify using concentrated HNO3 until you see white precipitate.
20) Add small amount of AgNO3.
Third Barium
27) Transfer liquid to a new 50 ml glass test tube.
28) Acidify using concentrated HNO3 until you see white precipitate.
29) Add small amount of AgNO3.
272
Final target preparation
32) Rinse sediment in milliQ water 5 times. Use a clean new Pasteur pipette for each
sample.
33) Transfer well rinsed AgCl into a labeled plastic vial using a Pasteur pipette.
34) Centrifuge 10 minutes at setting 5 (~2000 RPM)
35) Remove excess water using a Pasteur pipette or just pour off.
36) Place the vial in the oven at 60oC for 24 hour to dry the sample.
37) Tap dried sample into a clean weighing dish or a weighing paper. Weigh it on the
sensitive balance. Note the mass and transfer the sample back to the vial. Don’t
touch the sample with bare hands or any tweezers. Use the weighing dish or paper
to transfer.
38) Cap the vial and store them in a dark and dry place before sending to the AMS
lab.
8.2 Ion Exchange Columns
We have developed a chemical technique for separation of Cl from S using ion exchange
columns. Prior to separation in columns, one step of BaSO4 precipitation is applied to
remove the bulk of S. Then the samples are loaded to exchange resin using a peristaltic
pump. First, Cl is eluted from the column, and then S. Finally, Cl can be precipitated as
AgCl as described in previous section. Four samples can be loaded to our four-column
system at the same time. The separation process takes less than 3 hours, much shorter
than traditional precipitation method (which takes several days), and Cl recovery is
higher than ~80%.
273
Resin
Analytical grade DOWEX 1X8-400 mesh resin in Cl- form is used.
Column description
Polyethylene columns are used. Column length is 6 cm. Internal diameter of the column
is 8 mm. 2 cm3 of saturated resin is loaded in the column. The column is always saturated
1 cm above the top of the resin. A polyethylene filter disc used to close the bottom of the
column. Two polyethylene column tapping one into the inlet and one into the outlet is
fitted (Figure 9).
Figure 9: The setup of the ion exchange column
Setup
125 ml capacity polypropylene funnel and a stopcock are used for feeding the sample
solutions. Cole Parmer Ismatic-Tygon tubes are used for tubing. All fittings and adapters
are polyethylene. Cole Parmer (#07519-10 - Masterflex L/S) peristaltic pump with four
274
cartridges is used to maintain a constant flow to the columns. The setup of the system is
shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10: The laboratory setup of the ion exchange columns
Conditioning the resin
Always refer to the manufacturer catalog of the resins before using them. If the resin is in
a form different than desired, the resin should be conditioned. The following steps are
applied in order to condition the Cl- form resin to the OH- form resin. Conditioning is
made only one and conditioned resins can be used for the rest of the exchange process.
1) Weigh about 0.95 g dry resin into a clean small glass baker. This much of dry
resin makes about 4 cm bed of saturated resin in the column.
2) Dehydrate the resin with adding ~3 ml 18MΩ water.
3) Transfer the slurry resin into the column by using a clean pipette.
4) Wait until the resin completely settles by gravity.
275
5) Set up the system and turn on the pump.
6) Transfer 1.5 M NH4OH for at least 2 hours at very slow rate (0.2 ml per min).
7) Never let fluid level drop below resin which will make the resin dry and useless.
8) Meantime, perform a visual test for Cl by adding 3 drops of 1 M AgNO3 to a test
tube containing 5 ml of eluant. If the test is positive (i.e. the AgCl precipitate is
visible), continue to conditioning and performing the test again. Continue until the
test is negative.
9) Neutralize the resin by transferring 10 ml 18MΩ water at the slow rate.
10) The resin is now in the form of OH- and ready to use.
Separation
The following procedure is used on samples with at least one barium precipitation
applied to remove bulk S. The sample is in 20 ml basic solution.
1) Adjust the flow rate of the pump to 2 ml per minute.
2) Place a waste container at the outlet of the column.
3) Load the sample into the inlet funnel.
4) Never let fluid level drop below resin. When all solution is finished in the funnel,
the next solution should be added in order to prevent the drying of the resin in the
column.
5) Rinse the column with 20 ml of 18MΩ water by pouring it into the funnel.
6) After it is rinsed with milliQ water, place a clean centrifuge tube at the outlet of
the column. Add 1 ml of 0.1 M AgNO3 and 1 ml of 70% HNO3 to the centrifuge
bottle. The amount will wary depending on the Cl concentration. Add more if
necessary.
7) Rinse the column with 140 ml of 0.01 M HNO3 and collect the eluant into the
centrifuge bottle. You will see a white cloudy precipitate of AgCl when Cl- is
exchanged in the resin.
276
8) Remove the centrifuge bottle and replace the waste container.
Preparation of the column for the next sample set
9) Rinse the column with 60 ml of 0.1 M HNO3. This will remove all the remaining
Cl and undesired S.
10) Rinse the column with 20 ml of 18MΩ water.
11) Rinse the column with 20 ml of 1.5 M NH4OH to prepare for the next sample.
12) Load the next sample.
Final target preparation
1) Let the centrifuge bottle stand overnight.
3) Rinse sediment in milliQ water 5 times. Use a clean new Pasteur pipette for each
sample.
4) Transfer the AgCl into a labeled plastic vial using a Pasteur pipette.
5) Centrifuge for 10 minutes at setting 5 (~2000 RPM)
6) Remove excess water using a Pasteur pipette or just pour off.
7) Place the vial in the oven at 60oC for 24 hour to dry the sample.
8) Tap dried sample into a clean weighing dish or a weighing paper. Weigh it on the
sensitive balance. Note the mass and transfer the sample back to the vial. Don’t
touch the sample with bare hands or any tweezers. Use the weighing dish or paper
to transfer.
9) Cap the vials and store them in a dark and dry place before sending to the AMS
lab.
277
APPENDIX I
FIELD DESCRIPTIONS,
ATTRIBUTES, GEOCHEMICAL AND ISOTOPIC ANALYTICAL, AND SPIKE
DATA OF SAMPLES USED IN COSMOGENIC AGE CALCULATIONS
AND
CLIMATIC RECORDS
Note: The electronic files mentioned in this appendix
Pictures of Samples
SampleData.xls
ClimateData.xls
are given in the Supplementary CD attached to this dissertation.
278
FIELD DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES
Mount Sandıras (Samples used in appendix B)
Sample SA02-609
Collected on 15 August 2002. Rounded serpentinite block.
Boulder is rooted in the matrix, cleaved along the
structural planes into slabs; unpolished, rough surface.
Sampled
from
top
surface.
1.5×1.2×0.8
m
36
(length×width×height). Yielded Cl age of 22.1 ± 3.3 ka
(ka: thousand calendar years, errors are in 1σ). Topo
measurements at 0o, 45 o, 90 o, 135 o, 180 o, 225 o, 270 o,
315 o from azimuth North: [0,0,4,7,13,7,5,0]. No picture.
Sample SA02-610
Collected on 15 August 2002. Rounded boulder. Boulder
is rooted on a horizontal moraine crest. Sampled from top
surface. 1×0.8×0.4 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 19.6 ± 1.0 ka.
[0,0,4,7,13,7,5,1]. No picture.
Sample SA02-611
Collected on 15 August 2002. Rounded and rooted
boulder on the moraine crest. Block is cracked, but steel
on piece. On the lower side, matrix is being eroded away.
Sampled from top surface. 1.5×1×0.8 m. Yielded 36Cl age
of 20.6 ± 2.1 ka. [0,0,4,7,13,7,5,2]. No picture.
Sample SA02-612
boulder on the horizontal moraine crest. Some pieces
spalling on top. Sampled from top central surface.
1.6×1×0.8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 17.2 ± 2.9 ka.
[0,0,3,5,14,9,6,0]. No picture.
Sample SA05-613
Collected on 2 August 2005. Rectangular, semi-rounded
serpentinite boulder. Well rooted in the matrix. Placed on
the horizontal moraine crest. Sampled from top of the
boulder which is inclined 10o to the east. Harder mineral
relicts evident on the surface. 0.7×0.5×0.4 m. Yielded 36Cl
age of 5.1 ± 0.3 ka. [0,0,11,17,20,24,18,4]. See pictures
SA05-613-1.jpg and SA05-613-2.jpg
Sample SA05-616
Collected on 2 August 2005. Rounded and rooted boulder.
Placed on 30o slopping moraine surface to the north.
Sampled glacially sculpted top surface which is inclined
10o to the west. Sampled at the edge of boulder.
279
1.5×1.5×1.2 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 16.5 ± 1.1 ka.
[0,0,2,10,13,13,4,0]. See pictures SA05-616-1.jpg and
SA05-616-2.jpg
Sample SA05-617
Collected on 2 August 2005. Angular, semi-rounded,
rooted boulder. Placed on the sharp, bouldery, 10o north
sloping moraine crest. Sampled from 20o east inclined top
surface. Surface is pitted. 1.3×1×0.7 m. Yielded 36Cl age
of 16.2 ± 0.5 ka. [0,6,22,17,15,14,7,0]. See pictures SA05617-1.jpg and SA05-617-2.jpg
Sample SA05-618
Collected on 3 August 2005. Rooted, rounded on edges,
boulder. Placed on the horizontal moraine crest. Cracked
and pitted surface. Sampled on the edge of the boulder.
Top surface is inclined 20o to northeast. 1×1×0.6 m.
Yielded 36Cl age of 20.6 ± 1.3 ka. [0,0,3,5,14,9,6,0]. See
pictures SA05-618-1.jpg, SA05-618-2.jpg and SA05-6183.jpg
Sample SA05-619
Collected on 3 August 2005. Rounded, rooted, and
sculpted by ice, on the horizontal moraine crest. Cracked
and spalled on top, but most surface is original (smooth
glacial shape). Sampled from top surface, on the center.
2×1.5×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 34.7 ± 1.3 ka.
[0,0,5,10,12,6,4,0]. See pictures SA05-619-1.jpg and
SA05-619-2.jpg
Mount Erciyes (Samples used in appendix C)
Sample ER01-01
Collected on 12 August 2001. Angular dacite block.
Sampled from the center of flat top surface. Placed on
horizontal moraine surface. 0.7×0.5×0.4 m. Yielded 36Cl
age of 1.0 ± 2.8 ka. Topo measurements at 0o, 30o, 60o,
90o, 120o, 150o, 180o, 210o, 240o ,270o,300o,330o from
azimuth North: [0,0,10,15,26,28,31,30,32,21,0,0]. See
picture ER01-01.jpg
Sample ER01-02
Collected on 12 August 2001. Rounded agglomerate
block. Sampled from the triangular eroded top surface.
[0,0,10,15,26,28,31,30,32,21,0,0]. See picture ER0102.jpg
280
Sample ER01-03
Collected on 12 August 2001. Rectangular basalt block.
Sampled from the edge of flat top surface. 0.6×0.4×0.4 m.
36
Yielded
Cl
age
of
0.9
±
0.3
ka.
[0,0,10,15,26,28,31,30,32,21,0,0]. See picture ER0103.jpg
Sample ER01-04
Collected on 13 August 2001. Originally named as ER0104-OP (OP=Outwash Plain). Collected on outwash plain.
Rounded, smoothed, polished, red stratified boulder.
Sampled from the flat top, polished surface. 1.5×1.5×1 m.
36
Yielded
Cl
age
of
3.1
±
0.4
ka.
[0,3,4,11,14,20,13,8,4,0,0,0]. See picture ER01-04.jpg
Sample ER01-05
Collected on 13 August 2001. Sub-rounded, smoothed,
red stratified, polished boulder. Sampled from the edge of
flat top surface. Collected on the moraine crest, near its
highest point. 1×0.8×0.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 12.7 ± 0.8
ka. [0,0,8,16,13,19,12,8,8,2,0,0]. See picture ER0105&06.jpg
Sample ER01-06
Collected on 13 August 2001. Sub-rounded, smoothed,
red stratified boulder. Sampled from the 10-15o inclined
top surface. 1.5×1.5×0.6 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 15.3 ± 0.8
ka. [0,0,8,16,13,19,12,8,8,2,0,0]. See pictures ER0105&6.jpg and ER01-06&07.jpg
Sample ER01-07
Collected on 13 August 2001. Well rounded, sculpted by
ice, red stratified boulder. Sampled from the polished top
surface which inclined 15o. 2×2×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of
16.3 ± 0.8 ka. [0,0,8,16,13,19,12,8,8,2,0,0]. See picture
ER01-06&07.jpg
Sample ER01-08
Collected on 13 August 2001. Originally named as ER0108-OP. Collected on an outwash plain which has smaller
boulders; below the nearby bigger bouldery outwash plain.
Rectangular, red stratified volcanic rock. Top surface has
some 1-3 cm spallings. Sampled from the unspalled places
of top surface. 1.5×1.3×0.8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 2.3 ±
0.4 ka. [0,0,8,16,13,19,12,8,8,2,0,0]. See picture ER0108.jpg
Sample ER01-09
Collected on 13 August 2001. Originally named as ER0109-OP. Collected on an outwash plain which has boulder
lines; second from the lower end. Sub-rounded, glacially
281
sculpted, basalt. Rooted in the matrix. Sampled from the
edge of the top surface which is inclined 20o. 1.3×0.9×0.7
m. Yielded 36Cl age of 6.2 ± 1.0 ka.
Sample ER01-10
Collected on 13 August 2001. Originally named as ER0110-OP. Collected on outwash plain. Rounded, glacially
sculpted, polished block. Rooted in the matrix. Sampled
from the top surface. 2×2×1.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.5 ±
Sample ER01-11
Collected on 13 August 2001. Originally named as ER0111-OP. Collected on outwash plain. Sub-rounded,
glacially sculpted, polished block which is a part of a fourboulder line. There of them are touch each other. Unrooted. Sampled from the polished top surface. 4×3×2.5
Sample ER01-12
Collected on 13 August 2001. Rounded on edges,
glacially smoothed, polished basalt. Placed on the crest of
the moraine. Sampled from the edge of top surface.
1×1×0.6 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 19.3 ± 0.9 ka.
Sample ER01-13
Collected on 13 August 2001. Rounded, pyramidal shape
basalt. Sampled from the glacially polished top surface.
1×0.4×0.6 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 11.0 ± 0.6 ka.
Sample ER01-14
Collected on 13 August 2001. Angular, black rock which
has questionable polish surface. Boulder is not rooted in
the matrix. Sampled near the edge of the top surface.
Sample ER01-15
Collected on 14 August 2001. Sub-rounded, smooth,
rooted, glacially polished, red dacite. Sampled near the
edge of the polished top surface. 1.5×1.5×1.3 m. Yielded
36
Cl age of 14.0 ± 0.7 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0].
See picture ER01-15.jpg
Sample ER01-16
Collected on 14 August 2001. Angular block. Boulder
282
rests on other blocks. Sampled near the edge of the
polished top surface. 1.5×1.5×0.4 m. Yielded 36Cl age of
10.4 ± 0.6 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0]. See picture
ER01-16.jpg
Sample ER01-17
Collected on 14 August 2001. Sub-rounded red dacite;
smoothed and polished by ice. Boulder is not rooted in the
matrix. Sampled at the edge of the polished top surface.
2×1×1.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 21.2 ± 0.9 ka.
[3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0]. See picture ER0117&18.jpg
Sample ER01-18
Collected on 14 August 2001. Rounded dark dacite. Some
glacial polish left on top surface. Block is not rooted in the
matrix. 2×2×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 13.1 ± 0.6 ka.
Sample ER01-19
Collected on 14 August 2001. Originally named as ER0119-LIA (LIA=Little Ice Age). Red dacite boulder. Glacial
sculpted and polish top surface. There are abundant likens
on the surface of the boulder. Sampled near the edge.
4×2×2 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 3.3 ± 0.4 ka.
Sample ER01-20
Collected on 14 August 2001. Originally named as ER0120-LIA. Sampled on glacially smoothed flat top surface.
Sample ER01-21
Collected on 14 August 2001. Originally named as ER0121-LIA. Yielded 36Cl age of 4.6 ± 1.0 ka.
[0,0,11,35,15,22,20,15,4,0,0,0]. No Picture.
Sample ER01-22
Collected on 14 August 2001. Glacial sculpted red dacite
boulder; Rooted in the matrix. Boulder has weathered and
un-polished surface. Sampled from pyramidal top. Placed
almost horizontal moraine crest. Very close to the modern
moraine. Sampled near the edge. 2×1.5×1.5 m. Yielded
36
Cl age of 17.2 ± 0.9 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0].
283
Sample ER01-23
Collected on 14 August 2001. Rectangular, glacial
sculpted and polished, grey dacite block; rooted in the
matrix. Sampled at the edge. 2×0.7×0.7 m. Yielded 36Cl
age of 8.7 ± 0.5 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0]. See
picture ER01-23.jpg
Sample ER01-24
Collected on 14 August 2001. Sub-rounded, glacial
polished block; part of a group of many blocks piled up
with no matrix between. Sampled from near the edge of
one of the pyramidal side; 30o slope. 1×1×1 m. Yielded
36
Cl age of 10.6 ± 0.6 ka. [3,9,16,22,19,26,19,21,9,0,0,0].
Sample ER01-25
Collected on 15 August 2001. Rounded, glacially
smoothed and polished block. Boulder is not rooted and
sits on a 10o slope; on the crest. Possibility of rolling is
low. Sampled from the edge of a nicely polished top
surface. 1.5×1×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 22.2 ± 1.4 ka.
Sample ER01-26
Collected on 15 August 2001. Sub-rounded, rooted red
dacite. Placed on 8o sloping surface on the crest;
possibility of rolling is low. Top of the boulder is sculpted
and polished by ice. Sampled at the edge. 1.5×1.5×0.8 m.
36
Yielded
Cl
age
of
16.6
±
0.9
ka.
Sample ER01-27
Collected on 15 August 2001. Rounded, smoothed red
dacite. Some polish left at the surface. Placed on
horizontal crest. It is rooted on one side only. 1×0.8×0.4
Sample ER01-39
Collected on 16 August 2001. Sub-rounded red dacite.
Boulder is eroded, but shows evidence of polish. Block is
rooted and placed on the horizontal moraine crest.
Sampled near the edge. 1×0.8×0.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of
11.1 ± 0.5 ka. [24,17,8,0,0,8,13,18,20,22,21,27]. No
Picture.
Sample ER01-40
Collected on 16 August 2001. Rounded, glacially
smoothed and polished grey dacite. Sampled on the center.
Block is rooted and placed almost on the crest, on 5o
slope. 1.2×1×0.7 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.1 ± 0.4 ka.
284
[24,17,8,0,0,8,13,18,20,22,21,27]. No Picture.
Sample ER01-41
Collected on 17 August 2001. Large grey dacite;
chemically eroded. There are few algae on top surface
which is inclined 15-20o. Rooted. The only available
block around. Others are very small pebbles. 2×2×1 m.
36
Yielded
Cl
age
of
7.0
±
0.8
ka.
[15,13,0,0,0,9,13,16,18,21,18,23]. No Picture.
Sample ER01-43
Collected on 17 August 2001. Sub-angular, polished,
rooted red dacite. Sampled from the top pyramidal
surface. Placed at the end of the moraine on a flat crest
with a several blocks. 1.5×1×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of
22.8 ± 1.0 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,5,13,14,12,22,18]. See picture
ER01-43.jpg
Sample ER01-44
Collected on 17 August 2001. Sculpted and polished red
dacite. Placed on 10o sloping moraine crest. Rooted. Half
of the sample is collected from the pyramidal 10o inclined
top surface and half from the 30-35o inclined other side.
Sample ER01-45
Collected on 17 August 2001. Sub-rounded, irregular red
dacite. Rooted. One side of the block is eroded, other side
is polished. Placed at the same surface as sample ER0144, on the moraine crest with 10o slope. 1.5×1.2×1.2 m.
36
Yielded
Cl
age
of
21.2
±
1.2
ka.
Sample ER01-46
Collected on 17 August 2001. Rounded boulder. Sampled
on the edge of polished top. Rooted on the horizontal
moraine crest. 1×1×0.8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 18.1 ± 0.6
ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,5,13,14,17,13,5]. See picture ER01-46.jpg
Sample ER01-47
Collected on 17 August 2001. Angular block. Sampled at
the edge of the top surface. Top surface has weathering
pits. 1.5×1×1 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.7 ± 0.5 ka.
Sample ER01-48
Collected on 17 August 2001. Sub-angular, glacially
sculpted and polished boulder. Weathering pits about 2 cm
deep. Sampled on the top. Rooted on 10o moraine slope.
285
Sample ER01-49
Collected on 17 August 2001. Angular boulder; has nice
glacial crescent marks on the surface. Sampled on top near
the edge. Rooted on the moraine crest with 10o slope.
Sample ER01-51
Collected on 17 August 2001. Angular block. Sampled on
the center of polished top. Placed on the horizontal crest
of the moraine. 1.5×0.7×0.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.7 ±
Sample ER01-52
Collected on 25 September 2001. A big brown dacite
boulder on the crest of left lateral moraine. Strong root.
No chemical and physical alteration. Sampled top 1 cm,
on an inclination of 5o. 3×5×1.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of
28.3 ± 16.1 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,18,19,7,0]. See picture
ER01-52.jpg
Sample ER01-53
Collected on 25 September 2001. Big brown dacite
boulder shows well preserved glacial erosional shapes. No
physical or chemical alteration. Sampled on a 10o inclined
surface with 2 cm depth. Rooted. 1.5×1×0.5 m. Yielded
36
Cl age of 15.2 ± 1.3 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,18,19,7,0]. See
picture ER01-53.jpg
Sample ER01-55
Collected on 25 September 2001. Brown dacite boulder
shows well preserved glacial erosional shapes. No
physical or chemical alteration. Sampled on a 20o inclined
surface in 1 cm depth. Strongly rooted. 1×0.8×0.8 m.
36
Cl
age
of
13.5
±
2.2
ka.
Yielded
Sample ER01-56
Collected on 25 September 2001. Boulder shows well
preserved glacial erosional shapes. Brown dacite. On the
crest of the moraine. No physical or chemical alteration.
Sampled on a 15o inclined surface with 1.5 cm thickness.
Sample ER01-57
Collected on 26 September 2001. Very big boulder shows
well preserved glacial erosional shapes. Brown dacite. No
286
physical or chemical alteration. Sampled on a 25-30o
inclined surface with 1 cm depth. 3×5×1 m. Yielded 36Cl
age of 7.2 ± 5.9 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,2,15,23,7,0]. See picture
ER01-57.jpg
Sample ER01-64
Collected on 26 September 2001. Boulder shows well
preserved glacial erosional shapes. No physical or
chemical alteration. Sampled on a 10o inclined surface.
Aladağlar (Samples used in appendix D)
Sample AL01-101
Collected on 21 August 2001. Rounded limestone
boulder; sculpted by ice. Boulder has traces of original
polished surface. Rooted. Sampled on the top surface.
[10,19,16,8,8,13,11,6,11,0,10,17]. See picture AL01101.jpg
Sample AL01-102
Collected on 21 August 2001. Well rounded limestone
block; smoothed by ice. Polish removed by weathering.
Pits and groves some 3 mm deep. Placed on the next ridge
to the north of sample AL01-101. Both samples are from
moraine that contain abundant red clay matrix. Sampled
on the top center surface. 1×1×0.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of
8.25 ± 0.51 ka. [16,17,19,5,12,12,8,6,10,9,9,15]. See
picture AL01-102.jpg
Sample AL01-103
Collected on 21 August 2001. Bedrock surface.
Limestone. Collected on a 3.5 m deep, 4 m wide plucked
out surface by ice on the direction of glacial flow. Yielded
36
Cl age of 8.74 ± 0.49 ka. [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,10,25,30,20,5].
See picture AL01-103.jpg
Sample AL01-107
Collected on 22 August 2001. Rounded limestone boulder.
Not rooted. Surface has weathering about 1-2 cm deep.
Sampled on top. 3×1.5×1.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.24 ±
0.46 ka. [24,17,4,3,10,19,22,30,30,15,16,27]. See picture
AL01-107.jpg
Sample AL01-108
Collected on 22 August 2001. Rounded, rooted limestone
boulder. Placed on the crest of the moraine. Top surface
287
has 2-3 cm deep chemical weathering. Sampled 20 cm
away from the edge on the top surface. 4×4×2 m. Yielded
36
Cl
age
of
9.32
±
0.34
ka.
Sample AL01-110
Collected on 22 August 2001. Rounded glacially sculpted
limestone boulder. Sampled from top. Chemically
weathered surface has 1-2 cm deep grooves. 3×2×2 m.
36
Cl
age
of
10.13
±
0.54
ka.
Yielded
Sample AL01-111
limestone boulder. Shows some physical and chemical
weathering. Sampled from top. Placed almost flat moraine
crest. 5×2×2 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.27 ± 0.53 ka.
Sample AL01-113
Collected on 25 August 2001. Limestone boulder rounded
and rooted in a clayey-rocky matrix. Cracked and eroded
on top and sides. Placed in a channel probably a melt
water channel. It is 10 m from a roché montonée where
the sample AL01-103 collected. 1.6×1×1.2 m. Yielded
36
Cl
age
of
8.19
±
0.42
ka.
Sample AL01-114
Collected on 25 August 2001. Bedrock on the plucked
side of a roché montonée. Collected on a 3.5 m deep, 0.75
m wide plucked out surface on the direction of glacial
flow. Maximum angle of plucked side is 70o. Yielded 36Cl
age
of
11.34
±
0.58
ka.
[34,11,3,0,38,44,48,40,22,26,23,32]. See pictures AL01114-1.jpg and AL01-114-2.jpg
Sample AL01-116
Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded, slightly eroded,
rooted limestone boulder; shows original surfaces.
Sampled top centre surface. Boulder is placed on
horizontal moraine surface. 1.3×1×0.6 m. Yielded 36Cl age
of 6.93 ± 0.32 ka. [34,11,3,0,16,24,40,34,22,26,23,32].
See picture AL01-116.jpg
288
Sample AL01-118
Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded, glacial shaped
limestone boulder. Some weathering pits on top,
maximum 5 mm deep which shows good indication of
stability. Block is rooted on 10o sloping moraine crest in
its lower end. Sampled top centre surface. Boulder is
placed on horizontal moraine surface. 4×3×3 m. Yielded
36
Cl
age
of
8.29
±
0.41
ka.
Sample AL01-119
Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded, glacial shaped
limestone boulder. Broken to pieces. Sampled top surface.
Boulder is not rooted. It sits on smaller blocks on the crest
of the moraine. Its vertical position indicates that it has not
rolled or otherwise changed position. 3×2×4 m. Yielded
36
Cl
age
of
8.07
±
0.41
ka.
[33,22,14,0,20,33,37,33,23,24,34,35]. See pictures AL01119-1&120-1.jpg and AL01-119-2.jpg
Sample AL01-120
Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded, glacially sculpted
and rooted boulder. It shows little weathering on top.
Placed on the crest of the moraine. Sampled on top
surface. 6×4×5 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.88 ± 0.46 ka.
[48,43,39,2,21,33,32,36,31,31,45,46]. See pictures AL01119-1&120-1.jpg and AL01-120-2.jpg
Sample AL01-121
Collected on 25 August 2001. Well rounded grey
limestone block. It shows little erosion. It is placed on the
end moraine before the lake. 6×4×2.5 m. Yielded 36Cl age
of 9.33 ± 0.56 ka. [40,43,28,20,7,10,15,32,40,40,13,27].
No Picture.
Sample AL01-122
Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded limestone block.
It shows little erosion and grooves. It is placed on the
slope of the moraine, but this is the height point in area.
There are soil developments around the boulder. 5×3×7 m.
36
Yielded
Cl
age
of
9.61
±
0.36
ka.
[45,42,13,0,0,13,20,23,8,0,10,35]. No Picture.
Sample AL01-124
Collected on 25 August 2001. A huge rounded and
fractured limestone block. There are some grooves on the
surface of it. It is in the hummocky area, but at the edge.
20 m from the terminal moraine. Sampled on the top 10o
inclined surface. 10×5×6 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.28 ±
289
0.54 ka. [50,40,12,0,0,0,0,10,5,0,17,42]. No Picture.
Sample AL01-125
Collected on 25 August 2001. A huge rounded and
fractured limestone block. Eroded on top. Placed at the
edge of terminal moraine. Sampled on the top 20o inclined
surface.10×5×8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 8.60 ± 0.51 ka.
[45,15,0,0,13,20,20,20,7,0,20,40]. No Picture.
Sample AL01-127
Collected on 25 August 2001. Fractured limestone block.
Eroded on top. Placed on a small moraine close to the
valley. 4×3×2 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 9.27 ± 0.52 ka.
[20,7,0,0,10,18,20,13,17,20,20,20]. No Picture.
Sample AL01-128
Collected on 25 August 2001. Rounded limestone block.
Placed on the same moraine with sample AL01-127.
[31,34,26,10,4,22,28,33,34,14,23,33]. No Picture.
Sample AL05-172
Collected on 22 July 2005. Rounded chemically
weathered limestone block. Rooted and cracked. Placed
very close to the river on the most extensive moraine.
Sampled on the top flat surface. 2×1×1 m. Yielded 36Cl
age of 10.01 ± 0.32 ka. Topo measurements at 0o, 45 o, 90
o
, 135 o, 180 o, 225 o, 270 o, 315 o from azimuth North:
[13,16,19,6,10,17,17,21]. See pictures AL01-172-1.jpg,
AL01-172-2.jpg, AL01-172-3.jpg and AL01-172-4.jpg
Sample AL05-173
Collected on 22 July 2005. A huge limestone block;
Cracked at top, rooted very well. Sampled on the 5o
inclined top surface. Placed on a lower surface than the
sample AL05-172. 15×20×8 m. Yielded 36Cl age of 10.22
± 0.24 ka. [12,17,24,13,8,10,18,20]. See pictures AL01173-1.jpg, AL01-173-2.jpg, AL01-173-3.jpg and AL01173-4.jpg
Sample AL05-174
Collected on 22 July 2005. A huge limestone block.
Placed on the most extensive moraine. Sampled on the 15o
northeast inclined top surface 20×30×15 m. Yielded 36Cl
age of 10.36 ± 0.25 ka. [12,15,20,10,13,16,18,22]. See
pictures AL01-174-1.jpg, AL01-174-2.jpg, AL01-1743.jpg, AL01-174-4.jpg and AL01-174-5.jpg
290
Pictures of Samples FOLDER CONTAINS THE DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHS OF
SAMPLES TAKEN IN THE FIELD
ATTRIBUTES, GEOCHEMICAL AND ISOTOPIC ANALYTICAL, AND SPIKE
DATA OF SAMPLES THAT USED IN COSMOGENIC AGE CALCULATIONS ARE
GIVEN IN FILE SampleData.xls
A WORKBOOK TO CALCULATE AVERAGE MORAINE AGE FROM MULTIPLE
SAMPLES IS GIVEN IN MoraineAgeCalculator.xls
LONG TERM PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURE DATA OF TURKEY USED
FOR INTERPOLATION TO THE MODELED MOUNTAINS ARE GIVEN IN FILE
ClimateData.xls
291
APPENDIX J
TURKISH GEOGRAPHICAL NAME INDEX AND THEIR MEANINGS IN ENGLISH
292
Name
Descriptions
Ağrı (Ararat)
The mountain where the Noah's Ark is believed to have landed.
Akdağ
White mountain. “Ak” means white, and “dağ” means mountain.
Aksu
White water. “Ak” means white, and “su” means water.
Aladağlar
Speckled mountains. “Ala” means speckled in color, and “dağlar”
means mountains.
Altıparmak
Six fingers. “Altı” means number six, and “parmak” means finger.
Aptalmusa
Silly Musa. “Aptal” means silly, and “musa” is a male name given
after the prophet Moses.
Aygörmez
Out of vision of moon. “Ay” means moon, and “görmez” means
doesn’t see or not visible.
Aynalı
With mirror. “Ayna” means mirror, “lı” at the end is the preposition
with.
Balık Gölü
Fish Lake. “Balık” means fish, “Göl” means lake, “ü” at the end is the
preposition.
Beyazsu
White water. “Beyaz” means white, and “su” means water.
Beydağ
Mister mountain. “Bey” means mister or gentleman, and “dağ” means
mountain.
Bolkar
Plenty of snow. “Bol” means plenty, and “kar” means snow.
Bulut
Cloud.
Buzuldağ
Glacier mountain. “Buzul” means glacier, “dağ” means mountain.
Çamardı
Behind of the pine tree. “Çam” means pine tree, and “ardı” means
behind it.
Çarık Tepe
Sandal hill. “Çarık” mean sandal, “Tepe” means hill.
Çiçekbaba
Flower father. “Çiçek” means flower, and “baba” means father.
Çıralıoluk Tepe
Resinous kindling channel hill. “Çıra” means resinous kindling, and
“oluk” means channel, “Tepe” means hill.
Dağ
Mountain.
293
Dağı
The mountain (e.g. Erciyes Dağı).
Dağlar
Mountains.
Dağları
The mountains (e.g. Kaçkar Dağları).
Dedegöl
Grandfather lake. “Dede” means grandfather, and “göl” means lake.
Demirkazık
Iron stake. “Demir” means iron, and “kazık” means stake.
Dere
Creek.
Dikkartın
Steep hill. “Dik” means steep, and “kartın” is used for rocky hills.
Dökülgen
Thing that can be poured.
Doruk
Peak.
Emli(k)
Untimely born lamb or goat kid.
Erciyes (Argaeous)
Named after the Macedonian king Argaeus I who lived in 678 – 640
BC.
Esence
Windy.
Eski Acıgöl
Old brackish lake. “Eski” means old, “acı” means brackish for water,
and “göl” means lake.
Ganimet
Loot.
Gavur
Infidel.
Gedik
Crevice.
Gelincik
Poppy.
Geyikdağ
Deer mountain. “Geyik” means deer, and “dağ” means mountain.
Gökoluk
Sky-blue channel. “Gök” means sky-blue, and “oluk” means channel.
Göl
Lake.
Gölgeli Dağları
Shadowy mountains. “Gölgeli” means Shadowy, “Dağlar” means
mountains. “ı” at the end is the preposition.
Göller
Lakes. “Göl” means lake, “ler” at the end makes the meaning plural.
Hacer
Rock or Stone [In Arabic].
294
Hızır
An immortal person believed to come in time of need. Godsend man.
İkiyaka
Two bank, or two side. “İki” means number two, and “yaka” means
two side of a place, e.g. bank of a stream.
Karadağ
Black mountain. “Kara” means black, and “dağ” means mountain.
Karagöl
Black lake. “Kara” means black, and “göl” means lake.
Karagüllü
With black rose. “Kara” means black, and “gül” means rose. “lü” at
the end is the preposition.
Kartal Gölü
Eagle Lake. “Kartal” means eagle, “Göl” means lake. “ü” at the end is
the preposition.
Kartal Tepe
Eagle Hill. “Kartal” means eagle, “Tepe” means hill.
Kartın
Rock hill.
Kaya(ç)
Rock.
Keşiş
Monk.
Keşişdağ
Monk mountain. “Keşiş” means monk, and “dağ” means mountain.
Kilimli
With rug. “Kilim” means rug, “li” at the end is the preposition.
Körmenlik
Castle place. “Körmen” or “kermen” means castle, and “lik” is the
preposition.
Lazgediği
Laz people’ Crevice. People who live in the South Caucasus,
especially in northeast Turkey are called “Laz”, “gedik” means
crevice, “gediği” means crevice of something (or somebody).
Maden
Mining.
Medetsiz
Helpless.
Mercan
Coral.
Mescid(t)
Small mosque. Masjid [In Arabic]
Munzur
Prankster.
Öksüzdere
Orphan creek. “Öksüz” means orphan, and “dere” means creek.
Perikartını
Fairy hill. “Peri” means fairy, and “kartın” is used for rocky hills. “ı”
295
at the end is the preposition.
Poyraz
Boreal. Northeast wind.
Sandık
Chest or Box.
Saraycık
Small palace. “Saray” means palace, and “cık” at the end makes the
meaning smaller.
Soğanlı
With onion. “Soğan” means onion, and “lı” at the end is the
preposition.
Süphan
Short form of Subhanallah which means “Glorious is Allah”.
Susam
Sesame.
Susuz
Waterless. “Su” means water, and “suz” gives without to the
meaning.
Tahtalı
Woody. “Tahta” means wood, and “lı” at the end is the preposition.
Taş
Rock, stone.
Topaktaş
Pile of rocks. “Topak” means lump or pile, and “taş” means rock.
Üçdoruk
Three peaks. “Üç” means number three, and “doruk” means peak.
Üçker
Thrice.
Uludağ
Almighty mountain. “Ulu” means almighty, and “dağ” means
mountain.
Uludoruk
Grand peak. “Ulu” means grand, and “doruk” means peak.
Ulugöl Tepe
Grand lake hill. “Ulu” means grand, and “göl” means lake, “Tepe”
means hill.
Uyluktepe
Femoral hill. “Uyluk” means femoral, and “tepe” means hill.
Yaylalar
Summer camping grounds. “Yayla” means summer camp, and “lar”
makes the meaning plural.
Yedigöller
Seven lakes. “Yedi” means seven, and “göl” means lake. “ler” at the
end makes plural.
Yedigöz
Seven eyes. “Yedi” means seven, and “göz” means eye.
296
APPENDIX K
THE FORTRAN CODE FOR GLACIER MODEL
297
! This program simulates valley glaciers using a central ice flow-line model. Adapted
! partly from Oerlemans et al., (1998) [Oerlemans, J., Anderson, B., Hubbard, A.,
! Huybrechts, P., Johannesson, T., Knap, W.H., Schmeits, M., Stroeven, A.P.,
! van de Wal, R.S.W., Wallinga, J. and Zuo, Z., 1998. Modelling the response of glaciers
! to climate warming. Climate Dynamics 14 (4), 267-274.]
! The climate projection files (t.txt for temperature and p.txt for precipitation) should be
! in the same directory with the model run. The format of climate files as follows:
! column 1 is for distance from the head of the glacier in increments of dx, column 2 is
! for elevation, column 3-14 are for monthly climate values (Jan-Dec). Save this code in a
! text editor with an *.f extension and then go to the model directory and type g95
! filename.f. Hit enter and run a.exe to start the model. Output files will in the output.txt,
! diagnostic.txt and gl.txt files.
parameter (m=21) !number of grids of model parameters and climate projections
! for all arrays first dimension is x, the direction down valley, and second time
real b(m),crit(m,0:1),diff(0:m+1,0:1),flux(0:m+1,0:1),
1 h(0:m+1,0:1),hmean(0:1),hs(0:m+1,0:1),mb(0:m,0:1),
1 slope(0:m,0:1),volume(0:1),tau(0:m,0:1),
1 us(0:m,0:1),width(0:m),xcounter(0:m),dist(m)
1
1
real bmean,count,c2,dt,f1,g,
gradref,Lref,mbmeanax,
rhoi,rog,sommb,xl
integer dx,dx2,i,ii,n,npy,mode,t,mm
! positive degree day parameters for ablation of ice/snow
real sigma,ddfs,ddfi,toffset,pamp
real sl_temp(12),prec(12)
real orig_sl_temp(12),orig_prec(12)
real surf_temp(0:m,12),surf_prec(0:m,12),snow,acc(m)
real orig_surf_temp(0:m,12),orig_surf_prec(0:m,12)
real pdd(m),sum,abl(m)
! some constants
sigma=3.95 ! standard deviation of monthly temperatures [C]
ddfs=0.003 ! degree day factor for snow [m/day/C]
ddfi=0.008 ! degree day factor for ice [m/day/C]
rhoi=911 ! density of ice [kg/m^3]
g=9.8 ! acceleration due to gravity [m/s^2]
dx=100 ! grid spacing (m)
298
npy=500 ! number of time steps per year for numerical stability
n=100000 ! total number of time steps (200 years default)
f1=0.5E-16 ! a constant [m^6/s/N^3]
! intermediate values
dx2=2*dx ! double the grid spacing
dt=1./npy ! time step: how many years is one step [year]
rog=rhoi*g ! specific weight of ice [N/m^3]
! First read in temperature as a function of month and distance (dx) along
! glacier. This information must contained in the file t.txt in the same folder
open(13,file='t.txt',status='old')
do i=1,m
read (13,*) dist(i),b(i),(orig_surf_temp(i,j),j=1,12)
h(i,0)=0.0
hs(i,0)=h(i,0)+b(i)
width(i)=1. ! glacier width along transect (cross section).
enddo
close(13)
! First read in precipitation as a function of month and distance (dx) along
! glacier. This information must contained in the file p.txt in the same folder
open(14,file='p.txt',status='old')
do i=1,m
read (14,*) dist(i),b(i),(orig_surf_prec(i,j),j=1,12)
enddo
close(14)
! Open some files to output model results to
open(2,file='output.txt')
open(3,file='diagnostics.txt')
open(4,file='gl.txt')
! Search through different values of temperature and precipitation
! to see how the glacier changes. To just make one model run, set
! these values below to the desired values (eg index_temp=1,1,1)
do index_temp=1,20,1
299
do index_prec=1,4,1
! Convert these index terms into some climate parameters. For present
! day values index_temp=1 and pamp=1
toffset=index_temp-1
pamp=index_prec
do i=1,m
do mm=1,12
surf_temp(i,mm)=orig_surf_temp(i,mm)-toffset
surf_prec(i,mm)=orig_surf_prec(i,mm)*pamp
enddo
enddo
! Glacier elevation hs equals ice thickness h plus valley elevation b
do i=1,m
h(i,0)=0.0
h(i,1)=0.0
hs(i,0)=h(i,0)+b(i)
hs(i,1)=h(i,0)+b(i)
enddo
! boundary conditions at the head of the glacier
t=0
slope(1,t)=(hs(2,t)-hs(1,t))/dx
h(1,t)=h(2,t)
hs(1,t)=h(1,t)+b(1)
tau(1,t)=rog*slope(1,t)*h(1,t)
us(1,t)=f1*tau(1,t)*tau(1,t)*tau(1,t)*h(1,t)
hs(0,t)=hs(1,0)+dx*tan(slope(1,t))
diff(1,t)=f1*rog**3*h(1,t)**5
diff(1,t)=diff(1,t)*((hs(2,t)-hs(0,t))/dx2)**2
c
diff(1,t)=diff(1,t)*width(1)
! time loop
do 900 ii=0,n
volume(t+1)=0.
hmean(t+1)=0.
t=0
xl=0.
hs(m+1,t)=0.
diff(m+1,t)=0.
do 50 i=2,m
slope(i,t)=(hs(i-1,t)-hs(i+1,t))/dx2
tau(i,t)=rog*slope(i,t)*h(i,t)
300
c
50
us(i,t)=f1*tau(i,t)*tau(i,t)*tau(i,t)*h(i,t)
diff(i,t)=f1*rog**3*h(i,t)**5
diff(i,t)=diff(i,t)*slope(i,t)**2
diff(i,t)=diff(i,t)*width(i)
if(diff(i,t).gt.1) then
crit(i,t)=dx**2/(4*diff(i,t))
if(dt.gt.crit(i,t))then
write(*,*)diff(i,t),i,ii
stop 'instability'
endif
endif
continue
! Calculate glacier mass balance here
! Positive Degree Day formulation, calculated at start (ii.eq.0)
! and every year (mod(ii,npy).le.0.001).
if (ii.eq.0.or.mod(ii,npy).le.0.001) then
do i=1,m
acc(i)=0.0 ! snow accumulation
pdd(i)=0.0 ! number of positive degree days
sum=0.0 ! intermediate term in pdd formulation
do mm=1,12 ! calculate month by month
! Calculate how much snow has fallen in one year. If the temperature
! is less than or equal zero degrees all of the rain is assumed to have fallen
! as snow. If the temperature is greater than zero degrees none of the
! rain is assumed to have fallen as snow.
if(surf_temp(i,mm).le. 0)then
snow=surf_prec(i,mm)
else
snow=0
endif
acc(i)=acc(i)+snow/(0.91*1000.0)
! calculate positive degree days.
sum=sum+(0.3989*exp(-1.58*abs(surf_temp(i,mm)/sigma)
!**1.1372)+max(0.00,surf_temp(i,mm)/sigma))*30.4
enddo
pdd(i)=sum*sigma
enddo
! Have there been enough positive degree days this year to melt all
! of the snowfall which fell this year? If so, melt some ice as well
301
! (first if option). Otherwise just melt some snow (second if option)
do i=1,m
if(acc(i)/ddfs.le.pdd(i))then
abl(i)=(pdd(i)-acc(i)/ddfs)*ddfi+acc(i)
else
abl(i)=pdd(i)*ddfs
endif
! mass balance is ice accumulation minus ice ablation
mb(i,t)=acc(i)-abl(i)
enddo
endif
! end of mass balance routine
! Calculate how glacier responds to this mass balance
! Differential equation is
! change in glacier height with time =
! divergence of the mass flux + mass balance
do 75 i=2,m
h(i,t+1)=h(i,t)+dt/(2*dx**2)*((hs(i+1,t)-hs(i,t))*
1
(diff(i+1,t)+diff(i,t))-(hs(i,t)-hs(i-1,t))*
1
(diff(i,t)+diff(i-1,t)))+mb(i,t)*dt
if(h(i,t+1).lt.0.) h(i,t+1)=0.
hs(i,t+1)=h(i,t+1)+b(i)
volume(t+1)=volume(t+1)+h(i,t+1)*width(i)*dx
if(h(i,t+1).gt.0) xl=i
75
continue
hmean(t+1)=volume(t+1)/(m-1)
do 385 i=2,m
h(i,t)=h(i,t+1)
hs(i,t)=hs(i,t+1)
385 continue
h(1,t)=h(2,t)
hs(1,t)=hs(2,t)
900 continue ! end of main time loop
! output model results to the screen and to data files
write(*,*) "Temperature dep:",toffset,
+"Precipitation fac:",pamp,"Glacier Length",xl*0.1
write(20,*) toffset,pamp,xl*0.1
302
!
!
output fields for output.txt: glacier elevation, ground elevation
glacier thickness, mass balance, surface velocity
do i=1,m
write(2,*) hs(i,t),b(i),h(i,t),mb(i,t),us(i,t),toffset,pamp
!
output fields for diagnostics.txt: accumulation, ablation, surface temperature,
!
number of positive degree days, mass balance, temperature depression,
!
precipitation factor
write(3,*) acc(i),abl(i),surf_temp(i,7),pdd(i),
+mb(i,t),toffset,pamp
enddo
!
output fields for gl.txt: temperature depression, precipitation factor, glacier length
!
write(4,*) toffset,pamp,xl*0.1
enddo
end of index_temp loop
!
enddo
end of index_prec loop
close(2)
close(3)
999 end
303
APPENDIX L
SUPPLEMENTARY CD
The supplementary CD includes these electronic files.
Folder and File names
Appendix H Files
AgeCalculator.xls
SpikeCalculator.xls
Appendix I Files
Pictures of Samples
SampleData.xls
ClimateData.xls
Size (KB)
27
348
28
63
Folder
84
54
2,143

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