Fuel - Abdullah Demir

HİBRİD VE ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR
VERİMLİLİK VE KIYASLAMALAR
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Abdullah DEMİR
«Her tercih bir vazgeçiştir»
What is an EPA rating?
 Conditions
 Drive cycle: e.g. city or
highway cycle, realworld, or constant
speed
 Test temperature
 Start: (warm or cold)
Fuel: convert to
gasoline-equivalent
 Test mass: (accounts for
passengers and cargo)
 MPGe rating
 PHEV’s
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Fuel Economy of PHEVs
The fuel economy of conventional vehicles is evaluated by fuel consumption
(liters) per 100 km, or miles per gallon. In the United States, the Environmental
Protection Agency sets the methods for fuel economy certification. There are
usually two numbers, one for city driving and one for highway driving. There is
an additional fuel economy number that evaluates the combined fuel economy
by combining the 55% city and 45% highway MPG numbers [6–8]:
For pure EVs, the fuel economy is best described by electricity consumption for
a certain range, for example, watt hour/mile or kWh/100 km. For example, a
typical passenger car consumes 120–250 Wh/mile. In order to compare the fuel
efficiency of EVs with conventional gasoline or diesel vehicles, the energy
content of gasoline is used to convert the numbers. Since 1 gallon of gasoline
contains 33.7 kWh energy (http://www.eere.doe.gov), the equivalent fuel
economy of an EV can be expressed as
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao.
/ 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Fuel Economy of PHEVs
Therefore, a passenger car that consumes 240 Wh/mile will have an
equivalent gasoline mileage of 140 MPG from the energy point of view.
Notlar:
MPG = mil/gal
1 gal = 4,54 litre (UK)
1 gal = 3,78 litre (US)
1 barrel petroluen = 42 gal = 158,99 litre (ham petrol)
[US]
1 mil= 1609 m
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao.
/ 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
EK NOTLAR: NEDC (New European Driving Cycle - Yeni Avrupa Sürüş Çevrimi)
Çevrim: Bir taşıtın belli bir mesafeyi
belli hız ve viteslerde katetmesidir.
Özellikler:
Çevrim uzunluğu : 11,007 km
Ortalama hız
: 33.6 km/h
Maks. hız
: 120 km/h
Avrupa: NEDC (New European Driving Cycle - Yeni Avrupa Sürüş Çevrimi) 40
saniye rölanti periyotsuzdur. Ölçüm motor çalıştırıldıktan hemen sonra başlar.
EK NOTLAR: YAKIT TÜKETİMİ ÖLÇME
Yakıt tüketim testleri/değerleri, genellikle 2004/3/EC ile düzeltilmiş AB Direktifi
80/1268/EEC'ye göre yapılmaktadır. Ayrıca AB’nin RL 1999/100/CE normuna göre de
değerler verilmektedir. Araçların teknik özelliklerinin belirtildiği broşür ya da kullanıcı el
kitaplarındaki şehir içi, şehir dışı ve ortalama yakıt tüketim değerlerinin hangi
direktiflere göre tespit edildiği genellikle ilgili bölümde dipnot olarak belirtilmektedir.
80/1268/EEC direktifi yakıt tüketimi değerleri: Laboratuar ortamında ve
belirli koşullarda yapılan testlerde elde edilen, l/100 km mertebesinde sonuçları
göstermektedir. Bu direktife göre:
Şehir içi yakıt tüketimi, laboratuar ortamında soğuktan çalıştırılmış motor ile 4 km'lik
teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 50 km/h ve ortalama 19 km/h hızla ölçülmüş
yakıt tüketim değerlerdir.
Şehir dışı yakıt tüketimi ise şehir içi ölçümünden hemen sonra gerçekleştirilen, 7 km'lik
teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 120 km/h hıza ulaşacak şekilde, yarı zamanlı sabit
hız ve yarı zamanlı değişken hızla ölçülmüş yakıt tüketim değerleridir.
Birleşik/Karma tüketim değeri ise şehir içi ve şehir dışı testlerinin kat edilen mesafe
ölçüsüyle ağırlıklı ortalaması alınarak hesaplanmaktadır.
Karma yakıt tüketimi; otomobil yaklaşık %37 normal şehir içi trafikte ve yaklaşık %63 şehir
dışı trafikte kullanılarak elde edilir.
Well-to-Wheel Efficiency
The above fuel efficiencies are also called tank-to-wheel efficiencies. This does not
reflect the losses during the refining and distribution. It is sometimes easier to
compare the overall fuel efficiencies of conventional vehicles and EVs. For gasoline,
this efficiency is 83%, which reflects a lumped efficiency from the refining and
distribution of gasoline. For electricity generation, this efficiency is 30.3%, which
reflects a lumped efficiency that includes electricity generation of 32.8% (assume
electricity is generated from gasoline) and distribution of electricity at 92.4%. Charge
efficiency of the battery also needs to be reflected [9]. Thus,
where ηelectricity =30.3 and ηgasoline =83%, and subscript ICEV stands for Internal
Combustion Engine Vehicle.
Example 4: A car of 30 MPG will have a well-to-wheel fuel efficiency of 24
MPG, and an EV that consumes 240 Wh/mile will have a well-to-wheel
efficiency of 42.5 MPG.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao.
/ 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PHEV Fuel Economy
For PHEVs, it is usually confusing as to which number should be used. Here, we
discuss two different scenarios: all-electric capable PHEVs and blended PHEVs.
For all-electric capable PHEVs, it is useful to indicate the electric range, in miles
or kilometers, and associated energy consumption during that range, in kilowatt
hours/mile, and potentially gas equivalent MPG. Another set of numbers is
needed to show the MPG during CS mode driving. A suggested label is shown in
Figure 4. For blended PHEVs, since there is no pure electric driving range, it is
useful to label the fuel economy in CD and CS mode separately as shown in
Figure 5. It may be preferred to include the electric energy consumption during
CD mode as well.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao.
/ 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PHEV Fuel Economy
Figure 4: Fuel economy labeling for all-electric-capable PHEV
Figure 5: Fuel economy labeling for blended PHEV
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao.
/ 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Electrification
Conventional
Hybrid
Battery Electric
Fuel
Battery
Fuel
Battery
Engine
Motor/
Generator
Engine
Motor/
Generator
Transmission
Transmission
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Transmission
Energy Loss : City Driving
Standby
8%
Fuel Tank
100%
Engine
Aero
3%
16%
Engine Loss
76%
Driveline
13%
Driveline
Losses
3%
POWERTRAIN
Urban Drive Cycle Energy Balance
2005 3 L Toyota Camry
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Rolling
4%
Braking
6%
VEHICLE-Related
Energy Loss : Highway Driving
Standby
0%
Fuel Tank:
100%
Engine
Aero
10%
23%
Engine Loss
77%
Driveline
19%
Driveline
Losses
4%
POWERTRAIN
Highway Drive Cycle Energy Balance
2005 3 L Toyota Camry
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Rolling
7%
Braking
2%
VEHICLE-Related
Energy Saving : Hybrid Systems
Micro Hybrid
Eliminates
Standby
8%
Fuel Tank:
100%
Engine
Engine Loss
76%
Full Hybrid
Reduces
Plug-in
Aero
3%
16%
Driveline
13%
Rolling
4%
Braking
6%
Driveline
Losses
3%
•Engine downsizing
•Decoupling of engine and wheel
•Can eliminate engine entirely
Mild Hybrid
Reduces
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Energy Loss : City Driving – Electric Vehicle
Urban Drive Cycle Energy Balance
90%
Batteries
100%
76%
Motor
Driveline
Motor Loss
10%
Driveline
Losses
14%
POWERTRAIN
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Aero
29%
Rolling
35%
Braking
11%
VEHICLE-Related
Well-to-Wheels Efficiency
Well-to-Tank
Generation
33%
Tank-to-Wheels
Transmission
94%
31%
31%
Refining
82%
Source: http://www.nesea.org
Transmission
98%
23%
Plug-to-Wheels
76%
76%
80%
Pump-to-Wheels
16%
80%
13%
16%
[http://www.nesea.org/]]
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
= 23%
= 13%
EV vs. ICEV
Well-to-Wheel
Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
Challenges
Why don’t they catch on? A conspiracy?
Gasoline: The (almost) perfect fuel
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density
Energy Equivalency
Gas
1 Gallon
2.7 kg
Batteries
21 Li-ion batteries
(Car battery size)
135 MJ
of energy
340
kg
54 gal
Challenges
 Limited Range
 Large battery weight/size





Long charge times
High initial cost
Battery life
Consumer acceptance
Grid Integration
Operating Costs
 In Europe, $60/barrel oil is enough,
 In the US, $4/gal gas is needed to be price competitive
Addressing customer perception
 Accepting limited range
 Most people drive less than 40 mi/day
 Most cars are parked 23 hours of the day anyway
 Smaller vehicles & reduced performance
 In the last 30 years, nearly 100% of efficiency
improvements have gone to increasing vehicle size
and performance, not reducing consumption
 How do you get people to charge at the right
time?
Source: On the Road in 2035, Heywood, et.al.
KIYASLAMA VE HESAPLAMA İÇİN,
KONVANSİYONEL YAKITLAR, FİYAT VE
DEĞERLER
Operating Costs
Battery Electric Vehicle
On-board energy consumption
300 Wh/mile
Charging Efficiency
90%
Electricity consumption
333 Wh/mile
Electricity Cost
10 cents/mile
Driving Cost (electricity only)
3.3 cents/mile
Conventional Gasoline Vehicle
Fuel economy
25 MPG
Fuel Cost
$2.00/gallon
Driving Cost (fuel only)
8.0 cents/mile
At 15,000 miles/year, you
would save $700/year on
fuel
The estimated price range
for advanced batteries is
$500 - $1,000 per kWh
~ buying 1 kWh of battery
energy (~3 miles of electric
range) each year
CO2 Emissions
Elektrikli Araç
Akü kapasitesi 24 kWh(İyi durumda batarya) (0.25kWh/kg)
Elektrik Motor verimi (ortalama): %85
Tekerleğe aktarılan enerji: 20.4 kWh
Düz yolda ortalama güç: 20.4 kW
Ortalama hız: 130 km/h
Alınan mesafe yaklaşık 130 km
Benzinli Araç
Depo hacmi: 45 l
Özgül Ağırlık: 0.75 kg/l
Benzin ağırlığı: 33.75 kg
Benzin enerji yoğunluğu: 45MJ/kg
Toplam enerji yaklaşık: 1520MJ= 422kWh
Tekerleğe aktarılan (verim %20 kabul edilerek): 84.4 kWh
Düz yolda ortalama güç : 20.4 kW
Ortalama hız: 130 km/h
Alınan mesafe yaklaşık 537 km (EV den yaklaşık 4 kat fazla)
Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
Benzinli Araç
Enerji Tüketimi = Ortalama Tüketim x Enerji Yoğunluğu
Enerji Tüketimi = 0.076 l/km x 32 MJ/l = 2.4 MJ/km = 0.667 kWh/km
Mekanik Verim %20 alınırsa: 2.4 MJ/km x 0.2 = 0.48 MJ/km
Elektrikli Araç
Doldurma/boşaltma verimi: %86
Elektrik motoru verimi (ortalama): %85
Enerji tüketimi: 0.48 MJ/km/ (0.85 x 0.86) = 0.65 MJ/km
Geri kazanımlı frenleme ile enerji tüketimi bir miktar azalacaktır.
Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
ELEKTRİKLİ ARACIN EKONOMİKLİĞİ
OTOPARKTA ŞARJ
Evimizde 6.04 kWh/gün = 6.04 kWh/gün x 365=2204
kWh/yıl
Elektrikli araç:
2204 kWh/yıl: Elektrikli araç için 11.000 km = 600 TL
Otopark ücreti: 100 şarj/yıl x 5 TL/gün = 500 TL
Hizmet Bedeli: 100 şarj/yıl x 2,5 TL/gün = 250 TL
Toplam: 1350 TL
Benzinli araç:
Benzinli bir araç (7 lt/100 km) = 7x110x3,7 = 2849 TL
Yaklaşık %100 tasarruf
Fatura Bilgisi: 139 kWh =37,8 TL (1 kWh = 0,27 TL); Tarih: 20/11/2010
EVDE ŞARJ
Elektrikli araç:
2204 kWh/yıl: Elektrikli araç için
11.000 km = 600 TL + 200 TL
sanayi farkı
Toplam: 800 TL
Benzinli araç:
Benzinli bir araç (7 lt/100 km) =
7x110x3,7 = 2849 TL
Yaklaşık
%280 tasarruf
Meeting the
Challenges
Looking Forward
 Tipping point will be ~2020 when 10% of vehicles sold
will be BEV’s
 Battery cost: ~$700-$1,500 / kWh, down to $420 by
2015, but still too high.
 Price Premium
 PHEV40
$11,800 > ICE
 EV100 $24,100 > ICE
 Long-term PHEV’s will beat out HEV’s
 PHEV’s likely to dominate BEVs
 A 30-50% reduction in fuel consumption by 2035
*Heywood
 47% reduction by 2030 *McKinsey
Source: McKinsey Quarterly: Electrifying Cars: How three industries will evolve ;
http://newenergynews.blogspot.com/2009/08/mckinsey-looks-at-coming-ev-phenomenon.html