Collective Memory and National Membership

Transkript

Notes
Introduction
1. See Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992) and Thomas Janoski, ‘The
Difference that Empire Makes: Institutions and Politics of Citizenship in
Germany and Austria,’ Citizenship Studies 13, no. 4 (August 2009): 381–411;
Thomas Janoski, The Ironies of Citizenship: Naturalization Processes in Advanced
Industrialized Countries (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010),
respectively.
2. Étienne Balibar, ‘The Nation Form: History and Ideology,’ in Race, Nation,
Class: Ambiguous Identities, ed. Etienne Balibar and Immanuel Wallerstein,
trans. Chris Turner (London: Verso, 1992), 86.
3. Jens Brockmeier, ‘Remembering and Forgetting: Narrative as Cultural
Memory,’ Culture Psychology 8 (2002): 15–43.
4. Paul Ricoeur, ‘Narrative Time,’ Critical Inquiry 7, no. 1, On Narrative (Autumn,
1980): 169–190.
5. Hayden White, ‘The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality,’
Critical Inquiry 7, no. 1, On Narrative (Autumn, 1980): 10.
6. White, ‘The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality,’ 24.
7. White, ‘The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality,’ 24.
8. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame:
University of Notre Dame Press, 2007 (1981)).
9. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1989), 47.
10. Francesca Polletta, ‘“It was like a Fever ... ” Narrative and Identity in Social
Protest,’ Social Problems 45, no. 2 (May, 1998): 154.
11. Moreno Eduardo Manzano and Juan Sisinio Perez Garzon, ‘A Difficult
Nation? History and Nationalism in Contemporary Spain,’ History & Memory
14, no. 1/2 (Fall 2002): 276.
12. J. Jeffery Bridger and David Maines, ‘Narrative Structures and the Catholic
Church Closings in Detroit,’ Qualitative Sociology 21 (1998): 319–340. On the
relationship between narrative and the construction of social identity see
also Margaret R. Somers, ‘The Narrative Constitution of Identity: A Relational
and Network Approach,’ Theory and Society 23, no. 5 (Oct., 1994): 605–649.
13. Rogers Smith, Stories of Peoplehood: The Politics and Morals of Political Memberships (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Bo Rothstein, Social
Traps and the Problem of Trust (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005);
Consuelo Cruz, ‘Identity and Persuasion: How Nations Remember Their Pasts
and Make Their Futures.’ World Politics 52, no. 3 (Apr., 2000): 311.
14. Hayden V. White, Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Cultural Criticism (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978): 85.
15. Jan Assmann Ass, Das Kulturelle Gedächtnis. Schrift, Erinnerung und Politische
Identität in Frühen Hochkulturen [Cultural Memory: Writing, Remembrance and
101
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16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Notes
Political Identity in Early Civilizations] (Munich: Verlag C.H. Beck, 1992): 14.
Emphasis in original.
For such examples see Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (London:
Verso, 1991); Eric J. Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, (eds). The Invention of
Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); John R., Gillis,
ed. Commemorations: the Politics of National Identity (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1994).
For a similar critique concerning collective memory studies see Jeffrey K.
Olick, ed. States of Memory: Continuities, Conflicts, and Transformations in
National Retrospection (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 4.
Stephen Pepper, World Hypotheses: A Study in Evidence (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1942). A world hypothesis, according to Pepper, is a model
of the universe of observations and inferences. While Pepper’s types of world
hypotheses were not applied to history or historical narratives by Pepper
himself, they are very useful in categorizing historical narratives. Hayden
White applied Pepper’s categories to the works of historians and historical
theorists of the 19th century. However, he did not apply these categories
to national historical narratives and he did not connect them to broader
projects of nation building and identity formation, as I do in this study.
Hayden V. White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-century
Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975).
Pepper, World Hypotheses, 281.
Pepper’s original categories consisted of organicism, contextualism, mechanism, and formalism. Pepper’s fourth category, formalism, does not fit official historical discourses because it does not give a message, or organize the
events in such a way that it is possible to justify certain notions of nationhood based on it. Formalistic explanation is complete when elements of
history are identified, labeled and categorized. In formalistic explanations,
one tries to lay out the characteristics of objects and events without inferring
any cause and effect relationships as is the case with mechanistic accounts.
Further, one does not try to explain an integrative, teleological process as is
the case with organicism. Finally, no explanation based on the interrelationship between the agents within the historical field is provided as is the case
with contextualism. White, Metahistory, 14–22.
R. M. Lerner, Concepts and Theories of Human Development, 3rd ed. (Mahwah:
Erlbaum, 2001): 69.
Pepper, World Hypotheses, 291–292.
John A. Johnson, Christopher K. Germer, Jay S. Efran, ‘Personality as the
Basis for Theoretical Predilections,’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
55, no. 5 (1988): 825.
My focus on dominant historical narratives is in parallel with Yael Zerubavel’s
notion of ‘master commemorative narrative,’ which is ‘a broader view of
history, “a basic story line” that is culturally constructed and provides the
group members with a general notion of the past.’ Yael Zerubavel, Recovered
Roots: Collective Memory and the Making of Israeli National Tradition (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1995), 6.
See for instance Hobsbawm and Ranger, (eds). The Invention of Tradition.
Michael Schudson, ‘The Present in the Past versus the Past in the Present,’
Communication 11 (1989): 105–113 and Barry Schwartz, ‘Social Change and
102
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
2
103
Collective Memory: The Democratization of George Washington,’ American
Sociological Review 56, no. 2 (Apr., 1991): 221–236.
Jene Brophy and Bruce Sledright, Teaching and Learning History in Elementary
Schools (New York: Teachers College Press, 1997), 20, cited in Elie Podeh,
‘History and Memory in the Israeli Educational System The Portrayal of the
Arab-Israeli Conflict in History Textbooks (1948–2000),’ History & Memory,
12, issue 1, (Spring/Summer 2000): 68.
Orsolya Vincze, Judit Tóth and János László, ‘Representations of the AustroHungarian Monarchy in the History Books of the Two Nations,’ Empirical
Text and Culture Research 3 (2007): 69.
For periodization see appendix.
Derrick P. Alridge, ‘The Limits of Master Narratives in History Textbooks: An
Analysis of Representations of Martin Luther King, Jr.,’ Teachers College Record
108, no. 4 (April 2006): 664–665.
Peter Utgaard, Remembering and Forgetting Nazism: Education, National Identity,
and the Victim Myth in Postwar Austria (New York: Berghahn Books, 2003), 5.
Kaya H. Kahyaoğlu, Dilara Kahyaoglu, Ayse Cetiner, Mutlu Ozturk and Nuket
Eren . ‘National Report: Turkey,’ in Improvement of Balkan History Textbooks
Project Reports, ed. E. Keskinsoy and C. Ertür (Istanbul: The Economic and
Social History Foundation of Turkey, December, 2001), 159.
Kahyaoğlu, et al. ‘National Report: Turkey,’ 159.
Bülent Tarman and Cemalletin Ayas. ‘Comparing Issues Surrounding Turkish
and Japanese History Books,’ International Journal of Historical Learning,
Teaching and Research 10, no. 1 (August 2011): 72.
Gunter Bischof and Anton Pelinka, (eds). Austrian Historical Memory and
National Identity (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1997): 3. See also Erich Zollner,
Probleme und Aufgaben der Ősterreichischen Geschichtsforschung [Problems and
Tasks of Austrian Historical Research] (Munchen: R. Oldenbourg, 1984): 37.
Robert Hunt, ‘Islam in Austria,’ The Muslim World 92, issue 1–2 (March 2002):
116.
Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy (London:
Verso, 1985).
Smith, Stories of Peoplehood, 32.
See for instance the cartoon book called Sagen aus Wien [Legends from Vienna]
prepared and distributed by the FPÖ in 2010 for the Vienna mayoral elections. The link to this book on Strache’s website is http://www.hcstrache.
at/2011/?id=80, accessed February 3, 2012. A link to the cartoon book can
also be found on FPÖ’s own website. The link to the book on FPÖ’s website
is FPŐ, ‘Sagen aus Wien: Comic [Legends from Wien: Comics],’ accessed
February 3, 2012. http://www.fpoe.at/dafuer-stehen-wir/sagen-aus-wien/.
The Turkish Historical Narrative
1. Used in the following textbooks: Erdoğan Mercil, Taner Tarhan, and Zerrin
Gunal, Lise için Tarih I [History for High School 1] (Istanbul: Altin Kitaplar
Yayınevi, 1990), 18; Nurer Uğurlu, and Esergul Balcı, Tarih Lise I-II-III [History
for High School I-II-III] (Istanbul, Serhat, Orgun, 1989–1992), 14; Faruk Sümer
and Turhal Yüksel, Tarih Lise 1 [History High School 1] (Istanbul: Ders Kitapları
Anonim Şirketi, 1986).
Notes
Notes
2. ‘Millet’ referred to ‘religious community’ during the Ottoman era but it means
‘nation’ in contemporary Turkish.
3. Ayşe Afet Inan, ‘Atatürk ve Tarih Tezi [Atatürk and the History Thesis],’ Belleten 3,
issue 10 (1939): 244.
4. Pepper, World Hypotheses, 291–292.
5. History textbooks and school curricula of the early Turkish Republic explicitly
state the crucial role of history education in guiding the nation. See for example,
T.T.T.C., Tarih IV [History IV] (Istanbul: Devlet Matbaası, 1934) [reprinted as
Kemalist Eğitimin Tarih Dersleri 1931–1941 [History Textbooks of the Kemalist
Education 1931–1941], vol. 4 (Istanbul: Kaynak, 2000), 259; TC. Kültür
Bakanlığı, Ilkokul Programı [Primary School Curricula], 2nd ed. (Istanbul: MEB,
1936).
6. Ayşe Afet Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History]
(Istanbul: Kaynak, 1999 (1930)). This book was the first compiled book of the
Kemalist regime that introduced the historiographical mind-set of the regime.
It was written by TTTH members Afet, Mehmet Tevfik, Samih Rifat, Akcura
Yusuf, Dr. Resit Galip, Hasan Cemil, Sadri Maksudi, Semsettin, Vasif ve Yusuf
Ziya. One hundred copies were printed in order to receive the comments and
criticism of those concerned. Even though it was only 100 copies, in order to
be presented to the Turkish historians, it provided a guideline for the textbooks
to come. A briefer version was published and 70,000 copies were distributed
in 1931. Afet Inan is Atatürk’s adopted daughter and the main theoretician of
Turkish official history. Atatürk gave Ayse Afet Inan (or Afetinan) this mission
because she was a good candidate for this due to her former career as a history
teacher. In 1931 a ‘Committee for the Investigation of Turkish History’ was
set up upon the initiative of Afetinan. In the same year she wrote Vatandaș
icin Medeni Bilgiler (Civic Instructions for Citizens), which became part of the
school curriculum. She earned an undergraduate degree in Anthropology and
a doctoral degree in sociology from the University of Geneva. She worked
with Eugene Pittard. Her PhD thesis, which was concluded in 1939, was titled
The Anthropological Characteristics of the Turkish People and History and it was
published in 1947.
7. T.T.T.C, Tarih I-IV (History I-IV), (Istanbul: Devlet Matbaası, 1933/34),
(reprinted Kemalist Eğitimin Tarih dersleri (History Textbooks of the Kemalist
Education), 1931–1941, Istanbul: Kaynak, 2000, v. 1–4). These books started
to be used in the 1931–1932 academic year for high schools. Primary and
secondary school books were prepared in accordance with these books. Mesut
Çapa, ‘Cumhuriyet’in Ilk Yıllarında Tarih Öğretimi [History Education in the
Early Years of the Republic],’ Ankara Üniversitesi Türk Inkılâp Tarihi Enstitüsü
Atatürk Yolu Dergisi 29–30 (May–November 2002): 49.
8. Bernard Lewis, ‘History Writing and National Revival in Turkey,’ Middle
Eastern Affairs 4, no. 6–7 (June–July. 1953): 224. In his testament, Atatürk left
a portion of his share from the Turkish İş Bankası (Turkish Bank) to TTK.
Significantly, when in 1923, Istanbul University decided to give Atatürk an
honorary doctorate in Literature, Atatürk told the awarding committee that
he would prefer to get an honorary degree in History.
9. Ayşe Afet Inan, Medeni Bilgiler ve M.K.Atatürk’ün El Yazıları [Civics and Ataturk’s
Handwritings] (Ankara: Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu Atatürk
Araştırma Merkezi Yayını, 2000 (1931)).
104
105
10. Copeaux, Türk Tarih Tezinden Türk İslâm. Sentezine [From Turkish History Thesis
to the Turco-Islamic Synthesis], 80.
11. Ersel Aydınlı, ‘The Turkish Pendulum between Globalization and Security:
From the Late Ottoman Era to the 1930s,’ Middle Eastern Studies 40, no. 3
(2004): 102 –133.
12. Ömer Çaha, ‘The Ideological Transformation of the Public Sphere: The Case
of Turkey,’ Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations 4, no. 1 & 2
(Spring & Summer 2005): 18.
13. Umut Uzer, ‘Racism in Turkey: The Case of Hüseyin Nihal Atsız,’ Journal of
Muslim Minority Affairs 22, no. 1 (2002): 122.
14. Gregory A. Burris, ‘The Other from within: Pan-Turkist Mythmaking and the
Expulsion of the Turkish Left,’ Middle Eastern Studies 43, no. 4, (2007): 613.
15. Nihal Atsız, Çanakkale’ye Yürüyüş, Türkçülüğe Karşı Haçlı Seferi [Walking to
Dardanelles: a Crusade against Turkism] (Irfan: Istanbul, 1933).
16. Uzer, ‘Racism in Turkey: The Case of Hüseyin Nihal Atsız,’ 121.
17. Atsız was sentenced to six years of prison. He stayed in prison for a year and
a half and was acquitted in March 1947 when The Military Court of Appeal
overturned the decision. Uzer, ‘Racism in Turkey: The Case of Hüseyin Nihal
Atsız,’ 122.
18. Uzer, ‘Racism in Turkey: The Case of Hüseyin Nihal Atsız,’ 122.
19. Niyazi Berkes, Unutulan Yıllar [Forgotten Years] (Istanbul: Iletisim, 1997), 172;
cited in Uzer, ‘Racism in Turkey: The Case of Hüseyin Nihal Atsız,’ 124.
20. A. Sofos Spyros and Umut Özkirimli. ‘Contested Geographies: Greece, Turkey
and the Territorial Imagination,’ in The Long Shadow Of Europe: Greeks And
Turks In The Era Of Postnationalism, ed. Othon Anastasakis, Kalypso Aude
Nicolaidis, and Kerem Öktem (Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publs, 2009),
38–39.
21. Tachau, ‘The Search for National Identity among the Turks,’ 167.
22. Barış Karacasu, ‘Mavi Kemalizm’ Türk Hümanizmi ve Anadoluculuk [‘Blue
Kemalism’ Turkish Humanism and Anatolianism],’ in Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi
Düsünce, vol. II Kemalizm [Political Thought in Modern Turkey, Kemalism], ed.
Tanıl Bora (Istanbul: Iletisim, 2001), 337.
23. Sadettin Birol, ‘Hilmi Ziya Ulken,’ in Modern Türkiye’de Siyasi Düşünce:
Milliyetçilik [Political Thought in Modern Turkey: Nationalism], ed. Tanil Bora
(Istanbul: Iletisim, 2001), 529.
24. Cevat Şakir Kabaağaçlı (Halikarnas Balıkçısı), Arşipel (Ankara: Bilgi Yayinevi,
1995), 147–148; cited in Karacasu, ‘Mavi Kemalizm,’ 339–340.
25. Tachau, ‘The Search for National Identity among the Turks,’ 176.
26. Afet Inan’s Turk Tarihinin Ana Hatlari (1931) was written for lycees and
was immediately simplified for intermediary schools in three volumes as
Ortamektep Icin Tarih. Both have been used for decades virtually unchanged
and their legacy has continued in more recent books as we will see later.
Hough Poulton, Turkish Nationalism and the Turkish Republic, Top Hat, Grey
Wolf and Crescent (London: Hurst and Company, 1997), 104.
27. Kahyaoğlu et al. ‘National Report: Turkey,’ 159.
28. Salih Őzbaran, Güdümlü Tarih [Guided History] (Istanbul: Cem, 2003), 203.
29. Johnson, et al., ‘Personality as the Basis for Theoretical Predilections,’ 828.
30. Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History], 44–45, Inan,
Medeni Bilgiler ve M.K.Atatürk’ün El Yazıları [Civics and Ataturk’s Handwritings],
Notes
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
Notes
29; T.T.T.C, Tarih I [History I] (Istanbul: Devlet Matbaası, 1931) [reprinted as
Education 1931–1941], vol. 1. (Istanbul: Kaynak, 2000), 15.
T.T.T.C., Tarih II [History II (Istanbul: Devlet Matbaası, 1933) [reprinted as
Education 1931–1941], vol. 2. (Istanbul: Kaynak, 2000), 221; Abdullah
Gundogdu and O.U. Bulduk, Tarih Lise 1 [History High School 1] (Istanbul:
Tutibay, 2007), 164.
T.T.T.C., Tarih III [History III] (Istanbul: Devlet Matbaası, 1933) [reprinted as
Education 1931–1941], vol. 3. (Istanbul: Kaynak, 2000), 36; Ferruh Sanır, Tarık
Asal and Niyazi Akşit, Sosyal Bilgiler, 4. Sınıf [Primary School, Social Sciences, 4th
Grade], 9th ed. (Istanbul: Milli Eğtim, 1982), 219. Mehmet Altay Kőymen,
head of history textbooks series, university professor, speech on TV on
the anniversary of Manzikert, in 1989, Mehmet Altay Kőymen, ‘Malazgirt
Meydan Muharebesi’nin Diğer Meydan Muharebeleri Arasındaki Yeri ve
Őnemi [The Place of Manzikiert Field Battle Among other Field Battles],’
Belleten 53, no. 206 (1989): 375–379 Mehmet Altay Kőymen, et al., Tarih Lise
II [History High School II] (Istanbul: Ülke, 1990), 92–93; Sanır, Asal and Akşit,
Sosyal Bilgiler, 4. Sınıf [Primary School, Social Sciences, 4th Grade], 134.
Boys taken to the Ottoman Janissary army, who were taken from non-Muslim
families and were converted to Islam and Turkified.
T.T.T.C., Tarih III [History III], 23; Niyazi Akşit and Emin Oktay, Tarih I [History
1] (Istanbul: MEB, 1967), 203.
Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History], 402.
Resit Galip, ‘Türk Irk ve Medeniyet Tarihine Umumi Bir Bakış [A General
Overview of the History of the Turkish Race and Civilization],’ in Birinci
Türk Tarih Kongresi: Konferanslar-Müzakere Zabıtları [First History Congress:
Conferences and Proceedings of the Discussions] (Ankara: Maarif Vekaleti, 1932),
148.
Şevket Aziz Kansu, ‘Insan Ve Medeniyet Tekamül Tarihinde Anadolu’nun Yeri [
The Place of Anatolia in History of Human and Civilizational Development],’
in Üçüncű Türk Tarih Kongresi, Ankara 15–20 Kasim 1943, Kongreye Sunulan
Tebliğler [Third Turkish History Congress, Ankara 15–20 November 1943, Papers
Presented at the Congress] (Ankara: Türk tarih kurumu basimevi, 1948), 313.
Some of the books among many: Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları
[Guidelines of Turkish History], 57; T.T.T.C, Tarih I [History I], 25; Emin Oktay,
Tarih: Ortaokul 1. Sınıf [History: Secondary School 1st Grade] (Istanbul: Remzi
Kitabevi, 1954), 14; Niyazi Akşit and Emin Oktay, Tarih Lise 1 [History High
School 1] (Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1985), 23. Niyazi Akşit and Emin Oktay’s
books were in use from 1950 to the end of the 1980s. Neval Akça, ‘Demokrat
Parti Iktidarindan 1980 Ihtilaline Eğitim Politikaları ve bu Politikaların Tarih
Ders Kitaplarina Yansıması [Education Policies from the Democrat Party to
the 1980 Revolution and their Reflections in History Textbooks]’ (MA Thesis,
Çukurova Üniversitesi, 2007), 5.
Some of the books among many: Ayşe Afet Inan, ‘Tarihten Evvel ve Tarihin
Fecrinde [Pre-History and the Dawn of History],’ in Birinci Türk Tarih
Kongresi: Konferanslar-Müzakere Zabıtları [First History Congress: Conferences
and Proceedings of the Discussions] (Ankara: Maarif Vekaleti, 1932), 41; Oktay,
106
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
107
Kitabevi, 1954), 54.
White, Metahistory, 15.
Tanıl Bora, ‘Nationalism in Textbooks,’ in Human Rights Issues in Textbooks: the
Turkish Case, ed. Deniz Tarba Ceylan and Gurol Irzık (Istanbul: The History
Foundation of Turkey, 2004), 59.
Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History], 33;
Ibrahim Kafesoğlu and Altan Deliorman, Lise 1 [High school 1] (Ankara: Devlet
Kitapları, 1976), 79–80.
Kőymen, ‘Malazgirt Meydan Muharebesi’nin Diğer Meydan Muharebeleri
Arasındaki Yeri ve Őnemi [The Place of Manzikiert Field Battle Among
other Field Battles],’ Belleten 53, 375–379; Kőymen, et al., Tarih Lise II
[History High School II], 92–93.
A group of Turkic people of whom the Ottomans are said to be the
descendents.
Emin Oktay, Tarih Lise II Ortaçağ [History High School II Middle Ages] (Istanbul:
Atlas Yayınevi, 1964).
Copeaux, Türk Tarih Tezinden Türk İslâm. Sentezine [From Turkish History Thesis
Kafesoğlu and Deliorman, Lise 1 [High school 1], 79–80; Kőymen, ‘Malazgirt
Meydan Muharebesi’nin Diğer Meydan Muharebeleri Arasındaki Yeri ve
Őnemi [The Place of Manzikiert Field Battle Among other Field Battles],’
Belleten 53, 375–379; Kőymen, et al., Tarih Lise II [History High School II],
92–93.
Kafesoğlu and Deliorman, Lise 1 [High school 1], 79–80. cited in Copeaux,
Türk Tarih Tezinden Türk İslâm. Sentezine [From Turkish History Thesis to the
Turco-Islamic Synthesis], 122, translation mine.
The Battle of Manzikert (August 26, 1071, Malazgirt in Turkish) was fought
between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuks near Manzikert (Muş, Turkey).
Quoted in Copeaux, Türk Tarih Tezinden Türk İslâm. Sentezine [From Turkish
History Thesis to the Turco-Islamic Synthesis], 174–178; original Mehmet Altay
Kőymen, head of history textbooks series, university professor, speech on TV on
the anniversary of Manzikert, in 1989, also published in: Kőymen, ‘Malazgirt
Meydan Muharebesi’nin Diğer Meydan Muharebeleri Arasındaki Yeri ve Őnemi
[The Place of Manzikiert Field Battle Among other Field Battles],’ Belleten 53,
375–379; Kőymen, et al., Tarih Lise II [History High School II], 92–93.
T.T.T.C, Tarih I [History I], 40.
Enver Ziya Karal, Arif Müfid Mansel and Cavid Baysun, Yeni ve Yakın Çağlar
Tarihi: Üçüncü Sınıf [New and Modern Age History: 3rd Grade] (Istanbul: Maarif
Neşriyatı, 1942), 8. One sample sentence from this chapter: ‘In the 14th
century Ottoman Turks worked very hard to turkify and Islamize Anatolia
and Thrace.’
Kahyaoğlu et al. ‘National Report: Turkey,’ 187–195.
See appendix, Kahyaoğlu et al. ‘National Report: Turkey,’ 155–204.
Small emirates, principalities.
T.T.T.C., Tarih III [History III], 23; Akşit and Oktay, Tarih I [History 1] (Istanbul:
MEB, 1967), 47.
Notes
58. Gundogdu and Bulduk, Tarih Lise 1 [History High School 1], 219. In relation,
Öztuna calls this unification, a ‘mission.’ Yılmaz Öztuna, Tarih Lise III [High
School 3] (Istanbul: MEB., 1976), 78.
59. Oktay, Tarih Lise II Ortaçağ [History High School II Middle Ages]; Sanır, Asal
and Akşit, Sosyal Bilgiler, 4. Sınıf [Primary School, Social Sciences, 4th Grade],
217–218.
60. Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History], 431;
Sanır, Asal and Akşit, Sosyal Bilgiler, 4. Sınıf [Primary School, Social Sciences, 4th
Grade], 135; Öztuna, Tarih Lise III [High School 3], 78.
61. Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History], 429.
62. Oktay, Tarih Lise II Ortaçağ [History High School II Middle Ages].
63. T.T.T.C., Tarih III [History III], 6.
64. Akşit and Oktay, Tarih I [History 1] (Istanbul: MEB, 1967), 201; Öztuna, Tarih
Lise III [High School 3], 399.
65. Inan, ‘Atatürk ve Tarih Tezi [Atatürk and the History Thesis],’ 245–246; T.T.T.C,
Tarih I [History I], 30; Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of
Turkish History], 70 and 409.
66. Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History],396;
Şevket Aziz Kansu, ‘Selçuk Türkleri Hakkında Antropolojik Ilk Bir Tetkik ve
Neticeleri [A Preliminary Anthropological Examination of the Seljuk Turks
and Results],’ in Ikinci Türk Tarih Kongresi (Istanbul, 20–25 Eylül 1937) Kongrenin
Çalışmaları, Kongreye Sunulan Tebliğler [Second Turkish History Congress
(Istanbul, 20–25 September 1937): The Works of the Congress and Papers presented
at the Congress] (Istanbul: Kenan Matbaası,1943), 456; Ibrahim Kafesoğlu
and Altan Deliorman, Tarih II [History 2] (Ankara: Devlet Kitapları,1976), 71;
Karal, Mansel and Baysun, Yeni ve Yakın Çağlar Tarihi: Üçüncü Sınıf [New and
Modern age history: 3rd Grade], 1; Emin Oktay, Yeni Tarih Dersleri 4 [New History
Classes 4] (Istanbul: Atak Yayınevi, 1958), 103; Oktay, Tarih Lise II Ortaçağ
[History High School II Middle Ages], 120; Ferruh Sanır, Tarık Asal and Niyazi
Akşit, Ilkokul Sosyal Bilgiler 4 [Primary School, Social Sciences], 16th edition,
(Istanbul: MEBas, 1989), 217; Niyazi Akşit, Lise II [High School 2] (Istanbul :
Remzi, n.d.), 141; Sanır, Asal and Akşit, Sosyal Bilgiler, 4. Sınıf [Primary School,
Social Sciences, 4th Grade], 218–219.
Ayşe Afet Inan, ‘Türk Osmanlı Tarihinin Karakteristik Noktalarına Bir Bakış
[A General Overview of the Characteristics of Turkish Ottoman History],’ in
Ikinci Türk Tarih Kongresi (Istanbul, 20–25 Eylül 1937) Kongrenin Çalışmaları,
Kongreye Sunulan Tebliğler [Second Turkish History Congress (Istanbul, 20–25
September 1937): The Works of the Congress and Papers presented at the Congress]
(Istanbul: Kenan Matbaası, 1943), 757.
Kansu, ‘Selçuk Türkleri Hakkında Antropolojik Ilk Bir Tetkik ve Neticeleri [A
Preliminary Anthropological Examination of the Seljuk Turks and Results],’
456. Oktay, Tarih: Ortaokul 1. Sınıf [History: Secondary School 1st Grade]
(Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1954), 6; Oktay, Tarih Lise II Ortaçağ [History High
School II Middle Ages]; Sanır, Asal and Akşit, Sosyal Bilgiler, 4. Sınıf [Primary
School, Social Sciences, 4th Grade], 216; M.K. Kansu and A. Mumcu, Türkiye
Cumhuriyeti İnkılâp Tarihi ve Atatürkçülük [Turkish Republic, History of the
Revolution and Atatürkism] (Istanbul: Millî Eğitim Basımevi, 1986), 208; Oktay,
Tarih Lise II Ortaçağ [History High School II Middle Ages], 43.
108 Notes
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
109
Tellingly, Copeaux observes the parallel drawn between 1071 and 1922 in
history textbooks. According to the textbooks, these dates show the continuity of Turkish virtues. The textbooks claim that 1922 is the continuation of the process that began in the 11th century. Copeaux, Türk Tarih
Tezinden Türk İslâm. Sentezine [From Turkish History Thesis to the TurcoIslamic Synthesis], 166.
Refik Turan and Nevin Ergezer, General Turkish History 1 [General Turkish
History 1] (Ankara: Ocak, 2001), 8. Sanır, Asal and Akşit, Sosyal Bilgiler, 4.
Sınıf [Primary School, Social Sciences, 4th Grade], 216; T.T.T.C., Tarih IV [History
IV], 14, Oktay, Tarih: Ortaokul 1. Sınıf [History: Secondary School 1st Grade]
(Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1954), 54; Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları
[Guidelines of Turkish History], 461 and 466; T.T.T.C, Tarih III [History III], 310;
T.T.T.C, Tarih II [History II], 279.
Cited in Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History],
72.
Yüksel Turhal, Tarih 2 [History 2] (Istanbul: Ders Kitapları Anonim Şirketi,
1990), 86.
Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History], 42; Oktay,
Kitabevi, 1954), 15; Niyazi Akşit, Milli Tarih 1[National History 1] (Istanbul,
Milli Eğitim, 1996), 11.
Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History], 44; Sanır,
Asal and Akşit, Sosyal Bilgiler, 4. Sınıf [Primary School, Social Sciences, 4th
Grade], 199–200. See also Lewis, ‘History Writing and National Revival in
Turkey,’ 224.
Faruk Sümer, Tekin Gürkan, and Turhal Yüksel, Tarih Lise 1[History High
School 1] (Istanbul: Ders Kitapları Anonim Şirketi, 1992), 13–14; Sanır, Asal
201.
Oktay, Tarih: Ortaokul 1. Sınıf [History: Secondary School 1st Grade] (Istanbul:
Remzi Kitabevi, 1954), 17.
Niyazi Akşit, Milli Tarih [National History], 3rd ed. (Istanbul: MEB, 1987), 25.
T.T.T.C., Tarih III [History III], 36; T.T.T.C., Tarih II [History II], 222; Mehmet
Altay Kőymen, head of history textbooks series, university professor, speech
on TV on the anniversary of Manzikert, in 1989, Kőymen, ‘Malazgirt Meydan
Muharebesi’nin Diğer Meydan Muharebeleri Arasındaki Yeri ve Őnemi [The
Place of Manzikiert Field Battle Among other Field Battles],’ Belleten 53,
375–379. Kőymen, et al, Tarih Lise II [History High School II], 92–93, Sanır, Asal
134; Ahmet Mumcu, Ihsan Gunes, and Cahit Bilim, Liseler için Tarih 2 [History
for High School 2] (Istanbul: Inkilap Kitabevi, 1990), 56.
Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History], 427–428;
Kafesoğlu and Deliorman, Lise 1 [High school 1], 79–80; Sümer, Gürkan, and
Yüksel, Tarih Lise 1 [History High School 1] (Istanbul: Ders Kitapları Anonim
Şirketi, 1992), 191; Altan Deliorman, Ders Geçme ve Kredi Esasına Gőre Tarih
Lise 1 [History High School 1 on the Course Pass and Credit Basis] (Istanbul:
Gendas, 1992), 24–25; Gundogdu and Bulduk, Tarih Lise 1 [History High School
1], 49, Turan and Ergezer, General Turkish History 1 [General Turkish History
1], 8; Halil Őtüken,. Hayat Bilgisi 3 [Life Studies 3] (Istanbul: Ulun Yayinevi,
Notes
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
Notes
1974), cited and translated in Marie Carlson, Annika Rabo, and Fatma Gök.
Education in ‘Multicultural’ Societies: Turkish and Swedish Perspectives (London:
Tauris, 2007), 56.
T.T.T.C., Tarih IV [History IV], 144; T.T.T.C, Tarih I [History I], 184; Inan,
‘Tarihten Evvel ve Tarihin Fecrinde [Pre-History and the Dawn of History],’
192, 205, and 209.
T.T.T.C, Tarih I [History I], 127; Oktay, Tarih: Ortaokul 1. Sınıf [History: Secondary
School 1st Grade] (Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1954), 7 and 16.
Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History], 170, 172;
Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History], 74–114.
These arguments were spread to the everyday life as well. For instance, the
bank that was founded on Nisan 19, 1925 with the name “Sanayi ve Maadin
Bankası’ (Industry and Mines Bank) was renamed as Sümerbank in 1933.
Ismail Aydın, Osmanlı’dan Günümüze Tarih Ders Kitapları [Turkish History Books
from the Ottoman Era to Contemporary Times] (Ankara: Eğitim Sen Yayınları,
2001), 42.
Büşra Ersanlı, Iktidar ve Tarih: Türkiye’de Resmi Tarih Tezinin Oluşumu (1929–
1937) [Power and History: The Creation of the Official Turkish History Thesis
(1929–1937)] (Istanbul: AFA, 1992), 170.
Mehmet Altay Kőymen, et al. Tarih Lise I [History High School I] (Istanbul:
Ülke, 1990), 29–30, in Copeaux, Türk Tarih Tezinden Türk İslâm. Sentezine
[From Turkish History Thesis to the Turco-Islamic Synthesis], 121.
See, for instance, A. Müfid Mansel, Cavid Baysun, and E. Ziya Karal. Ilkçağ
Tarihi 1 [Ancient History 1] (Istanbul: Maarif Mat., 1942), 32; Hakkı Dursun
Yıldız, et al. Tarih Lise I [History High School 1] (Istanbul: Servet. 1990), 42;
Nurer Uğurlu, Tarih 1 [History 1] (Istanbul: Özgün Yay, 1998), 45. (This
book has been used in the 2000s as well) cited in Aydın, Osmanlı’dan
Günümüze Tarih Ders Kitapları [Turkish History Books from the Ottoman Era to
Contemporary Times], 42; Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of
Turkish History], 159; Oktay, Tarih: Ortaokul 1. Sınıf [History: Secondary School
1st Grade] (Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1954), 37.
Oktay, Tarih: Ortaokul 1. Sınıf [History: Secondary School 1st Grade] (Istanbul:
Remzi Kitabevi, 1954), 37.
Copeaux, Türk Tarih Tezinden Türk İslâm. Sentezine [From Turkish History Thesis
Grade], 212; Niyazi Akşit, Ortaokullar için Milli Tarih Ana Ders Kitabı I [Basic
textbook for Secondary School National History] (Istanbul: Devlet Kitaplari,
1987), 75.
T.T.T.C., Tarih II [History II], 146.
Grade] (Istanbul: Milli Eğtim, 1982), 212.
110
111
96. Sanır, Asal and Akşit, Ilkokul Sosyal Bilgiler 4 [Primary School, Social Sciences]
(Istanbul: MEBas, 1989), 211; Kőymen, et al, Tarih Lise I (History High School
I), 9; Enver Aydın Kolukısa and Halil Tokcan. Ilkőğretim Sosyal Bilgiler 6 Ders
Kitabi [Primary School 6th Grade Social Sciences] (Ankara: A Yayınları, 2006),
81.
97. Copeaux, Türk Tarih Tezinden Türk İslâm. Sentezine [From Turkish History
Thesis to the Turco-Islamic Synthesis], 155.
98. Sanır, Asal and Akşit, Sosyal Bilgiler, 4. Sınıf [Primary School, Social Sciences,
4th Grade], 212; Emine Genç, Ilkoğretim Sosyal Bilgiler 6 Őğretmen Kılavuz
Kitabı [Primary School 6th Grade Social Sciences Teacher’s Copy] (Ankara: MEB
Yayınları, 2006), 123.
99. Milli Egitim Bakanlığı [Ministry of National Education], ‘Orta Dereceli
Okullarin Ikinci Devre Birinci Siniflarinin Tarih Dersi Taslak Programi ve
Kitabi [History Course Draft Program and Book for the Second Term of
First Grades Of Secondary Schools],’ T.C. MEB Tebligler Dergisi 34/1640 (Jan
1971): 17–19, cited in Akça, ‘Demokrat Parti Iktidarindan 1980 Ihtilaline
Eğitim Politikaları ve bu Politikaların Tarih Ders Kitaplarina Yansıması
[Education Policies from the Democrat Party to the 1980 Revolution and
their Reflections in History Textbooks],’ 46; Nejat Kaymaz, et al. Genel Tarih
II-III [General History II-III] (Istanbul: Ağaoğlu, 1977), 253 and 274; Sanır,
Asal and Akşit, Sosyal Bilgiler, 4. Sınıf [Primary School, Social Sciences, 4th
Grade], 211.
100. Oktay, Tarih Lise II Ortaçağ [History High School II Middle Ages]; T.T.T.C., Tarih
II [History II], 156 and 159; Kaymaz, et al. Genel Tarih II-III [General History
II-III], 253 and 274; Sanır, Asal and Akşit, Sosyal Bilgiler, 4. Sınıf [Primary
School, Social Sciences, 4th Grade], 211.
Thesis to the Turco-Islamic Synthesis], 202 and 235, 237. According to
Copeaux, the silence about Arabs is not in order to negate them. It has a
unifying character.
103. Faruk Sümer, Gürkan Tekin, and Yüksel Turhal, Tarih Lise 2 [History High
School 2] (Istanbul: Ders Kitapları Anonim Şirketi, 1993), 212.
104. Inan, et al. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları [Guidelines of Turkish History], 219.
105. Jews are mentioned in the part of the books talking about when the
Ottoman sultan Bajazet II issued a formal invitation to Jews and sent the
Ottoman navy to Spain in order to save them when they were expelled in
large groups from Spain in 1492 by the Spanish Inquisition.
106. Kahyaoğlu et al. ‘National Report: Turkey,’ 163.
3
Historical Narratives in Action: The Turkish Case
1. Mesut Yeğen, ‘Citizenship and Ethnicity in Turkey,’ Middle Eastern Studies
40, no. 6 (2004): 57.
2. Soner Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who is
a Turk (London, Routledge, 2006): 63.
Notes
Notes
3. Ergun Özbudun, ‘Milli Mücadele ve Cumhuriyet’in Resmi Belgelerinde
Yurttaşlık ve Kimlik Sorunu [Citizenship and Identity issues in the Official
Documents of the War of Independence and Republican Era],’ in Cumhuriyet,
Demokrasi ve Kimlik [Republic, Democracy and Identity], ed. Nuri Bilgin (Bağlam:
Ankara, 1996): 70.
4. Srirupa Roy, ‘Seeing a State: National Commemorations and the Public Sphere
in India and Turkey,’ Comparative Studies in Society and History 48 (2006): 207,
fn. 32.
5. Mete Tunçay, T.C.’nde Tek Parti Yönetiminin Kurulması (1923–1930) [The
Establishment of the Single Party Regime in the Turkish Republic (1923–1930)]
(Istanbul: Cem Yayınevi, 1992): 58.
6. TBMM Zabıt Ceridesi [Transcripts of the Proceedings of the Turkish Grand
National Assembly], Term: II, Vol. 7, Session: 2, 6th Meeting, March 8, 1340
(1924).
7. ‘Türk Vatandaşlığı Kanunu [Turkish Citizenship Law],’ No. 403. February 11,
1964, Düstur [Code of Laws], Fifth set, vol. 3, 470, Official Gazette, No. 11638,
22 February 1964.
8. T.T.T.C., Tarih IV [History IV], 183.
9. Ahmet Kapulu et al., Ilkogretim Vatandaslik ve Insan Hakları Eğitimi
8 [Citizenship and Human Rights Education 8] (Ankara: Koza, n.d. (in use in
2001–2002)): 103.
10. First published as Turk Cocuklarina Yurt Bilgisi Notlari (Ankara, 1929) simplified version in Inan, Medeni Bilgiler ve M. K. Atatürk’ün El Yazıları [Civics and
Ataturk’s Handwritings], 28. For a more recent example see, Güler Şenünver,
et al. Ilkogretim Okulu Sosyal Bilgiler 6 [Social Studies 6] (Istanbul: Meb Yayınları,
2001): 20.
11. Baskin Oran, Atatürk Milliyetçiliği: Resmi İdeoloji Dışı Bir İnceleme [Ataturkist
Nationalism: An Analysis outside Official Ideology] (Ankara: Dost Kitabevi,
1988): 202.
12. Ayşe Kadıoğlu, ‘Genos versus Devlet: Conceptions of Citizenship in Greece
and Turkey,’ in In the Long Shadow of Europe, Greeks and Turks in the Era of
Postnationalism, ed. Othon Anastasakis (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,
2009): 122; Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood, 8.
13. Doğu Ergil, ‘The Kurdish Question in Turkey,’ Journal of Democracy 11, no. 3
(July 2000):126. Tekin Alp (Moiz Cohen), one of the most famous Turkish
nationalists and a Kemalist intellectual, was from the Jewish community.
According to Tekin Alp, it was possible to believe in a national spirit without
necessarily aspiring to racial purity. Tekin Alp, Türk Ruhu [Turkish Soul]
(Istanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 1944): 26 in Yıldız ‘Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyebilene.’
14. The European Commission has been assessing Turkey’s progress based on
fulfillment of the political criteria set out in the Copenhagen European
Council meeting of 1993, which are known as the Copenhagen criteria. These
criteria require Turkey to implement institutional stability, complete freedom
of expression, the entrenchment of human rights, respect and protection for
minorities, and an efficient market economy. Ümit Cizre and Joshua Walker,
‘Conceiving the New Turkey after Ergenekon,’ The International Spectator 45,
no. 1 (2010): 91.
15. T.C. Başbakanlık, Avrupa Birliği Genel Sekreterliği, Avrupa Birligi Uyum
Yasa Paketleri [European Union Harmonization Law Packages], Ankara, 2007,
112
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
113
accessed March 19, 2012, http://www.abgs.gov.tr/files/ardb/evt/3_ab_bakanligi_yayinlari/ab_uyum_yasa_paketleri.pdf, 11–12.
T.C. Başbakanlık, Avrupa Birliği Genel Sekreterliği, Avrupa Birligi Uyum Yasa
Paketleri [European Union Harmonization Law Packages], 13–16; ‘Basın Kanunu
[Press Law],’ No. 5680, July 15, 1950, Düstur [Code of Laws], Third set, vol. 31:
2234. Official Gazette, No. 7564, July 24, 1950; ‘Basın Kanunu [Press Law],’ No.
5187. June 9, 2004. Düstur [Code of Law]. Fifth set, vol. 43, Official Gazette,
No. 25504, June 26, 2004.
Paketleri [European Union Harmonization Law Packages], 17–26.
January 2003. Before that change, the law on association prohibited building
an association advancing claims to religious, sectarian, cultural, and linguistic
minorities, or with the aim of creating such minorities was prohibited. After
the change, it was forbidden to create minorities that threaten the national
security and the unitary structure of the country.
‘Nüfus Kanunu [Population Law],’ No: 1587. May 5, 1972, Düstur [Code of
Laws], Fifth set., vol.11: 2272, Official Gazette, No: 14189, May 16, 1972.
Michael M. Gunter, ‘Turkey’s Floundering EU Candidacy and Its Kurdish
Problem,’ Middle East Policy 14, no. 1 (Spring 2007): 121.
1982 Constitution, Articles, 14, 26, 28. See Suna Kili and Şeref Gőzübüyük,
Türk Anayasa Metinleri [Texts of Turkish Constitutions], 2nd ed. (Istanbul:
Türkiye Is Bankası Yayınları, 2000).
Başbakanlık Insan Hakları Danışma Kurulu. [Prime Ministry Human Rights
Advisory Board], Azınlık Hakları ve Kültürel Haklar Çalışma Grubu Raporu
[Minority Rights and Cultural Rights Working Group Report], October 2004.
Gunter, ‘Turkey’s Floundering EU Candidacy and Its Kurdish Problem,’ 121.
Oran and Kaboğlu also faced charges for ‘publicly denigrating Turkishness’
(under Article 310 of the Turkish Penal Code) and for ‘inciting enmity or
hatred among the population’ (under Article 216). Amnesty International,
‘Turkey: Article 301: How the law on “denigrating Turkishness” is an insult to
free expression,’ http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/EUR44/003/2006/
en/1a24fcc9-d44b-11dd-8743-d305bea2b2c7/eur440032006en.pdf, accessed
March 22, 2012.
Details on these regulations can be found in the Report prepared by Tesev
(The Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation) Dilek Kurban and
Yılmaz Ensaroğlu. Kürt Sorunu’nun Çözümüne Doğru: Anayasal ve Yasal
Öneriler [Toward a Solution to the Kurdish Question: Constitutional and Legal
Recommendations] (Istanbul: Tesev Publication, June 2010).
The law concerning Education and Training in Foreign Languages reiterates this statement. ‘Yabancı Dil Eğitimi ve Öğretimi Kanunu [Law on
Foreign Language Education],’ No. 2923, October 14, 1983; Düstur [Code
of Laws], Fifth set, Volume 22: 758; Official Gazette, no.18196. 19 October
19, 1983.
‘Türk Harflerinin Kabul ve Tatbiki Hakkında Kanun [Law on the Adoption
and Implementation of the Turkish Alphabet],’ No: 1353, November 1,
Notes
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
Notes
1928, Düstur [Code of Laws], Third set, vol. 10, 3. Official Gazette, No: 1030,
November 3, 1928.
Law of 222 of the Penal Code specifies the sanction for the violation of this
law.
Türk Ceza Kanunu [Turkish Penal Code], no. 5237, September 26, 2004,
Düstur [Code of Laws], Fifth set, vol. 43, Official Gazette, No. 25611, October
12, 2004.
This of course also means that these letters cannot be used in the names
given to children.
Murat Somer and Evangelos G. Liaras, ‘Turkey’s New Kurdish Opening:
Religious Versus Secular Values,’ Middle East Policy 17, no. 2 (Summer 2010):
153.
When the author appealed to courts, he got the response that Kurdish was an
incomprehensible language and since it was not translated it could endanger
the public security.
Vahap Coşkun, ‘Kürtçeyi Tanımak Devlete Zor Geliyor [The State Finds it
Hard to Recognize the Kurdish Language],’ Taraf, December 18, 2008.
Necat Erder, Türkiye’de Siyasi Partilerin Yandaş/ Secmen Profili (1994–2002)
[Supporter/Voter Profiles of Political Parties in Turkey (1994–2002)] (Istanbul:
Tüses Yayınları-Veri Araştırma, 2002): 99.
Erder, Türkiye’de Siyasi Partilerin Yandaş/ Secmen Profili (1994–2002) [Supporter/
Voter Profiles of Political Parties in Turkey (1994–2002)], 100. No idea, no
response is 16, which corresponds to 0.89 percent.
Bülent Aras, et al. Türkiye’nin Kürt Sorunu Algısı [Public Perception of the Kurdish
Question in Turkey] (Pollmark Seta, 2009): 97.
Aras, et al. Türkiye’nin Kürt Sorunu Algısı [Public Perception of the Kurdish
Question in Turkey], 96 and 103–104.
Somer and Liaras, ‘Turkey’s New Kurdish Opening: Religious Versus Secular
Values,’ 153.
Values,’ 155. For more on the opening and its prospects see, Ümit Cizre,
‘The Emergence of the “Government Perspective” on the Kurdish Issue,’
Insight Turkey 11, no. 4 (2009): 1–12; Cengiz Çandar, ‘The Kurdish Question:
The Reasons and Fortunes of the “Opening,”’ Insight Turkey 11, no. 4,
2009: 13–20; Soner Çağaptay, ‘“ Kurdish Opening” Closed Shut,’ Foreign
Policy, October 2009. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/10/28/
kurdish_opening_closed_shut.
Values,’ 152.
Values,’ 162. Critical AKP members maintain, for example, that the opening
was legitimizing the PKK and that overemphasis on ethnicity or the creation of a ‘new nation’ would divide society and ‘conflict with democracy.’
Values,’ 158. Somer and Liaras, refer to AKP MP Zekai Özcan’s statements,
Habertürk, ‘AK Parti’li Vekilden Açılım Eleştirisi [A Criticism of the Opening
by an MP from AKP],’ December 12, 2009 and Mahmut Övür, ‘AK Parti’nin
Açilim Karşıtları [Opponents of the Opening within AKP],’ Sabah, December
27, 2009.
114
115
42. First published as Türk Çocuklarına Yurt Bilgisi Notları [Homeland Information
Notes for Turkish Children] (Ankara, 1929): simplified version in Inan, Medeni
Bilgiler ve M.K.Atatürk’ün El Yazıları [Civics and Ataturk’s Handwritings]. Inan is
also one of the authors of the first history textbooks.
43. Ergun Özbudun, ‘Milli Mücadele ve Cumhuriyet’in Resmi Belgelerinde
Yurttaşlık ve Kimlik Sorunu [Citizenship and Identity issues in the Official
Documents of the War of Independence and Republican Era],’ 67.
44. Inan, Medeni Bilgiler ve M.K.Atatürk’ün El Yazıları [Civics and Ataturk’s
Handwritings], 35.
Handwritings], 28.
Handwritings], 29.
Handwritings], 34.
48. Murat Kılıç, ‘Erken Cumhuriyet Dönemi Türk Milliyetçiliğinin Tipolojisi
[Typology of Turkish Nationalism in the Early Republican Era],’ Süleyman
Demirel Üniversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 16 (December
2007): 121.
49. Taha Parla, Türkiye’de Siyasal Kültür’ün Resmi Kaynakları [Official Sources of
Political Culture in Turkey], vol. 3 (Istanbul: Iletişim Yay, 2003): 201.
In addition to enabling inclusion into the nation by using a political and
cultural criteria, in a 1931 by-law, the party put forth a membership policy
that enabled the participation of people outside the racial category of a Turk,
provided that they accept the homogenous depiction of the nation. The 7th
article of the by-law states that ‘those Turkish citizens, who have not been
in opposition to the national liberation movement, who have been speaking
Turkish and who have accepted the Turkish culture and the party’s principles’
can join the party. Cumhuriyet Halk Fırkası Nizamnamesi ve Programı [By-laws
and Program of Republican People’s Party] (Ankara: T.B.M.M. Matbaası, 1931):
4, cited in Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, 45.
50. Peker, CHF Programı’nın Izahı [Explanation of Republican People’s Party’s
Program], cited and translated in Paul Dumont, ‘The Origins of Kemalist
Ideology,’ in Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey, ed. Jacob M. Landau
(Boulder: Westview Press, 1984): 29.
51. Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, 2–3.
52. Official Gazette, No. 2733 and No: 2741.
53. Yılmaz Çolak, ‘Nationalism and the State in Turkey: Drawing the Boundaries
of ‘Turkish Culture’ in the 1930s,’ Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 3, no.1
(2003): 13–14.
The Interior Minister, Şükrü Kaya stated during parliamentary deliberations that this law could create a country (memleket) that speaks the same
language, thinks the same way and carries the same feelings. Deliberations
of the law, in TBMM Zabit Ceridesi [Transcripts of the Proceedings of the
Turkish Grand National Assembly], Term IV., Volume 23, Session 3, 68th
Meeting, June 14, 1934, 141.
54. Regions of Agri, Sason, Dersim, Van, Kars, Diyarbakir, Bingöl, Bitlis, and Mus.
55. ‘Iskan Kanunu [Resettlement Law],’ Nr. 2510, June 14, 1934, Düstur [Code
of Laws], Third set. Vol. 15, addenda. Ankara: Turkiye Buyuk Millet Meclisi:
Notes
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
Notes
1156–1175. Official Gazette. No. 2733. June 21, 1934. The practice of resettlement was halted in 1947 by Law 5098 which was revised by Law numbered
5098. In 1951 the prohibition of resettlement in prohibited regions was
rescinded by the Law 5826 except for a small area limited to a part of the Agri
province.
‘Iskan Kanunu Muvakkat Encümeni Mazbatası [Official Report by the
Temporary Commission for the Law of Resettlement],’11.
‘Iskan Kanunu [Resettlement Law],’ Nr. 2510, 1157–1158.
Mesut Yeğen, who has studied the Kurdish issue in Turkey extensively,
sees the Settlement Law as a notorious example of the logic of compulsory
assimilation. Yeğen argues that even though this law has been presented as
an attempt to settle the nomadic (Kurdish) tribes, this was only a minor
task of the law. The real aim was to reorganize the demographic composition of Anatolia on ethnic principles and Turkification of non-Turkish,
mostly Kurdish, elements. Mesut Yeğen, ‘Jewish-Kurds or the New Frontiers
of Turkishness,’ Patterns of Prejudice 41, no. 1 (January 2007): 11–12; Yeğen,
‘Citizenship and Ethnicity in Turkey,’ 57.
‘Birinci İskan Mıntıkalarında Toprak Tevziatina Dair Olan Talimatnamenin
Kabulu Hakkinda Kararname [Decree concerning the Adoption of the
Ordinance about the distribution of Land in the First Resettlement Areas],
No. 2/12374, 24 November 1939,’ in Eski ve Yeni Toprak İskan Hükümleri
Uygulaması Kılavuzu [Guide for the Old and New Land Settlement Provisions
Implimentation], ed. Naci Kökdemir (Ankara: Yeni Matbaa, 1952).
Cavidan Soykan, ‘The Migration-asylum Nexus in Turkey,’ Enquire, Issue 5
(June 2010): 7.
TBMM Zabıt Ceridesi [Journal of Proceedings of the Turkish Grand National
Assembly], Session IV, Vol. 23, addenda 189, May 27, 1934, 5.
Parliamentary deliberations, Ruşeni Bey, TBMM Zabit Ceridesi [Transcripts of
the Proceedings of the Turkish Grand National Assembly], Term IV., Volume 23,
Session 3, 65th Meeting, June 7, 1934, 69–70.
Neshet Hakkí Bey, TBMM Zabit Ceridesi [Transcripts of the Proceedings of
the Turkish Grand National Assembly], Term IV, Volume 23, Session 3, 65th
Meeting, June 7, 1934, 68–69.
TBMM Zabit Ceridesi [Transcripts of the Proceedings of the Turkish Grand National
Assembly], Term IV., Volume 23, Session 3, 65th Meeting, June 7, 1934, 141
‘Soy Adı Kanunu [Surname Law],’ No. 2525, June 21, 1934, Düstur [Code of
Laws], Third set, vol. 15, 506, Official Gazette, No: 2741, July 2, 1934.
‘Soy Adı Nizamnamesi [Statue on Surnames],’ December 24, 1934, Official
Gazette, No: 2805, 20 December 1934.
TBMM Zabit Ceridesi [Transcripts of the Proceedings of the Turkish Grand
National Assembly], Term IV, Vol. 23, Session 3, 71st Meeting, June 21, 1934,
249.
TBMM Zabit Ceridesi [Transcripts of the Proceedings of the Turkish Grand
National Assembly], Term IV, Vol. 23, Session 3, 71st Meeting, June 21,
1934, 249. A similar, earlier example can be found in Hamdullah Suphi’s
speech at the Third Congress of the Turkish Hearths (1926). Suphi, who
was the leader of the Turkish Hearths, cited historical examples to show
that the Turkish nation had great capabilities for assimilating alien peoples.
Türk Ocakları Üçüncü Kurultayı Zabıtları April 1926. [Proceedings of the Third
116
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
117
Congress of the Turkish Hearths] (Istanbul: Kader Matbaası, 1927). The debate
is on pp. 177–226; Hamdullah Suphi’s remarks appear on pp. 207–II. The
fifth congress (1928) again took up this question and discussed it in much
the same terms. See Türk Ocakları Beşinci Kurultayı [Fifth Congress of the Turkish
Hearths] (Ankara: Türk Ocakları Matbaası, I930): 175, cited in Tachau, ‘The
Search for National Identity among the Turks,’ 173.
Kymlicka, ‘Misunderstanding Nationalism,’ 134.
Ahmet Içduygu, Yılmaz Çolak and Nalan Soyarik, ‘What is the Matter with
Citizenship? A Turkish Debate,’ Middle Eastern Studies 35, no. 4 (1999): 201.
Will Kymlicka, ‘Misunderstanding Nationalism,’ in Theorizing Nationalism,
ed. Ronald Beiner (New York: SUNY Press, 1999): 134.
It is estimated that Kurds constitute around 18 percent of the total population (2008 est.). CIA World Fact Book. ‘Turkey,’ accessed March 19, 2012,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html.
Encyclopedia Britannica, ‘The Kurds: People without a Country Timeline,’
accessed September 25, 2010, http://www.britannica.com/worldsapart/3_
timeline_print.html.
The 1982 Constitution, prepared by a military-dominated Constituent
Assembly, stated in Article 26 that ‘no language prohibited by the State shall
be used in the expression and dissemination of thought.’ Article 28 of the
same Constitution banned publication in any language prohibited by law.
Following this, Law 2932 (The Law Concerning Publications and Broadcasts
in Languages other than Turkish), which came into effect in 1983, claimed
Turkish to be the only mother tongue of all Turkish citizens. It also stated
that ‘No language can be used for the explication, dissemination, and publication of ideas other than the first official language of countries, recognized
by the Turkish state.’ The wording of the law was formed in such a way that
it targeted Kurdish, without explicitly mentioning it or acknowledging its
existence. Earlier, the use of Kurdish language was prohibited by administrative decrees. Law 2932 remained in effect until 1991 and it was legally
enforced against those who used Kurdish in public.
Yavuz summarized the persistence of the dominant framework in a
changing world of rising identity politics as follows: ‘As Turkey moved
toward becoming an open society in the 1980s, the fragmentation of the
center and the emergence of socio-political cleavages became clear. The
system failed to create a new social contract that recognized the diversity
of Turkey within the framework of the rule of law.’ Hakan Yavuz, ‘The
Assassination of Collective Memory: The Case of Turkey,’ The Muslim World
99 (1999): 202.
Ismet Parmaksızoğlu, Tarih Boyunca Kürttürkleri ve Türkmenler [Kurtturks and
Turkomans throughout History] (Ankara: Turk Kültürü Araştırma Enstitüsü,
1983).
The book was published by Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü (Turkish
Culture Research Institute). This institute, which was founded in 1961,
defines itself as ‘a scientific institute that works for the public good’ in its
charter. Not only Parmaksızoğlu, but also other textbook authors such as
Ibrahim Kafesoğlu and Enver Ziya Karal publish books with this institute.
Abdülhaluk Çay, Türk Milli Bütünlüğü Içinde Doğu Anadolu Aşiretlerinin SosyoEkonomik ve Külturel Yapıları ve Bőlücülük Meselesi [The Socio-Economic and
Notes
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
Notes
Cultural Structure of Eastern Anatolian Tribes within the Turkish National Unity
and the Separatism Issue] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 1995).
Ali Tayyar Önder, Türkiye’nin Etnik Yapısı: Halkımızın Kőkenleri Ve Gerçekler
[The Ethnic Structure of Turkey: The Roots of Our People and the Truth], 44th ed.
(Ankara: Kripto, 2008).
Őmer Budak, Tarihi Süreç Içinde Kürtler Ve Kürtçülük [Kurds and Kurdism
throughout History] (Ankara: Isik Egitim Kultur Hizmetleri, 2007).
Parmaksızoğlu, Tarih Boyunca Kürttürkleri ve Türkmenler [Kurtturks and
Turkomans throughout History], 21.
Parmaksızoğlu, Tarih Boyunca Kürttürkleri ve Türkmenler [Kurtturks and
Budak, Tarihi Süreç Içinde Kürtler Ve Kürtçülük [Kurds and Kurdism throughout
History], 36.
History], 28.
History], 28.
History], 236.
History], 238–239.
Yeğen, ‘Jewish-Kurds or the New Frontiers of Turkishness,’ 1.
Çay, Türk Milli Bütünlüğü Içinde Doğu Anadolu Aşiretlerinin Sosyo-Ekonomik ve
Külturel Yapıları ve Bőlücülük Meselesi [The Socio-Economic and Cultural Structure
of Eastern Anatolian Tribes within the Turkish National Unity and the Separatism
Issue], 135.
History], 3.
Önder, Türkiye’nin Etnik Yapısı: Halkımızın Kőkenleri Ve Gerçekler [The Ethnic
Structure of Turkey: The Roots of Our People and the Truth], 162 and 240.
See for instance, Mesut Yeğen, Devlet Sőyleminde Kürt Sorunu [The Kurdish
Problem in the State Discourse] (Istanbul: Iletişim, 1999): 223; Mesut Yeğen,
‘The Turkish State Discourse and the Exclusion of Kurdish Identity,’ Middle
Eastern Studies 32, no. 2 (April 1996): 216.
Önder, Türkiye’nin Etnik Yapısı: Halkımızın Kőkenleri Ve Gerçekler [The Ethnic
Structure of Turkey: The Roots of Our People and the Truth], 152; Budak, Tarihi
Süreç Içinde Kürtler Ve Kürtçülük [Kurds and Kurdism throughout History],
10–11; Parmaksızoğlu, Tarih Boyunca Kürttürkleri ve Türkmenler [Kurtturks and
Çay, Türk Milli Bütünlüğü Içinde Doğu Anadolu Aşiretlerinin Sosyo-Ekonomik ve
Külturel Yapıları ve Bőlücülük Meselesi [The Socio-Economic and Cultural Structure
of Eastern Anatolian Tribes within the Turkish National Unity and the Separatism
Issue], 154.
Turkish Daily News, ‘Interview with Devlet Bahçeli’ April 27, 1999, cited in
Zeki Sarıgil, ‘Endogenizing Institutions’ (PhD diss., University of Pittsburgh,
2007): 202.
Henri J. Barkey and Graham E. Fuller. Turkey’s Kurdish Question (Lanham:
Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1998): 112; Kemal Kirisci and G.
M. Winrow. Kürt Sorunu, Kőkeni Ve Gelişimi [Kurdish Problem: Origin and
Development], 2nd ed. (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayinlari, 1997): 148.
118
119
97. The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) is a regional integrated sustainable
development project based on harnessing the water resources of the Euphrates
and the Tigris rivers and the land resources of ‘Upper Mesopotamia.’ The project
requires 32 billion US$ of total financing, 16 billion of which has already been
invested by Turkey. The project is expected to almost double Turkey’s agricultural production. The resulting diversification and increase in crop production
will also create new opportunities for developing agro-industries.
Information retrieved from Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of
Turkey, ‘Brief History of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of
Turkey,’ Accessed March 19, 2012. http://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkiye-cumhuriyeti-disisleri-bakanligi-tarihcesi.en.mfa.
98. This statement, dated March 1, 1999 can still be found on the website of the
ministry of foreign affairs, with an English translation. Republic of Turkey,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‘Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit´s Statement to
the Press on Economic and Social Measures Adopted for the Eastern and
Southeastern Anatolian Regions,’ March 1, 1999, http://www.mfa.gov.tr/
prime-minister-bulent-ecevit_s-statement-to-the-press-on-economic-andsocial-measures-adopted-for-the-eastern-and-southeastern-anatolian-regions_br_march-1_-1999.en.mfa.
99. ‘Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit´s Statement to the Press on Economic and
Social Measures Adopted for the Eastern and Southeastern Anatolian
Regions,’ March 1, 1999.
100. Milliyet, ‘Kılıçdaroğlu Benzerini Görünce Şaşırdı [Kılıçdaroğlu Was Surprised
to See His Like],’ 26 Nisan 2009, accessed September 20, 2010, http://www.
milliyet.com.tr/Siyaset/SonDakika.aspx?aType=SonDakika&KategoriID=12
&ArticleID=1087623&Date=26.04.2009&b=Kilicdaroglu%20benzerini%20
gorunce%20sasirdi.
101. Şule Toktaş, ‘Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey’s
Jewish Minority,’ Journal of Historical Sociology 18, no. 4 (December 2005):
420, fn 27.
102. Kenan Evren, ‘Kürtler Türk’tur ama Kiskirtiliyorlar [Kurds are Turks but they
are Provoked],’ Milliyet, October 27, 1985.
103. Yeni Yüzyıl, December 26, 1995, cited in Kirişçi and Winrow, Kürt Sorunu,
Kőkeni Ve Gelişimi [Kurdish Problem: Origin and Development], 146.
104. Quoted in Michael M. Gunter, The Kurds and the Future of Turkey (New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 1997): 53 and Sarıgil, ‘Endogenizing Institutions,’ 181. Sarigil
also notes similar statements of President Demirel in Hürriyet Daily, ‘Demirel:
‘People’s Beliefs Should Not Be Political Tools’,’ September 12, 1997.
105. Sarigil’s interview with former Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit (Ankara,
December 2005). Cited in Sarıgil, ‘Endogenizing Institutions,’ 181.
106. Önder, Türkiye’nin Etnik Yapısı: Halkımızın Kőkenleri Ve Gerçekler [The Ethnic
Structure of Turkey: The Roots of Our People and the Truth], 152.
107. Budak, Tarihi Süreç Içinde Kürtler Ve Kürtçülük [Kurds and Kurdism throughout
History], 10–11.
108. Milliyet-Konda, Biz Kimiz: Toplumsal Yapı Araştırması 2006 [Who Are We? A
Study of the Society’s Composition] (Istanbul: Konda Araştırma ve Danışmanlık,
2007): Available at www.konda.com.tr/html/dosyalar/ttya_tr.pdf.
Hürriyet-Konda, ‘Biz Kimiz? Hayat Tarzları Araştırması [Who are we?
A study of lifestyles],’ 2008, http://www.konda.com.tr/html/dosyalar/
KONDA_Hayat_Tarzlari_Ozet.pdf.
Notes
Notes
109. Somer and Liaras, ‘Turkey’s New Kurdish Opening: Religious Versus Secular
Values,’ 157.
110. Soner Yalçın, ‘Bülent Ersoy Subasaki’yi bilir mi? [Does Bülent Ersoy know
Subasiki?]’ Hürriyet, February 21, 2010, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/
yazarlar/13858183.asp?yazarid=218. Parmaksızoğlu also wrote that minority
issues were products of the last era of the Ottoman Empire due to external
factors and foreign propaganda. Parmaksızoğlu, Tarih Boyunca Kürttürkleri ve
Türkmenler [Kurtturks and Turkomans throughout History], 60.
111. Kirişçi and G.M. Winrow. Kürt Sorunu, Kőkeni Ve Gelişimi [Kurdish Problem:
Origin and Development], 123.
112. Nihal Mete, ‘Azinliklar Azar mi? [Would Minorities Run Riot?],’ + Haber 12,
March 7–13, 1998, cited in Soner, ‘Citizenship and the Minority Question
in Turkey,’ 303.
113. Gunter, The Kurds and the Future of Turkey (New York: St. Martin’s Press,
1997): 53 and Sarıgil, ‘Endogenizing Institutions,’ 193.
114. Sarıgil, ‘Endogenizing Institutions,’ 192.
115. This situation has often been referred to as Sèvres Syndrome. For example see,
Başbakanlık İnsan Hakları Danışma Kurulu. [Prime Ministry Human Rights
Advisory Board], Azınlık Hakları ve Kültürel Haklar Çalışma Grubu Raporu
[Minority Rights and Cultural Rights Working Group Report].
116. All Demirel has to do to refute an argument is use the magical word Sevres.
Barkey and Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question, 142.
117. Heinz Kramer, A Changing Turkey: The Challenge to Europe and the United
States (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2000): 43 cited in Sarıgil,
‘Endogenizing Institutions,’ 192. For examples on how public recognition
of ethnic rights is framed as an attempt to restore the Sèvres Treaty, see for
instance, Süleyman Demirel, ‘Guneydoğu’da Sevr Deneniyor [Sevres is Being
Tried in the Southeast],’ cited in B. Ali Soner, ‘Citizenship and the Minority
Question in Turkey,’ in Citizenship in a Global World, ed. Fuat Keyman and
Ahmet Icduygu (London: Routledge, 2005): 303; Ntvmsnbc, ‘MHP: Açılım
Kürdistan Hayalinin Parçası [MHP: “Opening” Is Part of the Dream for
Kurdistan],’ 10 Ağustos 2009, http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/24990285/;
CNN Türk, ‘Bahçeli yine “demokratik açılım”la vurdu’ [Bahceli once more, hit
with the ‘democratic opening],’ 24 June 10, http://www.cnnturk.com/2010/
turkiye/12/02/bahceli.yine.demokratik.acilimla.vurdu/598187.0/index.html.
118. For examples that viewed Kurdishness as false consciousness and naiveté, see
History], 6; Şerif, M. Fırat, Doğu Illeri ve Varto Tarihi [Eastern Provinces and the
History of Varto], 5th ed. (Ankara: Yıldız Matbaası, 1983): 1; Erturk Yondem,
‘Perde Arkası [Behind the Curtains],’ TRT-1, October 12, 1994, cited in
The claim that Kurds were in fact ‘mountain Turks’ gained a lot of
currency after the 1980 military intervention. A book published by
the General Stuff, called Kurds ‘mountain Turks’ claiming that the
name ‘Kurt’ derived from ‘Kart Kürt,’ which was the sound heard when
Kurds walked on snowy mountains. For details, see Murat Belge, ‘KartKurt Teorisi’nin Tarihçesi [The History of the Kart-Kurt Theory],’ Taraf,
September 13, 2009, accessed September 25, 2010, http://www.taraf.com.
tr/murat-belge/makale-kart-kurt-teorisinin-tarihcesi.htm and Barkey and
Fuller, Turkey’s Kurdish Question, 117–118.
120
Notes
121
119. As Barkey and Fuller put it: ‘the state has created for itself one of the biggest
obstacles to future dialogue: the formation of public opinion that finds the
concept of “Kurdish identity” absurd, unnecessary, and subversive and that
all who talk about Kurdish rights are terrorists and enemies of the nation.’
The Austrian Historical Narrative
1. Margarete Lamb-Faffelberger, ‘Beyond “The Sound of Music”: The Quest
for Cultural Identity in Modern Austria,’ The German Quarterly 76, no. 3
(Summer, 2003): 291–292.
2. Friedrich Heer, Der Kampf um die Ősterriechische Identität [The Struggle for
Austrian Identity] (Vienna: Böhlau, 1981), cited in Gunter Paier, ‘Menschen
im Ubergang. Österreichbilder und nationale Identitat von Ex-und Neu
ÖsterreicherInnen [People in Transition: Austrian Images and National
Identity of Former and New Austrians],’ in Identität und Nationalstolz Der
Ősterreicher. Gesellschaftliche Ursachen und Funktionen. Herausbildung und
Transformation seit 1945. Internationaler Vergleich [Identity and National Pride of
the Austrians: Social Causes and Functions. Formation and Transformation since
1945. International Comparison], ed. Max Haller (Vienna: Böhlau, 1996): 154.
3. Ruth Wodak, Rudolf de Cillia, Martin Reisigl, Ruth Rodger, Karin Liebhart,
(eds). The Discursive Construction of National Identity, trans. Angelika Hirsch
and Richard Mitten (Edinburgh: Edinburgh, 1999): 52.
4. Ernst Hanisch, Der Lange Schatten des Staates: Ősterreichische
Gesellschaftsgeschichte im 20. Jahrhundert [The Long Shadow of the State:
Austrian Social History in the 20th Century] (Vienna: Ueberreuter, 1988).
5. Ruth Wodak, et al., maintain that ‘after 1945 at the latest, whatever
residual “German” identification Austrians still retained was removed.’, The
Discursive Construction of National Identity, 56.
6. Jaroslav Krejčí and Vitězslav Velímský. Ethnic and Political Nations in Europe
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1981): 260.
7. Peter Thaler, ‘How to Measure Identity: Austrian National Consciousness
in the Mirror of Public Opinion,’ Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 3, no. 4
(1997): 69; Fritz Fellner, ‘The Problem of the Austrian Nation after 1945,’
The Journal of Modern History 60, no. 2 (Jun., 1988): 289.
8. For the sources of the data, see, respectively, Ernst Bruckmüller,
Őstrerreichbewusstsein im Wandel: Identität und Selbstverständnis in den 90er
Jahren [Austrian Consciousness in Transition: Identity and Self-understanding
in the 1990s] (Vienna: Signum Verlag, 1994); Georg Wagner, ed. Österreich
Zweite Republik: Zeitgeschichte und Bundestradition [Second Austrian Republic:
Contemporary History and Federal Tradition], vol. 1. (Vienna: Österreichische
Kultur Verlag, 1983), 1433 and 1436; Gerald Stourzh, ‘Kommentar
zur Studie “Osterreichbewusstsein” 1980 [Commentary on the study
“Osterreichbewusstsein” 1980],’ in Das Ősterreichische Nationalbewusstsein
in der Őffentlichen Meinung und im Urteil der Experten: Eine Studie der PaulLazarsfeld-Gesellschaft für Sozialforschung [Austrian Consciousness in the
Official View and in According to the Experts: A Study of the Paul-Lazarfeld
Society for Social Research], ed. Ernst Gehmacher (Vienna: Paul LazarsfeldGesellschaft für Sozialforschung, 1980): 107–9, cited in Bruckmüller, The
Austrian Nation, 62; Bruckmüller, The Austrian Nation, 64.
4
Notes
9. Thaler, ‘How to Measure Identity,’ 69.
10. Albert Reiterer, ‘Intellektuele und Politische Eliten in der Nationwerdung
Österreichs [Intellectual and Political Elites in Austria’s Process of Becoming
a Nation],’ in Identität und Nationalstolz der Österreicher: Gesellschaftliche
Ursachen und Funktionen, Herausbildung und Transformation seit 1945.
Internationaler Vergleich [Identity and National Pride of the Austrians: Social
Causes and Functions. Formation and Transformation since 1945. International
Comparison.], ed. Max Haller (Vienna: Böhlau, 1996): 271–325.
11. Max Riedlsperger, ‘Austria: A Question of National Identity,’ Politics and
Society in Germany, Austrian and Switzerland 4, no. 1 (Autumn, 1989).
12. Robert Knight, ‘Educational and National Identity in Austria after the Second
World War,’ in The Habsburg Legacy: National Identity in Historical Perspective,
ed. Ritchie Robertson and Edward Timms (Edinburgh: Edinburgh, 1994):
178.
13. Gunter Bischof and Anton Pelinka, eds., Austrian Historical Memory and
National Identity (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1997): 3. See also Erich Zollner,
Probleme und Aufgaben der Ősterreichischen Geschichtsforschung [Problems and
Tasks of Austrian Historical Research] (Munchen: R. Oldenbourg, 1984): 37.
14. Werner Suppanz, Österreichische Geschichtsbilder: Historische Legitimationen
in Ständestaat und Zweiter Republik [Austrian Images of History: Historical
Legitimization in the Ständestaat and Second Republic] (Köln: Böhlaus
Zeitgeschichtliche Bibliothek, 1998): 244.
15. Peter Thaler, ‘National History: National Imagery: The Role of History in
Postwar Austrian Nation-Building,’ Central European History 32, no. 3 (1999):
277.
16. Ernst Fischer, Die Entstehung des österreichischen Volkscharakters [The
Development of the Austrian National Character] (Vienna: Neues Österreich,
1945), cited and translated in Fellner, ‘The Problem of the Austrian Nation
after 1945,’ 269.
17. Suppanz, Österreichische Geschichtsbilder, 15.
18. In October 1945, the Ősterreichische Monatshefte began publication as the
official organ of the Austrian People’s Party (ŐVP), a function the journal has
retained to the present day. Fellner, ‘The Problem of the Austrian Nation after
1945,’ 271.
19. Riedlsperger, ‘Austria;’ Laurence Cole, ‘Der Habsburger-Mythos [The
Habsburg Myth],’ in Memoria Austriae I: Menschen, Mythen, Zeiten [Austrian
Memory: Humans, Myths, and Times], ed. Emil Brix, Ernst Bruckmüller, and
Hannes Stekl (Vienna: Verlag Für Geschichte und Politik Oldenbourg Verlag,
2004): 486.
20. Fellner, ‘The Problem of the Austrian Nation after 1945,’ 271 and 275.
21. Riedlsperger, ‘Austria.’
22. Willfried Spohn, ‘Austria: From Habsburg Empire to a Small Nation in
Europe,’ in Entangled Identities: Nations and Europe, eds. Atsuko Ichijo and
Willfried Spohn (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005): 62.
23. Utgaard, Remembering and Forgetting Nazism, 26.
24. Thaler, ‘How to Measure Identity,’ 69.
25. The Communist Party was a minor party of this coalition only until 1947.
26. Peter Thaler, Ambivalence of Identity: the Austrian Experience of Nation-building
in a Modern Society (West Lafayette: Purdue, 2001): 28, 111.
122
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
123
Bluhm, Building an Austrian Nation, 71.
Riedlsperger, ‘Austria.’
Bluhm, Building an Austrian Nation, 71.
Barbara Jelavich, Modern Austria: Empire and Republic 1800–1980 (London:
Cambridge, 1987): 252.
Even after 1966, when one of the two parties ruled, they were still intertwined due to the organization of the bureaucracy and other sectors of
the society. Thaler, Ambivalence of Identity, 29.
Riedlsperger, ‘The Freedom Party of Austria: From Protest to Radical Right
Populism,’ in The New Politics of the Right: Neo-Populist Parties and Movements
in Established Democracies, ed. Hans-Georg Betz and Stefan Immerfall (New
York: Palgrave, 1998): 28.
See also Anton Pelinka, ‘The Great Austrian Taboo: The Repression of the
Civil War,’ New German Critique. 43, Special Issue on Austria (Winter, 1988):
74 and Bluhm, Building an Austrian Nation, 60–61.
Bluhm, Building an Austrian Nation, 60–61.
Harry Ritter, ‘Austria and the Struggle for German Identity,’ German Studies
Review 15, (Winter, 1992): 113.
Thaler, Ambivalence of Identity, 181. Reiterer argues that in the second
Republic Austria identity is primarily defined as a non-German identity,
other positive determinations come later. Albert Reiterer, Die Unvermeidbare
Nation: Ethnizität, Nationalität und nachnationale Gesellschaft [The Unavoidable
Nation: Ethnicity, Nationality and Postnational Society] (Frankfurt: Campus,
1988): 217.
Christian Karner, ‘The “Habsburg Dilemma” Today: Competing Discourses
of National Identity in Contemporary Austria,’ National Identities 7, no. 4
(December 2005): 412. A radical example of this effort was the renaming
of ‘German’ as ‘Unterrichtsprache’ (language of instruction) at schools for
a while in the early years of the Second Republic. Ritter, ‘Austria and the
Struggle for German Identity,’ 113.
Thaler, Ambivalence of Identity, 133.
Fritz Fellner, ‘The Problem of the Austrian Nation after 1945,’ The Journal of
Modern History 60 (June 1988): 269.
Fritz Fellner, ‘Die Historiographie zur Österreichisch-deutschen Problematik
als Spiegel der nationalpolitischen Diskussion [The Historiography of the
Austro-German Problem as a Reflection of the National Political Debate],’
in Österreich und Die Deutsche Frage Im 19. Und 20. Jahrhundert. Probleme
Der Politisch-Staatlichen Und Soziokulturellen Differenzierung Im Deutschen
Mitteleuropa [Austria and the German Question in the 19th and 20th Century.
Problems of Political, Governmental and Socio-Cultural Differentiation in the
German Central (Vienna: Verl. für Geschichte und Politik 1982): 34. Fellner,
‘The Problem of the Austrian Nation after 1945,’ 269.
Bischof and Pelinka, eds., Austrian Historical Memory and National Identity, 5.
Alois Oberhummers, ‘Gute Österreicher-Gute Kulturdeutsche [Good AustriansGood Cultural Germans],’ Linzer Tagblatt 7, February 1946, 1. Cited and
translated in Fellner, ‘The Problem of the Austrian Nation after 1945,’ 275.
Ernst Fischer and Otto Langbein, ‘Pangermanismus und Arbeiterschaft
Großdeutsche Außenpolitik,’ Weg und Ziel, 4, no. 3 (March 1946): cited in
Fellner, ‘The Problem of the Austrian Nation after 1945,’ 275.
Notes
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
Notes
Suppanz, Österreichische Geschichtsbilder, 248.
Suppanz, Österreichische Geschichtsbilder, 15 and 245.
Karl Heinz Gruber, ‘Higher Education and the State in Austria: An Historical
and Institutional Approach,’ European Journal of Education 17, no. 3 (1982):
264.
Where a Socialist minister was appointed he was seconded by a ŐVP undersecretary and vice versa. Jelavich, Modern Austria: Empire and Republic 1800–
1980, 274.
Joseph McVeigh, ‘“Das Bin Nur Ich. Wenn Ich Es Bin.” Literature and Politics
in Austria since 1945,’ The German Quarterly 61, no. 1 (Winter 1988): 7.
Thaler, ‘How to Measure Identity,’ 73–74.
Thaler, ‘How to Measure Identity,’ 75.
McVeigh, ‘“Das Bin Nur Ich. Wenn Ich Es Bin.” Literature and Politics in
Austria since 1945,’ 7.
McVeigh, ‘“ Das Bin Nur Ich. Wenn Ich Es Bin.” Literature and Politics in
Austria since 1945,’ 116.
Thaler, ‘How to Measure Identity,’ 75; Thaler, Ambivalence of Identity, 113.
Bluhm argues that the more democratic approach of the conservatives in the
postwar era, like the Education Minister’s Austrian nationalism, was more
acceptable for the left despite its Habsburg background. In those regards,
Bluhm views the education policy in the postwar era as a partial ideological
synthesis for both groups. Bluhm, Building an Austrian Nation, 136.
Ernst Fischer, ‘Grossdeutsches Gift [Pangerman Poison],’ Neues Osterreich,
February 15, 1946.
Originally written in German in 1946 and sent to Social Democratic party
leaders. Published in 1948 as ‘Observations on the Situation in Occupied
Austria,’ as an epilogue to Julius Braunthal, The Tragedy of Austria (London:
Victor Gollancz, 1948): 136–159. Even then, it was only published in Britain
and France and not in Austria. Thaler, Ambivalence of Identity, 145, fn 23.
Fellner, ‘The Problem of the Austrian Nation after 1945,’ 276–277.
Thaler, ‘How to Measure Identity,’ 75.
Utgaard, Remembering and Forgetting Nazism, 2.
Fischer, Die Entstehung des österreichischen Volkscharakters [The Development
of the Austrian National Character], 10, cited in Suppanz, Österreichische
Geschichtsbilder, 113.
Utgaard, Remembering and Forgetting Nazism, 5.
See for instance Hermann Gsteu, Geschichte Österreichs [Austrian History]
(Vienna: Tyrolia Verlag, 1956 (1947)); Heilberg and Friedrich Korger,
Lehrbuch der Geschichte [History Textbook], vol. 2, 121. Franz Heilberg and
Friedrich Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte: fur die Oberstufe der allgemeinbildenden hoheren Schulen, vol.4, Allgemeine Geschichte der Neuzeit von der Mitte
des 19. Jahrhunderts bis zur Gegenwart [History Textbook: for the Seniors in Middle
Schools, vol.4, General History of the Modern Times from the mid-19th Century
to the Present], 4th ed. (Vienna: Verlag Hőlder-Pichler-Tempsky, Verlag Ed.
Hőlzel, Österreichischer Bundesverlag, 1965. (1st ed. 1961)): 93.
Michael Lemberger, VG Neu 2: durch die Vergangenheit zur Gegenwart: Geschichte
und Sozialkunde Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch für die 6. Schulstufe [VG New 2: Through
124
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
125
the Past to the Future: History and Social Studies Text- and Work-book for the 6th
Grade] (Vienna: Veritas Verlang, 2006 (3rd edition 2008)): 107.
Bruckmüller, The Austrian Nation, 115. On the left, see for instance, Fischer, Die
Entstehung des österreichischen Volkscharakters [The Development of the Austrian
National Character], 4–5 and Ernst Fischer, ‘Sind die Österreicher ein Deutscher
Stamm? [Are the Austrian from German Descent?],’ Weg und Ziel (July/August,
1948): 551–552. On the right see, Ernst Joseph Görlich, ‘Wann Kommt das
Österreichische Geschichtswerk? [When does the Austrian Historical Work
Come?]’ Österreichische Monatshefte 12, September, 1947, 494; Alfred Missong,
Die Ősterreichische Nation [The Austrian Nation] (Vienna: Österreichischer
Verlag, 1946): 5; Alfred Missong, ‘25 Thesen Über die Ősterreichische Nation
[25 Theses on the Austrian Nation],’ Österreichische Monatshefte 3 (August
1948): 487, cited in Suppanz, Österreichische Geschichtsbilder, 64; Leo Kirste,
‘Bekenntnis zur Österreichischen Nation [Commitment to the Austrian Nation],’
Österreichische Monatshefte 5, February, 1946, 182 and Generalsekretariat
der Österreichischen Volkspartei [Secretary General of the ŐVP], Programm
Österreich. Die Grundsätze und Ziele der Österreichischen Volkspartei [Program
of Austria: The principles and Objectives of the Austrian People’s Party] (Vienna:
Österreichischer Verlag 1949): 113.
Ernst Marboe, The Book of Austria (Vienna: Ősterreichische Staatsdruckerei,
1948, (revised ed. 1969)). For the German original see Ernst Marboe, Das
Ősterreich Buch [The Book of Austria] (Vienna: Ősterreichische Staatsdruckerei,
1948).
It was distributed in 100,000 copies in the 1950s. Ernst Hanisch, ‘Von
der Opfererzählung zum schnellen Moralisieren. Interpretationen des
Nationalsozialismusin Österreich [From Victim Narratives to quick moralizing: Interpretations of National Socialism in Austria],’ Geschichte und
Gesellschaft, 31, no. 2 (Apr.– Jun., 2005): 255.
Marboe, The Book of Austria, 5.
Hasenmayer and Göhring, Altertum. Ein Approbiertes Arbeits- und Lehrbuch für
Geschichte und Sozialkunde [Antiquity: An approved work and textbook for history
and social studies], 111.
Franz Heilberg and Friedrich Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte: fur die Oberstufe
der Mittelschulen, vol.1, Allgemeine Geschichte des Altertums [History Textbook:
for the seniors in middle schools, vol.1, General Ancient History], 6th edition,
(Vienna: Verlag Hőlder-Pichler-Tempsky, Verlag Ed. Hőlzel, Österreichischer
Bundesverlag, 1958. (1st ed. 1949)): 181. Herbert Hasenmayer and Walter
Göhring, Altertum. Ein Approbiertes Arbeits- und Lehrbuch für Geschichte und
Sozialkunde [Antiquity: An approved work and textbook for history and social
studies] (Vienna: Verlag Ferdinand Hirt, 1976): 112.
Heilberg and Friedrich Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte[History Textbook], vol.1,
180–181; Hasenmayer and Göhring, Altertum. Ein Approbiertes Arbeits- und
Lehrbuch für Geschichte und Sozialkunde [Antiquity: An approved work and textbook for history and social studies], 113.
Heilberg and Friedrich Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte[History Textbook], vol.2,
12 and 36–37; Heilberg and Friedrich Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte[History
Textbook], vol. 1, 211; Hasenmayer and Göhring, Altertum. Ein Approbiertes
Arbeits- und Lehrbuch für Geschichte und Sozialkunde [Antiquity: An approved
work and textbook for history and social studies], 107 and 113.
Notes
Notes
72. Heilberg and Friedrich Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte[History Textbook], vol.2,
35; Marboe, The Book of Austria, 350.
73. Gsteu, Geschichte Österreichs; Lemberger, VG Neu 2; Schausberger, Oberländer
and Strotzka, Wie? Woher? Warum?: Geschichte und Sozialkunde, 2.klasse [How?
From Where? Why?: History and Social Studies, 2nd Grade],17, 77, 82, and 84.
Not only textbooks but also popular books that are published both for the
Austrian and the international audience narrate the merging of various distinct
cultures (such as Slovenes, Celts, Croats, and Germans within Austria). See for
instance, Marboe, The Book of Austria, 5, 25, 243–245, and 346.
74. Heilberg and Friedrich Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte [History Textbook], vol.
2, 124–125. On the role of marriages in the intermixing of the Austrian population, also see 243–245.
75. See for instance, Marboe, The Book of Austria, 243–245.
76. Ritter, ‘Austria and the Struggle for German Identity,’ 113.
77. Lonnie Johnson, Introducing Austria: A Short History (California: Ariadne,
1989): 174–175.
78. Gsteu, 539, 307–308; Heilberg and Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte, vol.4, 98.
79. Gsteu, Geschichte Österreichs [Austrian History], 539 and 307–308.
81. Heilberg and Friedrich Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte[History Textbook], vol.
4, 98.
82. Gsteu, Geschichte Österreichs [Austrian History], 541. Hammerschmid Pramper
and Simbrunner talk about the empire as Vielvolkerstaat (multi-peoples
state), Hammerschmid, Pramper and Simbrunner, Meilensteine der Geschichte.
Geschichtsbuch für die 3.Klasse HS und AHS [Milestones of History: History Book
for the 3rd Grade of High Schools], 98.
83. Lemberger, VG Neu 2, 78.
84. Franz Heilberg and Friedrich Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte: fur die Oberstufe
der allgemeinbildenden hoheren Schulen, vol. 3, Allgemeine Geschichte der Neuzeit
von der Mitte des 17. bis zur Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts [History Textbook: for the
seniors in middle schools, vol. 3, General History of the Modern times from the
mid-17th Century to the mid-19th Century], 5th ed. (Vienna: Verlag HőlderPichler-Tempsky, Verlag Ed. Hőlzel, Österreichischer Bundesverlag, 1965. (1st
ed. 1951)): 91.
86. See for instance Gsteu, Geschichte Österreichs [Austrian History], 164 and 312.
87. Anton Ebner, Matthias Partick, and Georg Stadler, Lehrbuch der Geschichte und
Sozialkunde: Vom Wiener Kongress bis zur Gegenwart [Textbook of History and
Social Studies: From the Congress of Vienna to the Present] (Salzburg: Otto Muller
Verlag, 1968): 55.
88. With the dual monarchy the Habsburg dynasty’s unified absolutist empire
was replaced by a dual system of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Austrian
Empire, both of which were nominally independent but were unified in
the person the King-Emperor Franz Joseph and shared a common currency,
imperial bank, tariffs and many indirect taxes, railroads, army and foreign
policy. Robert Pahre, ‘Divided Government and International Cooperation
in Austria-Hungary, Sweden-Norway and the European Union,’ European
Union Politics, 2, no. 2 (June 2001): 148.
89. Heilberg and Friedrich Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte [History Textbook],
vol.4, 93, 96, 100 and 104.
126
127
90. Bruckmüller, The Austrian Nation, 126.
91. Vincze, Tóth and László, ‘Representations of the Austro-Hungarian
Monarchy in the History Books of the Two Nations,’ 62–71.
92. Ebner, Partick, and Stadler, Lehrbuch der Geschichte und Sozialkunde: Vom
Wiener Kongress bis zur Gegenwart [Textbook of History and Social Studies: From
the Congress of Vienna to the Present], 55.
93. Gsteu, Geschichte Österreichs, 541.
94. Marboe, The Book of Austria, 358 and 378.
vol.2, 35; Lemberger, VG Neu 2, 112.
96. Lemberger, VG Neu 2; Norbert Schausberger, Erich Oberländer and Heinz
Strotzka, Wie? Woher? Warum?: Geschichte und Sozialkunde, 2.klasse [How?
From Where? Why?: History and Social Studies, 2nd Grade], 1st ed. (Vienna:
Österreichische Bundesverlag, 1986).
97. Lemberger, VG Neu 2, 77.
98. Schausberger, Oberländer and Strotzka, Wie? Woher? Warum?: Geschichte und
Sozialkunde, 2. klasse [How? From Where? Why?: History and Social Studies,
2nd Grade], 17 and 82.
99. Gsteu, Geschichte Österreichs, 97; Hasenmayer and Göhring, Altertum. Ein
Approbiertes Arbeits- und Lehrbuch für Geschichte und Sozialkunde [Antiquity:
An approved work and textbook for history and social studies].
vol.4, 93; Heilberg and Friedrich Korger, Lehrbuch der Geschichte[History
Textbook], vol. 1, 181 and 187.
vol. 1, 14; Schausberger, Oberländer and Strotzka, Wie? Woher? Warum?:
Geschichte und Sozialkunde, 2. klasse [How? From Where? Why?: History and
Social Studies, 2nd Grade], 17, 83, 90.
The books also talk about how these cultures were influenced by former
cultures, such as what Romans overtook from the Volks they took under
their command. See for instance, Norbert Schausberger, Erich Oberländer
and Heinz Strotzka, Wie? Woher? Warum? Geschichte und Sozialkunde
2. klasse, Lehrerhandbuch [How? From Where? Why?: History and Social
Studies, 2nd Grade, Teachers Guide], 1st ed. (Vienna: Österreichische
Bundesverlag, 1986): 74.
vol.3, 50; Gsteu, Geschichte Österreichs, 312; Helmut Hammerschmid,
Wolfgang Pramper and Berthold Simbrunner, Meilensteine der Geschichte.
Geschichtsbuch für die 3.Klasse HS und AHS [Milestones of History: History
Book for the 3rd Grade of High Schools], 1st ed. (Linz: Veritas, 1992): 49.
3, 52.
105. Alfons Ubelhor and Wolf, eds. Grosse Österreicher [The Great Austrian]
(Vienna: Österreichicher Bundesverlag, 1947): 57.
106. Suppanz, Österreichische Geschichtsbilder, 187 and 185.
107. Fischer, Die Entstehung des österreichischen Volkscharakters [The Development
Geschichtsbilder, 185–186. For a history textbook that explains Italian influence on Austrian baroque, see Gsteu, Geschichte Österreichs, 312.
Notes
Notes
108. Marboe, The Book of Austria, 78.
109. Fischer, Die Entstehung des österreichischen Volkscharakters [The Development
Geschichtsbilder, 185–186.
3, 44, Hammerschmid, Pramper and Simbrunner, Meilensteine der Geschichte.
Geschichtsbuch für die 3.Klasse HS und AHS [Milestones of History: History Book
for the 3rd Grade of High Schools], 46–48.
113. Suppanz, Österreichische Geschichtsbilder, 152 and 155.
vol. 2, 122; Schausberger, Oberländer and Strotzka, Wie? Woher? Warum?:
Geschichte und Sozialkunde, 2. klasse [How? From Where? Why?: History and
Social Studies, 2nd Grade], 147.
vol.1, 211; Schausberger, Oberländer and Strotzka, Wie? Woher? Warum?:
Geschichte und Sozialkunde, 2.klasse [How? From Where? Why?: History and
Social Studies, 2nd Grade], 147.
118. Textbooks focus on Turks specifically. But as debates on mosques and headscarves in Austria show, ‘Turks’ can certainly used as a synecdoche for larger
groups of new minorities.
119. Fellner, ‘The Problem of the Austrian Nation after 1945,’ 281.
120. Robert Hunt, ‘Islam in Austria,’ The Muslim World 92, issue 1–2 (March
2002): 116.
121. Hunt, ‘Islam in Austria,’ 117.
122. The Austrian political elite very much followed this storyline. Politicians
such as Hurdes, Missong, and Gőrlich on the right and Ernst Fischer on
the left, saw Austrian defense against the Turks as an important aspect of
their history. Bruckmüller, The Austrian Nation, 115. For more examples,
see Leopold Figl, ‘Was ist Österreich? [What is Austria?],’ Österreichische
Monatshefte 3, December 1945, 89–91 and Wilhelm Böhm, Österreich, Erbe
und Aufgabe [Austria: Legacy and Duty] (Vienna: Österreich-Institute, 1947):
17–23.
125. Schausberger, Oberländer and Strotzka, Wie? Woher? Warum?: Geschichte und
Sozialkunde, 2. klasse [How? From Where? Why?: History and Social Studies,
2nd Grade], 147.
127. See for instance, Marboe, The Book of Austria, 350 and Gsteu, Geschichte
Österreichs.
128. Hammerschmid, Pramper and Simbrunner, Meilensteine der Geschichte.
Geschichtsbuch für die 3. Klasse HS und AHS [Milestones of History: History
Book for the 3rd Grade of High Schools], 45.
128
Notes
Historical Narratives in Action: The Austrian Case
1. Fabian Georgi, ‘Nation-State Building and Cultural Diversity in Austria,’ in
Nation-State Building Process and Cultural Diversity, ed. Jochen Blaschke (Berlin:
Parabolis, 2005), 36.
Janoski, ‘The Difference that Empire Makes,’ 387. Sinti is an ethnic group
living in Austria that speaks a Romani language.
2. ‘Staatsvertrag, betreffend die Wiederherstellung eines unabhängigen und
demokratischen Österreich [State Treaty for the Re-establishment of an
Independent and Democratic Austria],’ May 15, 1955, Federal Law Gazette,
no. 152/1955, July 30, 1955.
3. ‘Bundesgesetz über die Rechtsstellung von Volksgruppen in Österreich
(Volksgruppengesetz) [Federal Act on the Legal Status of Ethnic Groups
in Austria (Ethnic Groups Act)],’ July 7, 1976, Federal Law Gazette,
no. 396/1976.
4. Michat Krzyzanowski and Ruth Wodak, The Politics of Exclusion: Debating
Migration in Austria (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2009), 60.
5. Karner, ‘The ‘Habsburg Dilemma’ Today,’ 415; Ruth Wodak, Rudolf de Cillia,
Martin Reisigl, Ruth Rodger, Karin Liebhart, ‘On Austrian Identity: The
Scholarly Literature,’ in The Discursive Construction of National Identity, ed.
Ruth Wodak et al., 2nd revised ed. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press),
58.
6. Bundeskanzleramt, Österreich, ‘Law on Bilingual Signposts Adopted,
Faymann: Agreement is an Opportunity,’ July 18, 2011, http://www.bka.
gv.at/site/7459/default.aspx#id44367.
7. Wodak et al., ‘On Austrian Identity: The Scholarly Literature,’ 58. On the
23rd of December 1993 the decision was officially published as governmental decree. ‘Verordnung über die Volksgruppenbeiräte [Decree pertaining
to the Ethnic Groups Advisory Board],’ Federal Law Gazette 23, no. 895/1993,
December 1993.
When the Ethnic Groups Act was originally enacted, Roma and Sinti had
not been officially recognized as an ethnic group because they were ‘incorrectly assumed that as a traditionally migrating group they could not claim
to be autochthonous to the territory of Austria,’ even though in fact, they
did fulfill the relevant criteria such as Austrian citizenship, own language
and culture, and autochthonous character just like the other recognized
ethnic groups. Only after the Roma and Sinti associations, with the help of
historians, proved that they had lived in permanent settlements in Austria
for centuries was this objection dropped. Gerhard Baumgartner and Florian
Freund. Roma Policies in Austria, (Vienna: Cultural Association of Austrian
Roma. 2007), 17.
8. Baumgartner and Freund, ‘Roma Policies in Austria,’ 17.
9. ‘Bundesverfassungsgesetz [Federal Constitutional Act],’ July 7, 2000, Federal
Law Gazette, No. 27/2007.
10. Tom Priestly, ‘The Position of the Slovenes in Austria: Recent Developments
in Political (and other) Attitudes,’ Nationalities Papers 27, no. 1 (1999): 103.
11. Priestly, ‘The Position of the Slovenes in Austria,’ 111.
5
129
14. On July 12, 2000, the former President of Finland and Martti Ahtisaari was
appointed, together with Professor Jochen Frowein and Doctor Marcelino
Oreja to deliver, on the basis of a thorough examination, a report covering
the Austrian Government’s commitment to the common European values, in
particular concerning the rights of minorities, refugees and immigrants and
the evolution of the political nature of Haider’s FPÖ. The report can be found
here: Martti Ahtisaari, Jochen Frowein, and Marcelino Oreja, ‘Report On The
Austrian Government’s Commitment to The Common European Values, in
Particular Concerning the Rights of Minorities, Refugees and Immigrants,
and The Evolution of the Political Nature of the FPÖ (The Wise Men Report),’
International Legal Materials 40, no. 1 (January 2001): 102–123.
15. Ahtisaari, Frowein, and Oreja, ‘Report On The Austrian Government’s
Commitment to The Common European Values, in Particular Concerning
the Rights of Minorities, Refugees and Immigrants, and The Evolution of the
Political Nature of the FPÖ (The Wise Men Report),’ 107–108 and 119.
16. Austria Lexicon, ‘Volksgruppen-Minderheiten in Österreich: Sonderpostmarke
[Ethnic minorities in Austria: Commemorative stamp],’ Last updated August
23, 2011, accessed August 31, 2011, http://www.austria-lexikon.at/af/
Wissenssammlungen/Briefmarken/1994/Volksgruppen-Minderheiten.
17. Bruckmüller, The Austrian Nation, 64.
18. SWS-Bildstatistiken, ‘Österreich und seine Identität [Austria and Its Identity],’
SWS-Rundschau 32, no. 2 (1994): 209–224, cited in Wodak et al., The Discursive
Construction of National Identity.
19. In 1984, 54 percent of the respondents of a sample of 1800 people were in
favor of the use of these minority languages in the public sphere, while 53 of
1774 respondents in 1996 agreed with them. Those who opposed this idea
were 41 percent in 1984 and 44 percent in 1996. Hilde Weiss, Nation und
Toleranz [Nation and Tolerance] (Vienna: Braumuller, 2004), 57.
20. Source: World Values Survey. Numbers sampled in each country: Austria
1460, Hungary 999, Poland 982, Czech Republic 931, and Slovakia 466. Cited
in Claire Wallace, ‘Opening and Closing Borders: Migration and Mobility in
East-Central Europe,’ Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 28, no. 4 (October
2002): 620, table 6.
21. Sample sizes in 1999 are; Austria 1522, Hungary 650 (data comes from the
year 1998), Poland 1095, Czech Republic 1908, and Slovakia 1331. Source:
World Values Survey Website, ‘Online Data Analysis,’ accessed August 31,
2011. http://www.wvsevsdb.com/wvs/WVSAnalizeQuestion.jsp.
22. Nora Gresch, Leila Hadj-Abdou, Sieglinde Rosenberger, Birgit Sauer, ‘Tu
felix Austria?: The Headscarf and the Politics of ‘Non-issues’ Social Politics,’
International Studies in Gender, State and Society 15, no. 4 (Winter 2008): 416.
23. Georgi, ‘Nation-State Building and Cultural Diversity in Austria,’ 49.
24. Baubőck, ‘Constructing the Boundaries of the Volk,’ 247.
25. Baubőck, ‘Constructing the Boundaries of the Volk,’ 247.
26. Barbara Herzog-Punzenberger, ‘Ethnic Segmentation in School and Labor
Market: 40 Year Legacy of Austrian Guestworker Policy,’ International Migration
Review 37, no. 4 (Winter, 2003): 1123.
27. Herzog-Punzenberger, ‘Ethnic Segmentation in School and Labor Market,’
1123.
130 Notes
131
28. Ruth Wodak and Teun A. van Dijk. ed. Racism at the Top: Parliamentary
Discourses on Ethnic Issues in Six European Countries (Klagenfurt: Drava Verlag,
2000), 99; Alice Ludvig, ‘Why Should Austria Be Different from Germany?
The Two Recent Nationality Reforms in Contrast,’ German Politics 13, no. 3
(2004): 502.
29. Rainer Baubőck and Dilek Çınar, ‘Nationality Law and Naturalisation in
Austria,’ in Towards A European Nationality: Citizenship, Immigration and
Nationality Law in the EU, ed. Randell Hansen and Patrick Weil (New York:
Palgrave, 2001), 259.
30. Heinz Fassmann and Rainer Münz, Einwanderungsland Österreich? (Vienna:
Dachs-Verlag, 1992), 521–522. As a reflection of this attitude at the societal
level it is important to note that Austria does not officially see itself as an
‘immigration land’ even though more than 10 percent of its population
came from outside of Austria. Heinz Fassmann and Rainer Münz, ‘Migration
und Bevolkerungspolitik: Österreich im internationalen Vergleich [Migration
and Population Policy: Austria in International Comparison],’ in Bevőlkerung
und Wirtschaft [Population and economy], ed. Bernhard Felderer (Berlin:
Duncker & Humbolt, 1989), 521–522. See also Herzog-Punzenberger, ‘Ethnic
Segmentation in School and Labor Market.’
31. Oswald Panagl and Peter Gerlich, eds. Wőrterbuch der Politischen Sprache in
Österreich (Vienna: Őbv, 2007), 51.
32. Ruth Wodak, ‘The Development and Forms of Racist Discourse in Austria
since 1989,’ in Language in Changing Europe, ed. G. Graddol and S. Thomas
(Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1994), 15.
33. FPÖ grew from barely 5 percent voter support (1986) to 26.9 percent (1999). It
entered a coalition with ÖVP in February 2000. The positioning of the party
changed considerably after Haider became its leader in 1986. The party leadership had directed the party toward liberalism in the 1960s and 1970s. Haider
embraced nationalism and populism. Many liberals left the FPÖ and rightwing extremists flooded the party. Rudiger Wischenbart, ‘National Identity
and Immigration in Austria: Historical Framework and Political Dispute,’ in
The Politics of Immigration in Western Europe, eds. Martin Baldwin-Edwards and
Martin A. Schain. London: Cass, 1994, 75; David Art, Reacting to the Radical
Right: Lessons from Germany and Austria. Party Politics 13 (2007): 333, 344.
34. Art; Reinhard Heinisch, ‘Right-Wing Populism in Austria: A Case for
Comparison.’ Problems of Post-Communism 55 (May/June 2008): 40–56.
35. Kurt Richard Luther, ‘Austria: A Democracy under Threat from the Freedom
Party?’ Parliamentary Affairs 53 (2000), 429–430.
36. Baubőck and Çınar, ‘Nationality Law and Naturalisation in Austria,’ 259.
1122–1123.
40. Krzyzanowski and Wodak, The Politics of Exclusion, 41.
41. Krzyzanowski and Wodak, The Politics of Exclusion, 41–42.
42. Ruth Wodak, ‘The Genesis of Racist Discourse in Austria since 1989,’ in Texts
and Practices: Reading in Critical Discourse Analysis, ed. Carmen Rosa CaldasCoulthard and Malcolm Coulthard (London: Routledge, 1996), 107.
43. Dilek Çınar and Harald Waldrauch, ‘Austria,’ in Acquisition and Loss of
Nationality, vol. 2 Country Analyses, ed. Rainer Baubőck, Eva Ersbøll, Kees
Notes
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
Groenendijk, Harald Waldrauch (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press,
2006), 21.
Ludvig, ‘Why should Austria be Different from Germany?’ 501.
Çınar and Waldrauch, ‘Austria,’ 21.
Janoski, ‘The Difference that Empire Makes,’ 403.
Krzyzanowski and Wodak, The Politics of Exclusion, 44; Thomas Janoski,
The Ironies of Citizenship: Naturalization Processes in Advanced Industrialized
Countries (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 153.
Claus Hofhansel, ‘Citizenship in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland: Courts,
Legislatures, and Administrators,’ Faculty Publications 103 (2008): 169–170.
Çınar and Waldrauch, ‘Austria,’ 20 and 52.
Çınar and Waldrauch, ‘Austria,’ 20 and 52.
Dilek Çınar, ‘Update: Amendments in the Austrian Nationality Law October
2009,’ European Union Democracy Observatory, February 2010, http://eudocitizenship.eu.
GFK-Fessel, Meinungsumfrage zu Österreich [Survey for Austria] (Vienna: Fessel
Institute, 1991), cited in Wodak, ‘The Genesis of Racist Discourse in Austria
Since 1989,’ 115.
The petition called for a constitutional amendment stating that Austria is
not a country of immigration, the freezing of immigration until problems
of illegal immigrants are solved and until there is no problem with housing
and the unemployment rate is less than 5 percent. It also proposed to reduce
the number of students with foreign mother tongues in primary and vocational schools and refused early access to citizenship while making satisfactory knowledge of the German language mandatory. The petition was signed
by 417,278 Austrians (7.4 percent of those entitled to vote), half the number
expected by Haider, who was expecting more than 1 million votes. See
Reinhold Gartner, ‘The FPÖ, Foreigners and Racism in the Haider Era,’ in The
Haider Phenomenon in Austria, ed. Ruth Wodak and Anton Pelinka (London:
Transaction Publishers, 2002), 23; Martin Reisigl and Ruth Wodak, Discourse
and Discrimination: Rhetorics of Racism and Antisemitism (London: Routledge,
2001), 145; Ruth Wodak and Teun van Dijk, Racism at the Top, 99.
Bruckmüller, The Austrian Nation, 139.
Heinisch, ‘Right-Wing Populism in Austria,’ 43.
Krzyzanowski and Wodak, The Politics of Exclusion, 68.
Heinz Fassmann and Rainer Münz, Einwanderungsland Österreich? Gastarbeiter –
Flüchtlinge – Immigranten [Austria: Country of Immigration? Guest Workers,
Refugees, Immigrants] (Vienna: Dachs-Verlag, 1992) and Theo Van Leeuwen
and Ruth Wodak, ‘Legitimizing Immigration Control: A Discourse- Historical
Analysis,’ Discourse Studies l, no. 1, issue 1 (1999): 87.
Rainer Baubőck, ‘Migrationspolitik [Migration Policy],’ in Kulturen in Bewegung
[Cultures in Movements], ed. Hans Barkowski und Maria Hirtenlehner (Vienna:
Verband Wiener Volksbildung, Alpha & Beta Verlag Edizioni, 1997), 678.
Federal Law Gazette, no. 101/1959.
‘Bundesgesetz über die Rechtsstellung von Volksgruppen in Österreich
(Volksgruppengesetz) [Federal Act on the Legal Status of Ethnic Groups in
Austria (Ethnic Groups Act)],’ July 7, 1976, Federal Law Gazette, no. 396/1976.
132 Notes
133
63. Article 8 of ‘Bundesverfassungsgesetz [Federal Constitutional Act],’ July 7,
2000, Federal Law Gazette, no. 27/2007.
64. Bundeskanzleramt, Österreich, ‘Law on Bilingual Signposts Adopted,
Faymann: Agreement is an Opportunity,’ July 18, 2011, http://www.bka.
gv.at/site/7459/default.aspx#id44367.
1122–1123.
66. Krzyzanowski and Wodak, The Politics of Exclusion, 41.
67. Wodak, ‘The Genesis of Racist Discourse in Austria since 1989,’ 107.
68. Çınar and Waldrauch, ‘Austria,’ 41.
69. Hofhansel, ‘Citizenship in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland,’ 169–170.
70. In this latest version of Austrian Citizenship Law, in addition to proof of sufficient and regular income, applicants for Austrian nationality must not have
received social welfare assistance for the last three years before their application for citizenship. The amendment also raises the necessary minimum level
of disposable personal income because now regular expenditures for rent, loan
repayment, garnishment or alimony payment have to be taken into account
when calculating an applicant’s income level. Çınar, ‘Update: Amendments in
the Austrian Nationality Law October 2009’. ‘Fremdenrechtsänderungsgesetz
[Migration Law Amendment Act],’ Stenographisches Protokoll [Stenographic
Minutes], 40th Meeting of the National Council of the Republic of Austria,
24th Legislative Period, October 21, 2009.
71. Walther Weißmann (ÖVP), ‘Minderheiten-Schulgesetz für Kärnten
1959 [Minorities School Act for Carinthia 1959],’ Stenographisches Protokoll
[Stenographic Minutes], 85th Meeting of the National Council of the Republic
of Austria, 8. Legislative period, March 19, 1959, 4124–4125.
72. Herbert Pansi (SPÖ), ‘Bundesgesetz über die Rechtsstellung von Volksgruppen
in Österreich (Volksgruppengesetz) [Federal Act on the Legal Status of Ethnic
Groups in Austria (Ethnic Groups Act)],’ Stenographisches Protokoll [Stenographic
14. Legislative period, July 7, 1976, 2846.
73. Felix Ermacora (ÖVP), ‘Bundesgesetz über die Rechtsstellung von
Volksgruppen in Österreich (Volksgruppengesetz) [Federal Act on the Legal
Status of Ethnic Groups in Austria (Ethnic Groups Act)],’ Stenographisches
Protokoll [Stenographic Minutes], 30th Meeting of the National Council of the
Republic of Austria, 14. Legislative period, July 7, 1976, 2865.
74. Heinz Kapaun (SPÖ), ‘Bundesgesetz über die Rechtsstellung von Volksgruppen
in Österreich (Volksgruppengesetz) [Federal Act on the Legal Status of Ethnic
Groups in Austria (Ethnic Groups Act)],’ Stenographisches Protokoll [Stenographic
14. Legislative period, July 7, 1976, 2870–2874.
75. Robert Graf (ÖVP), ‘Bundesgesetz über die Rechtsstellung von Volksgruppen
in Österreich (Volksgruppengesetz) [Federal Act on the Legal Status of
Ethnic Groups in Austria (Ethnic Groups Act)],’ Stenographisches Protokoll
[Stenographic Minutes], 30th Meeting of the National Council of the Republic
of Austria, 14. Legislative period, July 7, 1976, 2874–2875.
76. Reinhard Heinisch, ‘Right-Wing Populism in Austria: A Case for Comparison,’
Problems of Post-Communism 55, no. 3 (May/June 2008): 44.
77. Heinisch, ‘Right-Wing Populism in Austria,’ 44.
Notes
78. Christian Karner, ‘Austrian Counter-Hegemony: Critiquing Ethnic Exclusion
and Globalization,’ Ethnicities, 7, no. 1 (2007): 82–115.
79. David Art, ‘Reacting to the Radical Right: Lessons from Germany and Austria,’
Party Politics 13, no. 3 (2007): 334; Karner, ‘Austrian Counter-Hegemony’;
Kerstin Hamann and John Kelly, ‘Party Politics and the Reemergence of
Social Pacts in Western Europe,’ Comparative Political Studies 40, no. 8 (August
2007): 986.
80. Rudiger Wischenbart, ‘National Identity and Immigration in Austria:
Historical Framework and Political Dispute,’ in The Politics of Immigration in
Western Europe, ed. Martin Baldwin-Edwards and Martin A. Schain (London:
Cass, 1994), 75; Art, ‘Reacting to the Radical Right,’ 333.
81. Art, ‘Reacting to the Radical Right,’ 333.
84. Hamann and Kelly, ‘Party Politics and the Reemergence of Social Pacts in
Western Europe,’ 986 and Kurt Richard Luther, ‘Must What Goes Up Always
Come Down? Of Pillars and Arches in Austria’s Political Architecture,’ in
Party Elites in Divided Societies, ed. K. R. Luther and K. Deschouwer (London:
Routledge, 1999), 53–55.
85. Reinhard Heinisch, Populism, Proporz, Pariah: Austrian Political Change,
its Causes and Repercussions (New York: Nova Science, 2002), 219, cited in
Hamann and Kelly, ‘Party Politics and the Reemergence of Social Pacts in
Western Europe,’ 986.
86. Peter Ulram, ‘Political Culture and Party System in the Kreisky Era,’ in The
Kreisky Era in Austria, ed. Günter Bischof and Anton Pelinka (New Brunswick:
Transaction, 1994), 92, cited Heinisch, ‘Right-Wing Populism in Austria,’
45.
88. Karner, ‘Austrian Counter-Hegemony,’ 82–83.
89. Art, ‘Reacting to the Radical Right,’ 344. Haider died in an accident in 2008.
91. See for instance, Art, ‘Reacting to the Radical Right’ and Heinisch, ‘RightWing Populism in Austria.’
93. Heinisch, ‘Right-Wing Populism in Austria,’ 43. See also Karner, ‘Austrian
Counter-Hegemony.’
94. Heinisch, ‘Right-Wing Populism in Austria,’ 53; see also Ludvig, ‘Why should
Austria be Different from Germany?’ 512.
95. As Luther, in his 2000 article (i.e. before FPÖ became a main coalition partner)
writes, FPÖ has influenced government parties’ policies foremost on issues
related to tightening Austria’s immigration regime. Kurt Richard Luther,
‘Austria: A Democracy under Threat from the Freedom Party?,’ Parliamentary
Affairs 53 (2000): 429–430.
96. The German original: ‘(2) Die Republik (Bund, Länder und Gemeinden)
bekennt sich zu ihrer gewachsenen sprachlichen und kulturellen Vielfalt,
die in den autochthonen Volksgruppen zum Ausdruck kommt. Sprache
und Kultur, Bestand und Erhaltung dieser Volksgruppen sind zu achten, zu
sichern und zu fördern.’ ‘Bundesverfassungsgesetz [Federal Constitutional
Act],’ July 7, 2000, Federal Law Gazette, no. 27/2007.
134 Notes
135
97. Walter Posch (SPÖ), ‘Bundesverfassungsgesetz, mit dem das BundesVerfassungsgesetz geändert wird [Federal constitutional law, amending the
Federal Constitution],’ Stenographisches Protokoll [Stenographic Minutes], 34th
Meeting of the National Council of the Republic of Austria, 21st Legislative
period, July 7, 2000, 59.
98. Matthias Ellmauer (ÖVP), ‘Bundesverfassungsgesetz, mit dem das BundesVerfassungsgesetz geändert wird [Federal constitutional law, amending the
period, July 7, 2000, 59–60.
99. Terezija Stoisits (Greens), ‘Bundesverfassungsgesetz, mit dem das BundesVerfassungsgesetz geändert wird [Federal constitutional law, amending the
period, July 7, 2000, 62 and 64.
100. Harald Ofner (FPÖ), ‘Bundesverfassungsgesetz, mit dem das BundesVerfassungsgesetz geändert wird [Federal constitutional law, amending the
period, July 7, 2000, 60.
101. Slovenian dialect.
102. Ursula Plassnik (ÖVP), ‘Bundesgesetz, mit dem das Volksgruppengesetz
geändert wird [Federal Law Amending the Ethnic Groups Act]’ Stenographisches
Protokoll [Stenographic Minutes], 112th Meeting of the National Council of
the Republic of Austria, 24th Legislative period, July 6, 2011, 59.
103. Bündnis Zukunft Österreich (Alliance for the Future of Austria), the party
Haider found after leaving FPÖ.
104. Josef Bucher (BZÖ), ‘Bundesgesetz, mit dem das Volksgruppengesetz geändert
wird [Federal Law Amending the Ethnic Groups Act]’ Stenographisches
the Republic of Austria, 24th Legislative period, July 6, 2011, 65–66.
105. Werner Faymann (SPÖ), ‘Bundesgesetz, mit dem das Volksgruppengesetz
geändert wird [Federal Law Amending the Ethnic Groups Act]’ Stenographisches
the Republic of Austria, 24th Legislative period, July 6, 2011, 68.
106. Terezija Stoisits (Greens), ‘Aufenthaltsgesetz 1992 [Residence Act],’
Stenographisches Protokoll [Stenographic Minutes], 76th Meeting of the
National Council of the Republic of Austria, 18. Legislative period, July 8,
1992, 8307–8308.
1992, 8308.
1992, 8308.
Notes
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
1992, 8308–8309.
Madeleine Petrovic (Greens), ‘Aufenthaltsgesetz 1992 [Residence Act],’
1992, 8313.
Madeleine Petrovic (Greens), ‘Aufenthaltsgesetz 1992 [Residence Act],’
1992, 8314.
Helga Moser, (FPÖ), ‘Aufenthaltsgesetz 1992 [Residence Act],’ Stenographisches
Protokoll [Stenographic Minutes], 76th Meeting of the National Council of the
Republic of Austria, 18. Legislative period, July 8, 1992, 8325.
Helene Partik-Pable (FPÖ), ‘Aufenthaltsgesetz 1992 [Residence Act],’
1992, 8331.
Wolfgang Jung (FPÖ), ‘Staatsbürgerschaftsgesetz 1998 [1998 Citizenship
Law],’ Stenographisches Protokoll [Stenographic Minutes], 134th Meeting of
the National Council of the Republic of Austria, 20. Legislative Period, July
8, 1998, 86–87.
Heinisch, Populism, Proporz, Pariah, 109.
Das Program der Freiheitlichen Partei Ősterreichs [The Program of the Austrian
Freedom Party] (Vienna: Die Freiheitlichen-Buendnis Buero, 1998), cited
and translated in Gartner, ‘The FPÖ, Foreigners and Racism in the Haider
Era,’ 25.
Freedom Party], cited and translated in Andrej Zaslove, ‘Closing the Door?
The Ideology and Impact of Radical Right Populism on Immigration
Policy in Austria and Italy,’ Journal of Political Ideologies 9, no. 1 (February
2004): 105.
Freedom Party], cited and translated in Heinisch, Populism, Proporz,
Pariah, 110.
Perchinig, ‘Migration Studies in Austria-Research at the Margins?’ 198.
The link to this book on Strache’s website is http://www.hcstrache.
at/2011/?id=80, accessed February 3, 2012.
The link to the book on FPÖ’s website is FPÖ, ‘Sagen aus Wien: Comic
[Legends from Wien: Comics],’ accessed February 3, 2012. http://www.fpoe.
at/dafuer-stehen-wir/sagen-aus-wien/.
In an interview, Strache also acknowledges that one of the purposes of these
cartoons is to evoke historical consciousness in the people. Lucija Stojevic,
‘The Rise of Vienna’s Far Right,’ The Guardian, February 11, 2011, http://
www.guardian.co.uk/world/video/2011/feb/11/vienna-far-right-video.
Brigitte Hipfl and Daniela Gronold, ‘Asylum Seekers as Austria’s Other:
The Re-Emergence of Austria’s Colonial Past in a State-Of-Exception,’ Social
Identities 17, no.1 (2011): 32.
Eurobarometer 63.4, ‘Public Opinion In The European Union, Spring 2005,’
Accessed March 19, 2012, http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/eb/
136 Notes
137
eb63/eb63_en.pdf, cited in European Stability Initiative, ‘Berlin, Brussels,
Istanbul, A referendum on the Unknown Turk?: Anatomy of an Austrian
Debate,’ January 30, 2008: Berlin-Istanbul. Accessed March 19, 2012. http://
www.esiweb.org/index.php?lang=en&id=156&document_ID=101.
Reflecting on the relationship between Austria’s negative attitudes to
Turkey’s EU membership, a piece in The Guardian on the Austrian referendum
on Turkish EU accession maintains that: ‘In 1683 Turkey was the invader.
In 2004 much of Europe still sees it that way.’ Similarly, the Turkish scholar
Hasan Ünal stated in Financial Times that ‘Austrians suffer from an anxiety
bordering on the paranoid, as if Kara Mustafa and the Janissaries were even
now mustering camels loaded with cannonballs at the gates of Vienna.’
Ian Traynor, ‘In 1683 Turkey was the Invader. In 2004 Much of Europe still
sees it that Way,’ The Guardian, Wednesday September 22, 2004, http://
www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/sep/22/eu.turkey; Hasan Ünal, ‘Turkey
Would Be Better Off Outside the EU,’ Financial Times, December 17, 2004,
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/c91442d0-4fd0-11d9-86b3–00000e2511c8.
html#axzz1aQKKkMHi.
125. In Berkhofer’s words, ‘contextualism ... postulates a holism that is purposely
left vague.’ Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr., Beyond the Great Story: History as Text and
Discourse (Cambridge: Harvard, 1998), 34.
6
Conclusions and Directions for Future Research
1. See for instance Ruth Gavison, ‘Jewish and Democratic? A Rejoinder to
the “Ethnic Democracy” Debate,’ Israel Studies 4, no. 1 (Spring, 1999): 58;
Nira Yuval-Davis, ‘Women, Citizenship and Difference,’ Feminist Review,
Citizenship: Pushing the Boundaries, no. 57 (Autumn, 1997): 9; Rebeca
Raijman, ‘Citizenship Status, Ethno-National Origin and Entitlement to
Rights: Majority Attitudes towards Minorities and Immigrants in Israel,’
Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 36, no. 1 (2010): 89–90.
2. Raijman, ‘Citizenship Status, Ethno-National Origin and Entitlement to
Rights,’ 90.
3. Gavison, ‘Jewish and Democratic?’ 58.
4. Ilan Saban, ‘Minority Rights in Deeply Divided Societies: A Framework for
Analysis and the Case of the Arab-Palestinian Minority in Israel,’ New York
University Journal of International Law and Politics 36, no. 4 (2004): 961–963.
5. Herbert C. Kelman, ‘Israel in Transition from Zionism to Post-Zionism,’
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 555 Israel in
Transition (Jan., 1998): 58.
6. Such as the Declaration of Independence of Israel (May 14, 1948), Basic Law
of Education (1953), Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty (1992), and
Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation (1992).
7. Basic Law: The Knesset (1958). Cited and translated in Saban, “Minority
Rights in Deeply Divided Societies,” 983.
8. By ethnocracy Yiftachel means ‘a regime built on two key principles: First,
ethnicity, and not citizenship, is the main logic around which state resources
are allocated; and second, the interests of a dominant ethnic group shape
most public policies.’ Yiftachel compares Israel to Finland where the state
Notes
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
is declared to be Lutheran but it is at the same time defined as a (territorial) Finnish political community. As such, it allows non-Lutheran minorities to fully identify as Finnish. In contrast, because the state of Israel is
defined (non-territorially) as Jewish, and Arabs can never become Jewish,
their right to equal citizenship is structurally denied. Oren Yiftachel, ‘Israeli
Society and Jewish-Palestinian Reconciliation: ‘Ethnocracy’ and Its Territorial
Contradictions,’ Middle East Journal 51, no. 4 (Autumn, 1997):507 and
384. Oren Yiftachel, Ethnocracy: Land and Identity Politics in Israel/Palestine
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).
Peled, ‘Ethnic Democracy and the Legal Construction of Citizenship,’ 432.
Baruch Kimmerling, ‘Academic History Caught in the Cross-Fire: The Case of
Israeli-Jewish Historiography,’ History and Memory 7, issue 1 (June 1995): 54.
Earlier, Dinur, was among the founders of the Land of Israel Association for
History and Ethnography (in 1923) and among the founders and editors
of the bibliographical quarterly Kiryat Sefer (in 1924) and of the historical
annual (later quarterly) Zion. He was the Chair of the Institute for Studies
of Judaism (from 1942) and compiled extensive anthologies of sources
and documents in Jewish history. After the founding of Israel, he served as
Minister of Culture and Education from 1951 to 1955. He was responsible
for the formulation and implementation of the 1953 State Education Law.
He was a founder and, from 1956 to 1959, President of the Yad Vashem
Holocaust Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Remembrance Authority, President of the
World Congress for Jewish Studies, and much more.
Uri Ram, ‘Zionist Historiography and the Invention of Modern Jewish
Nationhood: The Case of Ben Zion Dinur,’ History and Memory 7, issue 1
(1995): 95.
Yitzhak Conforti, ‘Alternative Voices in Zionist Historiography,’ Journal of
Modern Jewish Studies 4, no. 1 (March 2005): 1–12.
In 1953, Dinur brought before the Knesset a motion for the Law of State
Education, which was enacted toward the end of that year. This law officially applied Dinur’s historiographical paradigm to Israeli education. It
aimed at abolishing the independent educational “trends” associated with
different ideologies and to establish a unified, centrally planned, administrated and financed state educational system, under the authority of the
Ministry of Education. Ram, ‘Zionist Historiography and the Invention of
Modern Jewish Nationhood,’ 107.
Parliamentary Transcriptions (Jerusalem, 1953), 14: 1352 (original in Hebrew),
quoted and translated in Ram, ‘Zionist Historiography and the Invention of
Modern Jewish Nationhood,’ 97.
Mihael Ziv, Teaching History in School: Methods and Trends (Tel Aviv, 1956), 1–7,
13–14 (in Hebrew), quoted and translated in Podeh, ‘History and Memory in
the Israeli Educational System The Portrayal of the Arab-Israeli Conflict in
History Textbooks (1948–2000),’ 71.
In line with this notion, Anita Shapira argues that the State of Israel has
been conceived as proof of Zionism’s vision, which taught that Jews had no
future except in their own sovereign state. Anita Shapira, ‘The Eichmann
Trial: Changing Perspectives,’ Journal of Israeli History: Politics, Society, Culture
23, no. 1 (2004): 21.
138 Notes
139
18. Gabriel Piterberg, ‘Domestic Orientalism: The Representation of ‘Oriental’
Jews in Zionist/Israeli Historiography,’ British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
23, no. 2 (Nov., 1996): 130–131.
19. Zerubavel, Recovered Roots, 14. See also Michael Feige, ‘Introduction:
Rethinking Israeli Memory and Identity,’ Israel Studies 7, no. 2 (Summer
2002): v.
20. Zerubavel, Recovered Roots, 217.
21. Among many works on the ‘negation of exile’ or ‘negation of the diaspora’
see for instance Amnon Raz-Krakotzkin, ‘‘Exile Within Sovereignty: Toward
a Critique of the ‘Negation of Exile’ in Israeli Culture’’ [in Hebrew]. Theory
and Criticism, no. 4–5 (1993–1994): 23–56, 113–132; Amnon Raz-Krakotzkin,
‘History Textbooks and the Limits of Israeli Consciousness,’ Journal of Israeli
History 20 (2001): 167. Leah Rosen and Ruth Amir, ‘Constructing National
Identity: The Case of Youth Aliyah,’ Israel Studies Forum 21, no. 1 (Summer
2006): 27–51; Daniel Gutwein, ‘Left and right post-Zionism and the privatization of Israeli collective memory,’ Journal of Israeli History: Politics, Society,
Culture, 20, no. 2–3 (2001): 9–42; Julia Resnik, ‘‘Sites of memory’ of the
Holocaust: shaping national memory in the education system in Israel,’
Nations and Nationalism 9, no. 2 ( 2003): 297–317; Piterberg, ‘Domestic
Orientalism.’
On the reflections of ‘negation of exile’ in the commemorative visits to the
concentrations camps in Poland by the Israeli youth see Jackie Feldman,
‘Marking the Boundaries of the Enclave: Defining the Israeli Collective
through the Poland’Experience’,’ Israel Studies 7, no. 2 (Summer, 2002):
84–114.
On Zionist collective memory and the perception of exile as a symbolic
void and a ‘long, dark period of suffering and persecution’ see Yael
Zerubavel, Recovered Roots: Collective Memory and the Making of Israeli
National Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 13–33.
22. Piterberg, ‘Domestic Orientalism,’ 133.
23. Yitzhak Baer and Ben Zion Dinur, ‘Our Purpose’, Zion (in Hebrew), 1 (1936):
2–3, cited and translated in Piterberg, ‘Domestic Orientalism,’ 133.
27. Piterberg, ‘Domestic Orientalism,’ 126, fn. 2.
28. Gabriel Piterberg, ‘Erasures,’ New Left Review 10, (July–August 2001): 32.
29. Uri Ram, ‘National, Ethnic or Civic? Contesting Paradigms of Memory,
Identity and Culture in Israel,’ Studies in Philosophy and Education 19 (2000):
412. See also, Ella Shohat, “Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the Standpoint
of Its Jewish Victims,’ Social Text 19/20 (1988).
30. Raz-Krakotzkin, ‘History Textbooks and the Limits of Israeli Consciousness,’
167.
An interesting example in this regard for Raz-Krakotzkin is that in the
matriculation exams students are asked to prove that the Holocaust was
directed at all world Jewry, including the Jews in Muslim countries. He
sees this as an example of how the complex and varied histories and experiences of Mizrahi Jews are subsumed into a history to which they did
not belong. Amnon Raz-Krakotzkin, ‘History Textbooks and the Limits of
Israeli Consciousness,’ 168.
Notes
Notes
32. Ella Shohat, ‘The Invention of the Mizrahim,’ Journal of Palestine Studies 29,
no. 1 (Autumn, 1999): 6. See also Shohat, ‘Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from
the Standpoint of Its Jewish Victims,’ 8–9.
33. Ella Shohat, ‘The Invention of the Mizrahim,’ 6.
34. White, Metahistory, 17.
35. Kimmerling, ‘Academic History Caught in the Cross-Fire,’ 49. Podeh, ‘History
and Memory in the Israeli Educational System the Portrayal of the ArabIsraeli Conflict in History Textbooks (1948–2000),’ 76.
36. A ‘pogrom’ (Russian: ‘devastation,’ or ‘riot’) refers to ‘a mob attack, either
approved or condoned by authorities, against the persons and property
of a religious, racial, or national minority. The term is usually applied to
attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.’ Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “pogrom,” accessed April 9, 2012,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/466210/pogrom.
37. Kimmerling, ‘Academic History Caught in the Cross-Fire: The Case of IsraeliJewish Historiography,’ 49.
38. Ella Shohat, ‘The Invention of the Mizrahim,’ 6–7.
39. The basic plot structure that Zerubavel identifies in Antiquity and the
modern national revival is ‘few against many.’ Zerubavel, Recovered Roots,
217. See also Podeh, ‘History and Memory in the Israeli Educational System
the Portrayal of the Arab-Israeli Conflict in History Textbooks (1948–2000),’
76–77.
41. Azaryahu and Kellerman, ‘Symbolic Places of National History and Revival,’
112.
42. Uri Ram, ‘Postnationalist Pasts: The Case of Israel,’ Social Science History 22,
no. 4 (Winter 1998): 514.
43. Esra Özyürek, ed. The Politics of Public Memory in Turkey (Syracuse: Syracuse
University Press, 2007), 3.
44. H. C. Schmidt, The Roots of lo Mexicano (London: Texas A & M University,
1978), 57.
45. The mixture of Whites – especially Spaniards – and indigenous people.
46. Turner, The Dynamics of Mexican Nationalism (Chapel Hill: The University of
North Carolina Press, 1968), 40.
47. Alan Knight, ‘The Peculiarities of Mexican History: Mexico Compared to Latin
America, 1821–1992,’ Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (1992): 125; F. C.
Turner, The Dynamics of Mexican Nationalism, 40, 87 and 105; I. V. O’Malley,
The Myth of the Revolution: Hero Cults and the Institutionalization of the Mexican
State, 1920– 1940, (New York: Greenwood, 1986), 118.
48. Turner, The Dynamics of Mexican Nationalism, 162.
49. Hale, C. A. Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora: 1821–1853. (New Haven:
Yale, 1968), 214.
50. O’Malley, The Myth of the Revolution, 119.
51. Knight 1990, In The Idea of Race in Latin America, 80.
52. Schmidt, The Roots of lo Mexicano, x; Anne Doremus, ‘Indigenism, Mestizaje,
and National Identity,’ Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 17, no. 2 (Summer
2001): 383; Gerhard Masur, Nationalism in Latin America: Diversity and Unity
(New York: Macmillan, 1966), 80.
140
141
53. Thaler, Ambivalence of Identity, 187.
54. Bluhm, Building an Austrian Nation, 178.
55. John Winslade and Gerald Monk, Narrative Mediation (San Francisco: JosseyBass, 2001).
For the discussion of lack of attention to historical bias, which includes
historical experience as well as the interpretation of history, as an
important factor of institution building, see also Donald Horowitz,
‘Constitutional Design: Proposals versus Processes,’ in The Architecture of
Democracy: Constitutional Design, Conflict Management, and Democracy, ed.
Andrew Reynolds (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 31–35.
56. Ian S. Lustick, ‘Israeli History: Who is Fabricating What?’ Survival: Global
Politics and Strategy 39, no. 3 (1997): 156–157. Wertsch also finds a striking
conservatism and resistance to change in schematic narrative templates on
history. Wertsch, ‘Collective Memory and Narrative Templates,’ 150–151.
Notes

Collective Memory and National Membership

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