Untitled - FOODWARD-Food Recovery and Waste Reduction

Untitled - FOODWARD-Food Recovery and Waste Reduction

org
GIDA SEKTÖRÜNDE
GIDA KAYIPLARI ve
GIDA İSRAFI PROJESİ
NİSAN 2015
TABLOLAR
‹Ç‹NDEK‹LER
ÖNSÖZ
1. SÜT ve SÜT MAMÜLLER‹
1.1. Genel Durum
1.2. Türkiye de süt üretimi ve sütün toplanmas›
1.3. Süt üretimi ve sa€›lan hayvan say›s›
1.4. Türkiye de baz› süt mamulleri üretimi
1.5. ‹çme sütü
1.6. Peynir imalat›
1.7. Kaflar peyniri
1.8. Eritme peyniri
1.9. Yo€urt
1.10. Ayran
1.11. Krema ve Tereya€›
1.12. Süttozu
Tablo 1: Süt s›€›r› gruplar›na göre çiftçi say›s› ve % de€eri
Tablo 2: Sa€›lan hayvan say›s› ve süt üretimi
Tablo 3: 2014 y›l› tahmini süt mamulleri üretimi ve kifli bafl›na üretim
Tablo 4: Türkiye de kanatl› hayvan varl›€›
Tablo 5: Türkiye de kesilen büyükbafl ve koyun say›s› ile et üretimi
Tablo 6 : S›€›r ve koyunda canl› a€›rl›€a göre yan ürünler %
Tablo 7: Kanatl› kesiminde yan ürünler
Tablo 8: Türkiye de taze domates üretimi
Tablo 9: Domates salças› iflleme aflamalar›
Tablo 10: Türkiye de üretilen baz› meyve türleri ve miktarlar›
Tablo 11: Tah›llarda kay›p ve israf
Tablo 12: Meyve ve sebzelerde kay›p ve israf
Tablo 13: Et ürünlerinde kay›p ve israf
Tablo 14: Süt ürünlerinde kay›p ve israf
2. ET ve ET MAMÜLLER‹
2.1. Genel Durum
2.2. Kanatl› et ifllenmesi
2.3. K›rm›z› et ifllenmesi
3. MEYVE ve SEBZE KONSERVES‹
3.1. Genel Durum
3.2. Domates salças›
3.2.1. Hasat
3.2.2. Parçalama
3.2.2. Pulper/elek
3.2.3. Stok tank›
3.2.4. Evaporatör
3.2.5. Is›l ifllem
3.3. Sebze konservesi üretim aflamalar›
3.4. Meyve konservesi üretim aflamalar›
3.5. Meyve suyu konsantresi
4. GIDA SANAY‹‹NDE KAYIP ve ‹SRAFLAR
4.1. Genel De€erlendirme
4.2. G›dalarda kay›p ve israf›n önlenmesi
4.3. Anket Formu
2
3
ÖNSÖZ
Türkiye, Avrupa Birliği’ne tam üye olmak için büyük gayret sarfetmektedir. Avrupa Birli€i standart ve normlar›n› yakalayarak, Avrupal› olmak ve ileri ülke refah standartlar›na eriflmek as›l hedeftir. Avrupa Birli€i bir medeniyet projesidir.
Avrupa Birli€i Türkiye’nin birlik müktesebat›na ulaflmas› için imkanlar yarat›yor.
‹flte bu “G›da Sektöründe G›da Kay›plar› ve G›da ‹sraf›n›n Önlenmesi Projesi /
Food recovery and Waste Reduction, k›sacas› Foodward” projesi (Project No:
2014-1TRO1-KA204-013041) Avrupa Birli€i fonlar›ndan (ERASMUS PLUS
program› çerçevesinde) yararlan›larak, Proje paydafllar› olan TÜG‹S/Türkiye
G›da Sanayi ‹flverenleri Sendikas›, T.C. G›da, Tar›m ve Hayvanc›l›k Bakanl›€› /
TAGEM Genel Müdürlü€ü, ODTÜ G›da Mühendisli€i Bölümü, MKV Consulting,
‹talya SPES / GEIE, ‹talya EURO CREA, Almanya Mönchengladbach Niederlain Üniversitesi ve Slovakya Cassavia / Kosica ‹le birlikte yürüttü€ü bir projedir. G›da sektöründe kay›plar›n belirlenmesi, g›da kay›plar›n›n ve israf›n
önlenmesi, bunlar›n ekonomiye geri kazan›m›, bu projenin as›l amac›d›r. Projenin konusu Türkiye’de, irdelenmesi gereken bir bofllu€u doldurmaktad›r. Türkiyeínin Türk paydafllar›, bu çal›flmalarda Avrupa Birli€i Üyesi olan di€er
paydafllar›, Almanya, ‹talya ve Slovakya’n›n tecrübelerinden yararlanacak, karfl›l›kl› görüfl teatileriyle, Türkiye’deki deneyim ve bilgiler irdelenecektir. Proje çerçevesinde, her ortak yükümlülükler üstlenmifltir. Proje ile ilgili olarak seminerler,
e€itim toplant›lar›, konferanslar yap›lacak, Avrupa Birli€i fikrinin yay›lmas› baflta olmak üzere, konuyla ilgili teknik bilgiler ilgililere ve yetkililere birinci elden aktar›lacakt›r.
Türkiye’nin muhtelif flehirlerinde bu amaçla yap›lacak olan seminerler ve e€itim toplant›lar› büyük önem arz etmekte olup, G›da Sektörüne yeni bir ufuk açacakt›r. Ayr›ca, proje çerçevesinde haz›rlanacak E-Modüller sürekli olarak tüm
ilgililerin istifadesine sunulacakt›r. Bu rapor projenin, konusuyla ilgili olarak, G›da Kay›plar› ve G›da ‹sraf› konusunda fluandaki durumu ortaya koyan önemli
bir rapordur. Proje çal›flmalar›n›n baflar›l› olmas›n› dilerken, Avrupa Birli€i Bakanl›ğ› Ulusal Ajans yetkililerine ve Projede görev alan tüm paydafllar›m›za teflekkürlerle, baflar›lar diliyorum.
Sayg›lar›m›zla,
Selçuk Maruflu
TÜG‹S Yürütme Kurulu Üyesi
ve Genel Sekreter
16 Nisan 2015
5
G‹R‹fi
G›­da­Sa­na­yi­in­de­or­ta­ya­ç›­kan­ka­y›p­la­r›n­arafl­t›­r›l­ma­s›­için,­TC.­Av­ru­pa­Ajan­s›
ta­ra­f›n­dan­des­tek­le­nen­ve­Tür­ki­ye­G›­da­Sa­na­yii­‹fl­ve­ren­le­ri­Sen­di­ka­s›­(TÜ­G‹S)
ta­ra­f›n­dan­ko­or­di­ne­edi­len­bu­pro­je­de­dört­ül­ke­den­pro­je­pay­dafl­la­r›­ile­bir­lik­te
ça­l›­fl›l­mak­ta­ve­her­ül­ke­ken­di­ça­l›fl­ma­la­r›­n›­bu­pro­je­çer­çe­ve­sin­de­ha­z›r­la­ya­cak­ve­so­nuç­la­r›­n›­dü­zen­le­ye­ce­€i­se­mi­ner­ve­top­lan­t›­lar­la­il­gi­li­sek­tör­yö­ne­ti­ci­le­ri­ne­ak­ta­ra­cak­t›r.
Pro­je­pay­dafl­la­r›,­Tür­ki­ye’de,­T.C.­G›­da­Ta­r›m­ve­Hay­van­c›­l›k­Ba­kan­l›­€›,­Ta­r›m­sal­Arafl­t›­ma­ve­Ge­lifl­tir­me­Ge­nel­Mü­dür­lü­€ü­(TÜ­GEM),­Or­ta­Do­€u­Tek­nik­Üni­ver­si­te­si,­G›­da­Mü­hen­dis­li­€i­Bö­lü­mü,­Tür­ki­ye­G›­da­Sa­na­yii­‹fl­ve­ren­le­ri­Sen­di­ka­s›
(TÜ­G‹S)­ve­MKV­Da­n›fl­man­l›k­fir­ma­s›­yer­al­mak­ta­d›r.
Pro­je­mi­zin­yurt­d›­fl›­pay­dafl­la­r›­ise,­‹tal­ya’dan­,­Spre­ad­Eu­ro­pe­an­Sa­fety­ve­Euo­roc­re­a­Merc­hant­Srl,­Al­man­ya’dan Hochs­chu­le­Nie­derr­he­in­ve­Slo­vak­ya’dan
Cas­so­vi­a­Li­fe­Sci­en­ces’d›r.
Bu­ça­l›fl­ma­dan­el­de­edi­le­cek­bul­gu­lar­ay­r›­ca­elek­tro­nik­plat­form­la­sek­tör­ça­l›­flan­la­r›­n›n­sü­rek­li­kul­la­n›­m›­na­su­nu­la­cak­t›r.
Tür­ki­ye­de­yü­rü­tü­le­cek­olan­ça­l›fl­ma­da­Et­ma­mul­le­ri,­Süt­ve­Kon­ser­ve­sek­tör­le­ri­nin­ve­ürün­le­rin­de­ka­y›p­ve­is­ra­f›n­in­ce­len­me­si­he­def­len­mifl­tir.­Bu­amaç­la
ha­z›r­la­nan­bu­ön­ra­por­dan­son­ra,­üre­ti­ci­ler­le­ya­p›­lan­an­ket­ça­l›fl­ma­s›­ve­sek­tör­tem­sil­ci­le­ri­ile­ya­p›­lan­kar­fl›­l›k­l›­gö­rüfl­me­ler­den­el­de­edi­le­cek­tab­lo­pro­je­pay­dafl­la­r›n­ca­de­€er­len­di­ri­le­cek­tir.
Bu­ve­si­le­ile­ko­nu­ya­ili­fli­kin­gö­rüfl­le­ri­ni­bi­zim­le­pay­la­flan­sek­tör­tem­sil­ci­le­ri­ne­te­flek­kür­ede­riz.
So­ru­na­dö­nük­bul­gu­lar­ve­çö­züm­öne­ri­le­rin­den­olu­flan­ra­por,­Tür­ki­ye’de­5­fark­l›
il­de­dü­zen­le­ne­cek­se­mi­ner­ler­le­sek­tör­tem­sil­ci­le­ri­ne­ak­ta­r›­la­cak­t›r.
Ay­r›­ca­Tür­ki­ye­ve­pro­je­pay­da­fl›­olan­ül­ke­ler­de­ko­nu­ya­ilifl­kin­ya­p›­la­cak­ça­l›fl­ma­lar­so­nu­cun­da­or­ta­ya­ç›­ka­cak­olan­bil­gi­ler­bu­sek­tör­ler­de­ça­l›fl­mak­ta­olan
tek­nik­per­so­ne­lin­e€i­ti­min­de­kul­la­n›l­mak­üze­re­elek­tro­nik­or­tam­da­ula­fl›­la­bi­le­cek­ö€­re­nim­mo­dü­lü­ne­ak­ta­r›­la­cak­t›r.
Ama­c›­m›z­ürün­le­ri­miz­de­ki­ka­y›p­ve­is­raf­la­r›n­azal­t›­la­rak,­bu­ko­nu­da­har­ca­nan
kay­nak­la­r›n­do€­ru­kul­la­n›­m›­na­kat­k›­sun­ma­s›­d›r.
7
Tablo 1: Süt s›€›r› gruplar›na göre, çiftçi say›s› ve yüzde da€›l›m›
1. SÜT VE SÜT MAMÜLER‹
1.1. Genel Durum
Türkiye de süt ve mamulleri sanayi inek sütü süt üretiminin yo€un oldu€u
Marmara, Ege ve Akdeniz bölgeleri baflta olmak üzere k›smen de ‹ç Anadolu
bölgelerine yay›lm›fl iken, orta ve küçük boy iflletmeler, özellikle koyun ve keçi
sütlerini de de€erlendirenler Trakya, Marmara bölgelerinde yer al›r. Mand›ra
olarak bilinen küçük iflletmeler hemen her bölgede vard›r baz›lar› mevsimlik
olarak üretim yaparlar. Manda sütü ise çok yo€urt ve kaymak üretimi için az say›da iflletmede kullan›lmaktad›r.
Türkiye G›da envanteri raporu 2013 e göre, süt iflletmecili€i ve peynir imalat› ya p›lan 1.243 iflletme bulunmaktad›r. Ancak ilk 500 büyük flirket s›ralamas›na 6.6 milyar TL toplam cirosu olan 10 firman›n, 2.500’de ise toplam 1 milyar
ciroya sahip firman›n bulundu€u görülmektedir. Bu sektördeki toplam çal›flan
say›s›n›n 30.000 civar›nda oldu€u tahmin edilmektedir.
1.2. Türkiye’de süt üretimi ve sütün toplanmas›
Türkiye’de süt üretimi oldukça da€›n›k ve farkl› bir organizasyonla yap›lmakta ve de€iflik yollarla iflletmelere ulaflmaktad›r.
Türkiye’de önemli bir süt üretimi bulunmaktad›r. Ancak üretim çok say›daki
küçük aile iflletmelerinin ço€unlukta oldu€u bir yap›dan elde edilmektedir. Bunun sosyal boyutunun olumlu alg›lanmas› düflünülebilir, özellikle tar›mla u€raflan ailelerin bir kaç süt hayvan›n› da yetifltirmesinin gelirlerine katk›s› olaca€›
do€ru olmakla birlikte, baz› teknik sorunlar› da beraberinde getirmektedir.
Çok say›da üretim noktas›n›n olmas›, sütün sa€l›kl› flekilde toplanmas›n›
zorlaflt›rmaktad›r. Bu sütlerin toplama merkezlerine getirilmesi zaman almakta
ve bu sure içinde özellikle saklama koflullar›na özen gösterilmedi€i durumlarda süt asitli€inin yükselmektedir.
Yaz aylar›nda 2 kez toplama yap›lmas›na karfl›l›k bunun uygun olmad›€›
dönemlerde sabah ve akflam sa€›lan sütler bir kerede toplanmaktad›r.
Süt S›€›r›
Say›s›
1-5
6-9
10-19
20-49
50-99
100-199
200-499
550+
Toplam
Çiftci
Say›s›
701.907
253.776
190.009
85.910
16.204
3.141
783
217
1.250.947
%
56.11
20.11
15.19
6.87
1.3
0.25
0.06
0.02
100
Tablo 1’den görülece€i üzere 1.250 947 çiftçi veya çiftlikte süt üretimi yap›lmaktad›r. Hayvan say›s› 1-5 olan çiftçilerin say›s› 701.907 olup toplam üretici
say›s›n›n % 56.11’ini oluflturmaktad›r. 6-9 adet süt hayvan› bulunan üretici say›s› ise 253.776 ve toplam çiftçi, say›s›n›n % 20.11’ini oluflturmaktad›r.
Özetle 10’dan az süt hayvan› olan üretici say›s› toplam süt üreticisinin
3/4’ünü oluflturmaktad›r.
Üretici say›s›n›n fazla, sa€›lan hayvan say›s›n›n az oldu€u durumlarda rantabl üretim yapmak da zorlaflmaktad›r. Verimli bir besleme, hastal›klarla mücadele ve do€um planlamas› istenildi€i düzeyde de€ildir.
Ortalama süt verimi süt s›€›rlar›nda 3 ton/y›l, koyun ve keçi de 83 kg/y›l ve
manda da 1 ton/y›l olarak hesaplanmaktad›r.
Birçok küçük üretim yerinde sa€›lan sütlerin so€utulmas› yetersiz koflullarda yap›lmas›na karfl›l›k, orta ve büyük iflletmelerde süt so€utma tanklar› kullan›lmaktad›r. sütün so€utulmas›nda yeterli donan›m olmad›€› için kalite
kay›plar›n› da beraberinde gelmektedir.
Teknik olarak sütün sa€›mdan hemen sonra so€utularak, sa€›m s›ras›nda
süte bulaflan mikroorganizmalar›n say›s›n›n artmadan saklanmas› istenir. Bu
amaçla, sa€›mda hemen sonra bir tülbentten süzülerek bulaflan kaba pislikten
ar›nd›r›l›r ve gü€ümlere al›n›r. Süt toplama merkezlerine gidene kadar da süratle so€utulmas› gerekir.
Bu amaçla küçük iflletmelerde gü€ümlere konan sütler akan bir su havuzunda bekletilerek so€umas› sa€lan›r. Süt toplama merkezlerine gelen sütler
ise so€utma tanklar›nda +4 dereceye kadar so€utulur ve ›s› izoleli tankerlerle
fabrikalara tafl›n›r.
Sütlerin iflletmeye getirilmesinde farkl› yollar izlenmektedir.
1- Çiftçiden al›nan süt önce süt toplay›c›s› olarak bilinen ba€›ms›z kiflilerce
8
9
gü€ümlerle toplan›r ve süt so€utma merkezi olan süt toplama merkezlerine getiriler. Buradan fabrikalara veya mand›ralara gönderilir.
2- Çiftçilerden al›nan sütler kooperatifler taraf›ndan toplan›r ve süt kooperatifi merkezlerinde so€utma merkezlerine getirilir, buradan fabrikalara veya
mand›ralara gönderilir
3- Çiftliklerde üretilen sütler sa€›mdan sonra kendi tesislerinde bulunan
tanklarda so€utulur ve fabrikalara sevkedirler.
4- Çiftçilerden al›nan sütler belli merkezlerde toplan›r ve do€rudan tüketiciye çi€ süt olarak sat›lmak üzere sevk edilir.
Süt üretiminin ancak % 40-45 inin büyük iflletmelere geldi€i kalan›n› ise küçük iflletmelere ve sokak sütü olarak sat›ld›€› tahmin edilmektedir..
Hayvanlar›n sa€l›€› yan› s›ra, sa€›m›n kurallar›na göre yap›lmas› ve meme
hijyeni ne dikkat edilmesi gerekir. Özellikle makinal› sa€›mlarda memenin zarar görmemesi önemlidir. Sa€›mdan sonra sütün, filtre edilmesi veya tülbentten süzülmesi, so€utma ve so€uk zincirin k›r›lmadan en k›sa zamanda
iflletmelere tafl›nmas› gerçekleflmelidir..
Özellikle mikroorganizma yükü fazla olan sütlerde, kalite kay›plar› ortaya
ç›kmakta olup bu sütler her mamule ifllenemez. UHT ve Pastörize sütler de çi€
süt kalitesi özellikle süt asitli€i süt kabulünde önemli bir kriterdir. Asitli€i yükselen sütler ›s›l ifllemde p›ht›laflt›klar› için kullan›lamazlar.
Süt sektöründe ki ilk kay›plar çi€ süt kalitesi ve buna ba€l› olarak ç›kan kay›plar olarak görülmektedir. Özellikle yaz›n s›cak yörelerden elde edilen sütlerde bu durum daha belirgindir. Yüksek asitli sütlerden, kaynat›larak “çökelek”
olarak adland›r›lan mamulün yap›lmas›ndan baflka çözüm kalmaz. Ekonomik
kay›plara neden olur.
1.3. Süt Üretimi ve sa€›lan hayvan say›lar›
Tablo 2: Sa€›lan hayvan say›lar› ve süt üretimi (2014)
Cinsi
Yerli Koyun
Merinos
Yerli Keçi
Tift›k
Kültür S›€›r
Melez s›€›r
Yerli s›€›r
Manda
Adet
13.575.321
936.669
4.323.507
77.665
2.411.557
2.404.942
750.675
54.795
Süt (Ton)
1.068.700
44.429
460.641
2.751
9.319.391
6.563.875
984.151
54.687
Kay­nak:­TÜ­‹K­2015
10
2014 y›l› toplam süt üretimi 18.498.607 ton olmufltur.
Üretilen sütün % 91.2 inek sütü, % 6’s› koyun sütü, % 2-5 Keçi sütü ve %
0.3’ü manda sütüdür.
1.4. Türkiye de baz› süt mamullerinin üretimleri
Türkiye de kifli bafl›na Çi€ süt üretimi 238 l/y›l olarak hesaplanm›flt›r.
Tablo 3: 2014 süt mamulleri üretim tahminleri ve kifli bafl›na üretimler
Üretim (ton)
Kifli bafl›na üretim (Kg)
‹çme sütü: 1.347.785
Peynir: 638.647
Yo€urt: 1.110.907
Ayran: 617.000
Tereya€›: 45.203
Süt tozu: 80.793
17.34
8.22
14.30
7.94
0.58
1.04
Kay­nak:­TGDF­G›­da­En­van­te­ri­2013
‹çme sütü üretiminin % 85’i UHT kalan % 15’i de pastörize süttür.
1.5. ‹çme Sütü
Çi€ olarak fabrikaya getirilen sütler de gerekli analizler yap›ld›ktan sonra,
temizleme seperatörleri ve filtrelerden geçirilir ve so€utularak ve tanklara al›n›r. Bu sütler ifllenecekleri mamul gruplar›na göre ayr›ld›ktan sonra içme sütü
olarak de€erlendirilecek olanlar, ya€ seperatöründen geçirilir, ya€ oran› standardize edilir ve istenilen ya€ seviyesine ayarlan›r ve pastörize veya sterilize
iflleme yöntemlerine göre ifllemden geçirilir ve tekni€ine uygun olarak, cam, karton veya özel plastik esasl› steril kutulara doldurulur ve kapat›l›r.
Burada amaç sütü hiç ziyan etmeden ifllemek ve ambalajlamakt›r. E€er süt
kalitesinde sorun yok ise herhangi bir p›ht›laflma sorunu olmadan ifllem tamamlan›r.
Buradaki at›k, çi€ süt temizleme aflamas›na, ortaya ç›kan ya€l› ve çok yüksek mikroorganizma ve somotik hücreleri içeren süt proteinleri, ya€ süt flekeri
minerallerden oluflan temizleme separatörü at›€›d›r.
Çi€ sütteki ya€ miktar›n›n standardizasyonunda al›nan krema ise tereya€›
üretiminde kullan›lmak üzere saklan›r. Ancak imalat›n ›s›l ifllem gören sütlerinde imalat›n bafllang›ç ve sonundaki bir miktar süt, güvence aç›s›ndan sat›fla
verilmez, özellikle son bölümde sisteme su verilir, bu suyun süte kar›flma olas›l›€› nedeniyle baflka amaçlarla kullan›lmak üzere saklanabilir.
11
Ambalajlama aflamas›nda karton yap›flt›rma ve kapak hatas› olanlar ayr›l›r.
Bunlar günlük imalat içinde çok az say›da olur.
E€er ›s›l ifllem yetersizli€i sorunu olmaz ise güvenli bir üretim yap›l›r. Zaman zaman s›cakl›k ve ›s›l ifllem süresi yetersizli€i ile karfl›lafl›l›rsa bu ambalajlarda bombaj olarak tan›mlanan fliflmeler ortaya ç›kar. Bu ürünler, üretimden
sonraki karantina süresinde ortaya ç›karlar ve imha edilirler. Ancak modern makinalarda yeterli otokontrol ve güvence sistemleri bulunmaktad›r.
Di€er bir kay›p, bu mamullerin, tafl›ma, depolama ve sat›fl› s›ras›nda ambalajlar›n›n zarar görmesi nedeniyle oluflur. Palet üzerindeki ürünlerde afl›r› yükleme sonucunda ezilme, forklift çarpmas› vb nedenlerle ambalajlar zarar
görebilir. Bu ürünler sat›fltan çekilmektedir.
Pastörize içme sütlerde ortalama 1 hafta, UHT sütlerde ise 16 hafta içinde
sat›lmayan sütler, iade al›n›r. Bu sütlerin tekrar insan g›das› olarak kullan›lmas›
uygun olmad›€›ndan hayvan yemi olarak kullan›lmak üzere de€erlendirilebilir.
1.6. Peynir ‹malat›
Türkiye de 200’e yak›n peynir çeflidi oldu€u bilinmektedir. Ancak ticari olarak üretilen ve sat›lanlar 20 kadard›r. En çok bilinen ve sat›lan Beyaz Peynirdir
ve peynir üretiminin yaklafl›k yar›s›n› oluflturur. Beyaz peyniri, kaflar ve eritme
peyniri üretimi takip etmektedir.
Di€er peynir Gravyer, Çerkez, Hellim, Tulum, Dil peyniri, mahalli peynirler
Van otlu peyniri, Erzincan Tulum, ‹zmir Tulum, Deri Tulum, Mihaliç Peyniri, Ezine peyniri, vb. çok say›da peynir çeflidi vard›r. Di€er peynir çeflitleriyle karfl›laflt›r›ld›€›nda üretim miktar›n›n az olmalar› nedeniyle genellikle otomasyonun
olmad›€›, küçük baz› iflletmelerde üretilmektedirler.
Peynir imalat›nda genelde, pastörize veya çi€ süt kullan›ld›€› gibi, telemenin haflland›€› peynir çeflitleri de vard›r. Peynir imalat›nda p›ht›laflmay› takiben,
p›ht›n›n veya parçalama iflleminde sonra p›ht› preslenir ve peynir suyu ayr›l›r,
uygulanan presle peynirde kalacak olan su miktar› belirlenir ve kalan› peynir
suyu olarak toplan›r.
Bu peynir suyu, peynir mayas› ile p›ht›laflmayan ancak ›s›l ifllemle ayr›labilen proteinleri ve k›smen süt flekeri (laktoz) ve mineral maddeleri çok az da ya€
içerebilir.. Eski yöntemlerde bu peynir sular› ›s›t›larak “LOR” ad› verilen yumuflak p›ht› toplan›r. Buna zaman zaman tuz da ilave edilebilir. Yaklafl›k olark 100
Kg dan 1 kg dan az Lor peyniri elde edilir kalan su ise at›l›rd›. Ancak bu at›k bir
miktar erimifl süt proteini ve süt flekeri de içerdi€i için çevre kirlili€ine neden
olur.
Ancak son y›llarda peynir suyu tozunun g›da sanayiin de genifl kullan›m alan› bulmas› nedeniyle, peynir suyu tozu, demineralize peynir suyu tozu ve bizde üretimi olmamakla birlikte laktoz üretiminde veya hidrolize proteinlerin
üretiminde kullan›ld›€›n› görüyoruz.
12
Modern iflletmelerde peynir suyu sprey kurutucularda kurutulur veya bu ünitelere sahip olan tesislere sat›l›r ancak küçük ve da€›n›k olan iflletmelerde toplamak ekonomik olmad›€›ndan Lor peyniri üretimi tek ç›k›fl yoludur.
Mand›ralarda yap›lan Beyaz peynir geçmiflte 17 Kg l›k teneke ambalajlarda sat›lmakta idi. Bu peynirler tenekeden ç›kart›larak aç›k olarak sat›ld›€›ndan,
sat›fl s›ras›nda uygun hijyenik koflullar› sa€lamamakta ve özellikle kal›plarda
k›r›lma ve da€›lmalarla ekonomik de€erini düflürmekte idi.
Ancak son y›llarda ambalaj sanayiinin geliflmesi ile daha küçük ve tek kal›plar halinde sat›fl› yayg›nlaflmaktad›r. Ayr›ca vakum ambalajlarda paketlemek
de bu sonunu büyük ölçüde ortadan kald›rm›flt›r.
Olgunlaflma sonras› 1 y›la kadar raf ömrü vard›r.
1.7. Kaflar peynir
Üretimi beyaz peynirden farkl› olarak sütün peynir mayas› ile p›ht›laflt›r›lmas›ndan sonra, p›ht›n›n preslenmesiyle oluflan “Teleme” ›s›l ifllemden geçirildi€inden, beyaz peynire k›yasla daha sert ve sar›ms› renkte bir peynir elde edilir.
Bu peynir yüzeyi k›smen tuzland›ktan sonra serin koflullarda 6-8 ay olgunlaflmaya b›rak›l›r. Ancak son y›llarda olgunlaflt›r›lmam›fl ve Taze Kaflar olarak isimlendirilen benzer bir yap›daki peynir yayg›nlaflm›flt›r. Bilinen kaflara göre daha
yumuflak yap›da ve vakum ambalajlarda sat›lmaktad›r.
Her iki peynirde de elde edilen peynir suyu yukar›da belirtildi€i gibi de€erlendirilmektedir. verilmektedir.
Uygun koflullarda ambalajlanmam›fl olan kaflar peynirlerinde, yüzeyde küf
geliflimi nedeniyle temizleme s›ras›nda d›fl kabuk at›ld›€›ndan kay›plar ortaya
ç›kmaktad›r.
Depolama, nakliye ve sat›fl s›ras›nda baz› ezilme veya ambalaj y›rt›lmalar›
sonucunda da kay›plar ortaya ç›kar. Bunu önlemek için ambalajl› ürünler ayr›ca sa€lam koliler içinde saklanmakta ve tafl›nmaktad›r.
1.8. Eritme Peynir
Farkl› olgunlaflma ve yafllarda olan peynirlerin, özel kapal› sistemlerde ve
vakum alt›nda l›s›l ifllemden geçirilmesi sonucunda yeniden flekillendirilmesi
sa€lan›r. Bu peynirin sürülebilen veya blok halinde kesilebilen formlar› da vard›r.
Ancak yayg›n olan› plastik kaplarda ve üzeri bir folyo kapl› olarak sat›lanlard›r. Ayr›ca üçgen flekilde ambalajlar da oldukça yayg›nd›r. Eritme peyniri imalat›, bir aç›dan da flekil bozuklu€u olan baz› peynir çeflitlerinin yeniden ve
sa€l›kl› flekilde de€erlendirme yoludur.
13
1.9. Yo€urt
Yo€urt Türkiye için çok önemli bir fermente süt mamulüdür. Tüketiminin çok
yayg›n olmas› nedeniyle her ölçüdeki iflletmede üretilmektedir. ‹malat›nda pastörize edilmifl ve ya€ miktar› standardize inek sütü kullan›m› yayg›nd›r. Baz› küçük ve orta boy iflletmelerde mevsiminde koyun, keçi ve manda sütleri tek
bafl›na veya inek sütü ile kar›fl›k olarak üretilirler.
Son y›llarda, kaymakl›, ya€› homojenize edilmifl (kaymaks›z), süzme yo€urt
gibi çeflitlerin yan› s›ra ve meyveli yo€urtlarda artan oranlarda yer almaktad›r.
Klasik yo€urt imalat›nda pastörize edilen süt yaklaflık 42 dereceye kadar
so€utulduktan sonra, yo€urt bakterileri (yo€urt mayas›) ilave edilir, ambalajlara
doldurulur ve özel oda veya dolaplarda 40 C civar›nda olgunlaflmaya b›rak›l›r
(inkübasyon). P›ht› oluflumundan sonra uygun flekilde so€utulur ve sevkiyata
kadar saklan›r. Sevkiyat, sat›fl ve tüketilene kadar geçen zaman içinde so€uk
zincirin k›r›lmamas› istenir.
E€er süt ya€› standardizasyondan sonra oldu€u gibi b›rak›l›rsa, kaymakl›
yo€urt elde edilir ve ya€ yo€urt yüzeyinde film oluflturur. Özel bas›nçl› pampalar›n bulundu€u cihazlardan geçirilen süt (homogenizator) de bulunan ya€ kürelerinin çap› küçülür ve yüzeyde film oluflturma özelli€ini büyük ölçüde
kaybeder ve yo€urt yüzeyinde ya€ filmi oluflturamaz. Bu tip yo€urtlar, Homogenize edilmifl veya kaymaks›z yo€urt olarak adland›r›l›r.
Süzme yo€urtlar tekni€ine uygun ifllenerek, yo€urt suyunun (serum) ayr›lmas› k›sman ayr›lmas› sonucunda, yüksek protein ve ya€ içeri€ine sahiptir yo€urtlar oluflur.
Meyveli yo€urtlar ise, do€al olarak renklendirilmifl, meyve püresi veya parçalar›n› da içerebilen, k›smen fleker veya tatland›r›c› ve baz› fonksiyonel katk›lar ilave edilmifl yo€urtlard›r.
Klasik Yo€urtlarda raf ömrü genel de 1-2 hafta ile s›n›rl›d›r. Meyveli ve süzme yo€urtlarda bu süre daha uzun olabilir.
Yo€urtlarda rastlan›lan kay›plar daha çok tafl›ma ve sat›fl s›ras›nda ortaya
ç›kan ve ambalajlar›n hasar görmesi ile ortaya ç›kar. Raf ömrü süresince sat›lamayan ürünlerin iade olarak toplan›r. Küçük iflletmelerde veya hijyenik koflullarda üretilmeyen yo€urtlarda çevreden bulaflan baz› maya ve küflerde yo€urt
yüzeyinde geliflir, tat bozulur ve sat›lmalar›n› engeller.
r›flt›r›l›rlar, az miktarda da tuz içermektedir. Baz› tekniklerde de süt kuru maddesi ve ya€› standardize edildikten sonra homogenize edilir, yo€urt kültürü ile
afl›lan›r ve fermantasyon istenilen yerde sonland›r›ld›ktan sonra ambalajlara
dolum yap›l›r ve so€ukta saklan›r.
Ayranlar Tetra pak, cam flifle veya plastik esasl› fliflelerde ambalajlan›r, oluflan kay›plar yine da€›t›m s›ras›nda ambalajlar›n zarar görmesi veya so€ukta
saklanmamalar› nedeniyle ekfliyen veya raf ömründe sat›lamayan ürünlerin tüketilememesidir. Raf ömrünü tamamlayan ürünler toplan›r ve imha edilirler.
1.11. Krema ve tereya€›
Çi€ sütlerin standardize edilmesi s›ras›nda sütte bulunan fazla süt ya€› al›n›r. Bu % 66 civar›nda ya€ içeren kar›fl›ma süt kremas› ad› verilir. Pastörize edilir. Is›tma iflleminden sonra bir miktar daha serum ayr›lmas› sa€lan›r ve elde
edilen ya€ca zengin mamul “Kaymak” olarak isimlendirilir.
Çi€ sütten elde edilen krema pastörize edildikten sonra, tereya€›na aroma
vermek için kültür ilave edilir ve inkübe edilir. Daha sonra yay›klama iflleminden geçirilerek serum (yay›k alt›) ayr›l›r ve yaklafl›k % 82 süt ya€› içerecek flekilde “Tereya€›” olarak isimlendirilir. Baz› mahalli üretimlerde süt kremas› ile
birlikte yo€urt dan al›nan kaymak da kullan›lmaktad›r.
Tereya€›n yay›klama ifllemi s›ras›nda ortaya ç›kan serum “yay›k alt›” olarak
tan›mlan›r k›smen ya€ da içeren bu tereya€› aromal› yan ürün, baz› yerlerde
oldu€u gibi veya ayran ile kar›flt›r›larak tüketilir.
Krema ve tereya€› yüksek ya€ içeri€i nedeniyle mikrobiyolojik aç›dan dayan›kl› gibi görünseler de, su içermeleri nedeniyle zannedildi€i kadar güvenli
de€ildir. Küflenmenin önlenmesi için mutlaka iyi koflullarda ambalajlanmal› ve
so€uk da saklanmal›d›r. Ayr›ca oksidasyona ba€l› ac› tat da yayg›n olarak görülmekte ve sat›fl s›ras›nda kay›plara neden olmaktad›r.
1.12. Süt tozu
Türkiye’ye özgü fermente bir süt mamulüdür. Yurt d›fl›nda Türk nüfusunun
yo€un oldu€u baz› ülkelerde de üretimi yap›lmaktad›r. Ancak bileflimlerinde baz› farkl›l›klar bulunmaktad›r.
Türkiye’de yap›lan klasik ayran imalat›nda yo€urt ve su belli oranlarda ka-
‹çerdi€i ya€ miktar›na göre ya€l› ve ya€s›z olarak iki farkl› tipte süt tozu bulunmaktad›r. Üretimi de ticari olarak, sprey kurutma veya valsli kurutma teknikleri le yap›lmaktad›r. Sprey süttozu çözünme özelli€inin fazla olmas› nedeniyle
içeceklerin yan› s›ra yo€urt, çocuk mamalar›nda imalat›nda da kullan›l›r. Valsli
kurutma yöntemi ile kurutulanlar süt tozu, çikolata ve bisküvi üretiminde tercih
edilmektedir.
Süt tozu imalat›nda üretim fireleri ihmal edilecek kadar düflüktür. Kurutma
s›ras›nda s›cak yüzeylere yap›flan ve yanan süt d›fl›nda kay›p beklenmez. Yanma ile oluflan kay›plar daha çok valsli sistemlerde görülür. Üretim sonras› ka€›t
torbalara ambalajlanan süttozu özellikle s›cak yerde bekletilirse k›sa sürede
özellikle ya€l› süttozlar›nda oksidasyon sonucu tat bozulmalar› görülebilir.
14
15
1.10. Ayran
Tablo 5: Türkiye de kesilen Büyükbafl ve Koyun say›s› ile Et üretimi
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2. ET ve ET MAMÜLLER‹
2.1. Genel Durum
Et sektörü k›rm›z› et ve kanatl› etleri olarak iki ana grupta toplanmaktad›r.
Proje de kanatl› hayvan yetifltiricili€i ve yumurta tavukçulu€u d›fl›nda ifllenmifl
piliç sektörü incelenmifltir.
Kanatl› et sektöründe kesimhane, parçalanm›fl tavuk ürünleri ile ileri ifllenmifl tavuk ürünleri konular› ele al›nm›flt›r.
Kanatl› sektörü piliç, hindi, kaz ve örde€i kapsamakla birlikte, tüketici taleplerinin yetersizli€i nedeniyle kaz ve ördek Türkiye’de henüz sanayi ürünü olma
aflamas›na gelmemifltir. Hindi ürünleri ise son y›llarda üretimi artan bir et ürünü olarak dikkati çekmekle birlikte toplam kanatl› eti üretiminin % 4’ünü oluflturmaktad›r.
Tablo 4 : Türkiye’de Kanatl› Hayvan Varl›€›
TAVUK
H‹ND‹
Y›l­lar ­­­­­­­­­­­­Ke­si­len­Hay­van ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Üre­ti­len­Et­(Ton) ­­­­­­­­­­­Ke­si­len­Hay­van­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Üre­ti­len­Et­(Ton)
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
843.987.793
963.245.455
1.047.782.683
1.060.673.395
1.090.742.317
1.444.059
1.613.309
1.723.918
1.758.362
1.864.668
3.656.578
4.043.525
4.764.322
4.574.443
5.174.055
31.965
36.331
41.930
39.627
48.662
Kay­nak­:­TÜ‹K­2015
Türkiye’de yumurta üretimi ise 2010 y›l›nda 11.840.369.000 adet den, 2014
y›l›nda 17.145.389 000 olmufl ve dünyada 10. S›raya gelmifltir.
Tavuk eti üretiminde ise Avupa’da 1. Dünya da ise 8. s›radad›r.
Kifli bafl›na yumurta tüketimi 220 /Y›l olmufltur. Yumurta ayr›ca önemli bir
ihracat kalemi haline gelmifltir. Sanayii de de kullan›m› artmaktad›r. Bisküvi ve
kek imalat›nda da kullan›lmakta olup ayr›ca pastörize edilmifl yumurtan›n hem
sanayii de hem de toplu tüketim yerlerinde kullan›m› vard›r.
16
Kesilen Hayvan
S›€›r
2.602.246
2.571.765
2.791.034
3.430.723
3.712.281
Üretilen
Et (Ton)
618.583
644.905
799.344
869.291
881.998
Kesilen Hayvan
Koyun
6.873.626
5.479.546
4.541.122
4.958.226
5.197.289
Üretilen
Et (Ton)
135.687
107.076
97.334
102.942
98.977
2014 y›l›nda ayr›ca 2.176 adet mandadan 525 ton, .570.239 adet keçiden
de 26.769 ton et elde edilmifltir.
Türkiye de resmi istatistiklere göre deve ve domuz kesimi yap›lmamaktad›r.
2014 y›l› geçmifl y›llara k›yasla ilk defa 1 milyon tondan fazla k›rm›z› et üretiminin yap›ld›€› y›l olmufltur. Üretilen 1.008.261 ton k›rm›z› etin % 87.47’si s›€›r eti, % 9.81’i koyun eti, % 2.65’i keçi ve % 0.07 de manda etidir.
Türkiye nin 2014 y›l› nüfusu 77.695.904 kifli dir. Buna göre kifli bafl›na y›ll›k
k›rm›z› et tüketimimiz yaklafl›k olarak 13 kg’d›r. Beyaz et tüketimi ise kifli bafl›na 24 kg piliç ve 0.626 kg hindi eti olarak hesaplanm›flt›r. Toplam et tüketimi ise
37.6 kg/y›ld›r.
fiarküteri ürünleri olarak bilinen et mamulleri büyük iflletmelerin yan› s›ra
çok say›da küçük ve mahalli iflletme, kasaplar ve marketler taraf›ndan da yap›lmaktad›r.
Et ve mamulleri yönetmeli€inde yap›lan yeni de€iflikle art›k kasaplarda sucuk ve köfte imalat›n›n yap›lamayacakt›r.
fiarküteri ürünlerinin toplamda 60.000 ton oldu€u tahmin edilmektedir. Bunun 30.000 tonu sucuk, 15.000 tonu sosis 12.000 ton salam, 3000 ton da jambon, kavurma ve füme etden olufltu€u tahmin edilmektedir.
Ayr›ca donmufl et ürünlerinden Köfte çeflitleri, Burger köftesinin 20.000 ton
oldu€u tahmin edilmektedir. Haz›r döner imalat› da önemli bir et mamulüdür.
Çok say›da ve da€›n›k bir et mamulü üretimi olmas› nedeniyle veriler tahminlere dayanmaktad›r.
Türkiye’nin en büyük firmalar› s›ralamas›nda, ilk 500 firma aras›nda 14 et
ve mamulleri iflleyen firma yer almaktad›r. Bu firmalar›n 2013 y›l› cirolar› 8 Milyar TL den fazlad›r. 2. 500 büyük firmada ise 1.2 milyar toplam ciroya sahip 10
firma bulunmaktad›r. G›da Envanteri 2013 e göre, Türkiye de Et sektöründe faaliyet gösteren 452 firman›n 46 tanesi kümes hayvanlar› etlerini ifllemekte ve
muhafazas›n› yapmaktad›r. Firma cirolar› dikkate al›nd›€›nda incelenmekte olan
sektörlerde Kanatl› sektörü. K›rm›z› et iflleyen ve saklayan firmalar›n say›s›
202’dir. Kanatl› ve et sektöründe 40.000’e yak›n kifli çal›flmaktad›r. (TGDF G›da Envanteri 2013)
17
2.2. Kanatl› etinin ifllenmesi
Kanatl› sektörü entegre bir yap›lanma içindedir. Kuluçkahane, ve yumurta
üretimi, piliç yetifltirme kümesleri, kesimhane, parçalama ve ambalajlama, ileri
ifllenmifl mamuller (döner,,pane ürünler ve sosis salam vb ürünlerin yan› s›ra
yem tesisleri ve rendering ünitelerini kapsar.
Yetifltirme çiftliklerinden kesimhanelere getirilen piliçler, modern iflletmelerde ve tekni€ine uygun olarak kesilir. Bir çok iflletme de günlük kesim say›s› bir
ço€unda 300.000 adet ve daha fazlad›r.
Kesim sonras›nda piliçler bütün, parça, but, kanat, gö€üs gibi bölümlere ayr›l›r ve ambalajlanarak tart›l›r ve sat›fl için so€ukta depolan›rlar.
Tavuk ci€eri ve tafll›k sakatat olarak de€erlendirilmekte, gö€üs ve fleto gibi
baz› ürünler deriden ayr›larak sat›lmaktad›r. Bu nedenle toplanan deriler baz›
mamullerde protein kayna€› olarak de€erlendirilebilir.
Ayaklar ifllendikten sonra dondurulmufl olarak uzak do€u ülkelerine sat›lmaktad›r.
‹leri ifllenmifl tavuk ürünleri olarak, döner,,salam, sosis ve tavuklu baz› yiyecekler de üretilmektedir.
Kemik ve kullan›lmayan k›s›mlar hayan yemi yap›lmak üzere et-kemik unu
tesislerinde de€erlendirilirler.
2.3. Kırmızı etin ifllenmesi
Türkiye de k›rm›z› et üretimi taze veya et mamulleri yap›larak de€erlendirilir. Fabrikalar kendi çiftliklerinde yetifltirdikleri veya sat›n ald›klar› canl› hayvanlar› sa€l›k kontrolleri yap›ld›ktan sonra kesimhanelerde keserek, deri, bafl
ayaklar ve iç organlar›ndan ayr›lm›fl hali (karkas) ile so€utulur ve daha sonra
parçalama bölümüne al›rlar.
Burada özel yetifltirilmifl e€itimli kasaplar taraf›ndan karkas parçalan›rlar.
Taze, dondurulmufl veya paketlenmifl et için istenilen karkas›n bölümleri kemikli
veya kemiksiz olarak parçalan›r ve ambalajlan›r.
Burada et mamulleri imalat›nda kullan›lmak üzere, ya€lar ayr›ca toplan›r ve
saklan›r. ‹ç organlar dan sakatat, barsak ve iflkembe iç pazarda de€erlendirilir.
Deri ayr›ca sat›l›r. Kemik boynuz vb. art›klar da kemik unu yap›larak hayvan yemi olarak kullan›l›r.
Et mamulleri üretimi ise en yayg›n olanlar› sucuk, salam sosis, past›rma,
kavurma, döner veya köftedir.
Tekni€ine ve reçetelerine göre tuz, baharat ve baz› fonksiyonel katk›lar kullan›larak bu ürünler elde edilir.
Et gibi k›ymetli bir hammaddeden parçalama s›ras›nda kay›p vermemek için
burada görev alan kasaplar›n›n iyi e€itim alm›fl, hayvan anatomisini ve kullan›-
18
lacak et bölümlerini iyi tan›yan kifliler olmal›d›r. Önemli olan hayvan›n k›ymetli
ve fiyat› yüksek olan bölümlerinin ayr›lmas› ve bunlar›n daha ucuz olan k›s›mlarla kar›flt›r›lmamas›d›r.
Bu ürünlerin raf ömürleri çeflitlere göre de€iflmektedir. Bu nedenle as›l kay›plar sat›fl aflamas›nda ortaya ç›kmaktad›r. So€uk zincirin k›r›lmadan korunmas› önemlidir. Ancak depolama, sat›fl ve tafl›ma da kay›plar ortaya ç›kar . Is›l
ifllem gören et mamullerinin fermente olanlara k›yasla kay›plar› daha azd›r.
Özellikle ambalajlama tekni€inin geliflmesi ile bu ambalajlar› uygulayan iflletmelerde üretim sonras› kay›plar en aza inmifltir.
Raf ömrü süresi içinde sat›lamayan ürünler üreticileri taraf›ndan toplan›r. Bu
ürünlerin insan g›das› olarak sat›lmas› uygun olmad›€›ndan, hayvan beslemek
için hayvanat bahçelerine verilmekte veya k›fl›n yaban hayvanlar› için kontrollü yerlerde do€aya b›rak›lmaktad›r.
Di€er bir uygulama da özellikle süpermarketlerde, son kullan›m tarihi yaklaflan ürünlere promosyon uygulayarak h›zl› sat›fl› ve tüketimi sa€lanmaktad›r.
K›rm›z› et ve kanatl› kesiminde ortaya ç›kan yan ürünlerin bir k›sm› yenilebilir, bir k›sm› da insan g›das› olarak tüketilmemektedir.
Tablo 6: S›€›r ve koyun da Canl› a€›rl›€a göre elde edilen yan ürünler %
Karkas
Kan
Ya€l› doku
Deri
Organlar
Bafl
Ayaklar
Kuyruk
Beyin
S›€›r (%)
Koyun (%)
63
18
4
6
7
2
0.1
0.1
62.5
2.4
3
15
10
2
2.6
Kay­nak:­FA­O
Yan ürün olarak ortaya ç›kanlar›n önemli bir besin de€eri vard›r. Amino asitler, mineraller, hormonlar vitamin ve ya€ asitlerini içerir. Kan ve iç organlarda
su miktar› etten fazlad›r. Karaci€er ve Böbrek de etten daha fazla karbonhidrat
bulunur. Ci€er, kuyruk, kulak ve ayaklarda kollojen miktar› yüksektir.
Beyin de ise di€er ürünlerden ve etten daha az protein vard›r. Et yan ürünlerinde amino aist kompozisyonu etten farkl›d›r. Etten daha çok ba€doku içerir.
Kulaklar, akci€er ve iflkembe de, prolin, hidroksiprolin ve glisin vard›r. Triptofan
ve triosin ise azd›r. Vitamin ise ya€s›z etlerden daha fazlad›r.
Böbrek ve karaci€er çok miktarda riboflavin içerir, Etten 5-10 kat daha faz-
19
lad›r. Karaci€er, niacin, Vit 12 ve Vit A için iyi bir kaynakt›r. Birçok organ da çoklu doymam›fl ya€ aside bulunur.
Kan yemlere kat›larak kullan›laca€› gibi, t›bbi çal›flmalar için emülsiyon ve
stabilizatör ve renk için de kullan›lmaktad›r. Kan plazmas› da köpük stabilizesini artt›rd›€› için yumurta beyaz›na yak›n reaksiyon verir. Mikrobiyolojik çal›flmalarda besi yeri haz›rlamada kullan›lmaktad›r.
Deri, jelatin ve zamk imalat›nda ayr›ca konfeksiyonda (deri ceket, ayakkab› vb.) kullan›lmaktad›r. Ayr›ca kollogen sosis k›l›f› yap›m›nda kullan›l›r.
Koyun flirdeninden de peynir mayas› (Chimozin) elde edilmektedir.
Tablo 7: Kanatl› kesiminde yan ürünler
Tüy
Bafl
Kan
Tafll›k
Ya€
Ayak
‹ç organlar
%
Kullan›m yeri
7-8
2.5-3.0
3.2-3.7
3.5-3.7
3.5-4.0
3.5-4.0
8.5-9.0
Gübre, tekstil
Yem
Yem
Chitinolytic enzim
Et suyu, ya€
Et suyu, ya€, dondurulmufl
Yem ve enzim üretimi
20
3. MEYVE ve SEBZE KONSERVEC‹L‹⁄‹
3.1. Genel Durum
Türkiye meyve ve sebze üretiminde önemli bir çeflitlilik ve üretim miktar›na
sahiptir. Ülkenin tamam›na yak›n k›sm›nda tar›msal üretim yap›lmakla birlikte
Konserve sanayi, üretimin fazla oldu€u dönemlerde meyve ve sebzelerin konserve edilerek saklanmas›n› hedeflemesinin yan› s›ra bozulabilen bir hammadde olmas› nedeniyle tar›msal üretim merkezlerinde yer almaktad›r. Bu nedenle
co€rafi olarak bak›ld›€›nda Marmara ve Ege bölgeleri meyve seze iflleyen konserve fabrikalar›n›n yo€unlaflt›€› bölgeler olarak ortaya ç›kmaktad›r. Bunun yan› s›ra Akdeniz bölgesi ve iç Anadolu ve Do€u Anadolu bölgelerinde meyve
suyu konsantresi üreten ve meyve suyu fabrikalar›na hammadde temin eden
üretim tesisleri de bulunmaktad›r. Özellikle elma, kay›s›, fleftali, nar ve viflne ile
turunçgil meyveleri bu tesislerde ifllenmektedir.
Meyve sebze konservecili€i çok say›da küçük az say›da da orta ve büyük
iflletmede yap›lmaktad›r. Türkiye de ilk 500 firma aras›nda meyve sebze konservecili€i yan› s›ra meyve suyu üreten 3 firma bulunmaktad›r. Süpermarket raflar›nda ise baflta domates salças› olmak üzere az say›da firma vard›r. Konserve
üretiminde turflu dahil olmak üzere 5-6 büyük firman›n markalar› bilinmektedir.
Türkiye’de. 50’ye yak›n salça markas› bulunmas›na ra€men ço€u mahalli market veya bakkallarda yer almakta ve bölgesel olarak pazarda sat›lmaktad›r.
Teneke kutu ve cam kavanozlarda ambalajlanan meyve ve sebze konserveleri do€al olarak bölgesel üretimleri de€erlendirmektedir. Temel olarak domates salças› ve biber salças› bu tip imalatlarda en önemli s›ray› almaktad›r.
Meyve konserveleri ise komposto veya flekerli fluruplarda üretimleri yap›lan fleftali, kays›s›, viflne ile pastac›l›k sektörüne veya baz› toplu tüketim yerlerine sat›lmaktad›r. Reçel meyvelerin di€er bir saklama fleklidir. Ev üretiminin
yan› s›ra bu fabrikalarda üretilmektedir. Türkiye de ki reçel üretimi Avrupa da
bilinen den biraz farkl› olup, yüksek yo€unluklu bir fleker flurubu içinde bütün
(viflne, ahududu vs), bölünmüfl (kay›s›) parçalanm›fl veya kesilmifl (fleftali, portakal kabu€u),haldeki meyvelerden oluflmaktad›r..
Sebze konserveleri ise Bezelye, Bamya, Türlü (patl›can, kabak, biber, fasulye ve domates) esas olmak üzere, bazen de bölgesel sebzelerin (börülce,enginar) ifllendi€i görülmektedir.
Nohut, kuru fasulye ve kuru barbunya da hafllanm›fl ürünler olarak konser21
ve ifllemine tabi tutulmaktad›r.
Fermente edilmifl veya taze hammadde kullan›larak yap›lan salatal›k ve biber konserveleri de genifl bir üretim sahas›na sahiptir.
Bu kadar üretim çeflitlili€i olmas›na ra€men konserve sektörünün geliflmesini tamamlad›€› ve yerini taze tüketim ve k›smen de dondurulmufl iflleme tekniklerine b›rakmakta oldu€u görülmektedir.
Taze sebze ve meyve sadece bilinene sezonlarda de€il, ayn› zaman da Ege
ve Akdeniz bölgeler baflta olmak üzere örtü alt› olarak tan›mlanan naylon örtülerde ve serada üretilmektedir.
Özellikle bilgi eksikli€i nedeniyle konserve üretiminde katk› maddeleri kullan›ld›€› alg›s› da bunda etkili olmaktad›r.
Türkiye bir çok meyve çeflitlili€ine sahiptir. Elma, armut, ayva, turunçgiller,
erik yan› s›ra kivi ve muz üretimlerine de sahiptir. Tropik bölgelerde yetiflen meyveler hariç çok say›da meyvenin yetifltirilmesine uygun mikroklima bölgeleri bulunmaktad›r.
3.2. Domates salças›
Türkiye de domates üretimi 12 milyon ton a yak›nd›r. Bu üretimin önemli k›sm› taze olarak tüketilmektedir. Ancak domates salças› konserve sanayiinde en
büyük üretimi oluflturmaktad›r. Donmufl domates ve kurutulmufl domates de di€er saklama ve de€erlendirme yöntemleridir.
noz ve çok az bir k›sm› da karton (Tetra Pak) ambalajlara konmaktad›r.
Domates salças› üretiminde, genel olarak iki farkl› üretim flekli vard›r. Hammaddenin haz›rlanmas› ayn› olmakla birlikte, ›s›l ifllem ve kullan›lan ambalaj
farkl›l›klar› bulunmaktad›r.
Tablo 9: Domates salças›n›n iflleme aflamalar›
HASAT (Makina veya Elle)
TOPLAMA
NAKL‹YE
TARTIM / HAVUZA BOfiALTMA
YIKAMA
SEÇME
YIKAMA
PARÇALAMA ELEKTEN GEÇ‹RME
fiIRA TANKI
EVAPORASYON
SALÇA TANKI
ISIL IfiLEM
DOLUM
KAPATMA
SO⁄UTMA
DEPOLAMA
Tablo 8: Türkiye’de Taze Domates üretimi
3.2.1. Hasat
Y›llar
Üretim (Ton)
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
10.052.000
11.003.433
11.350.000
11.820.000
11.850.000
Kay­nak:­GTHB­kay­nak­la­r›
Domates üretiminin önemli bir k›sm› taze olarak tüketilmektedir. Domates
salças› için kullan›lan miktar ise y›llara gör de€iflmekle birlikte 1.800.000 ton civar›ndad›r. Ortalama 300.000 ton civar›nda salça üretilir y›llara göre 220.000340.000 ton üretim yap›lmaktad›r.
Domates salças› üretimi üretim teknolojisine göre aseptik,olarak tan›mlanan 120 C ›s›t›l›p 45-55 C da steril olarak veya 92 C ye kadar ›s›t›larak s›cak
dolum olarak yap›l›r ve daha sonra so€utulur. Bu üretimin 1/3 ü aseptik ambalajlarda, kalan›n da ço€unlu€u teneke ambalajlarda az miktarda da cam kava0
0
0
22
Hasat olgunlu€una gelen domatesler (kuru madde ve renk) kontrolü yap›ld›ktan sonra, hasat ifllemine bafllan›l›r. Hasatta, uygun çeflitler kullan›larak ve
tarlan›n tamam› olgunlaflmas›n› tamamlay›nca bir kere de makina ile yap›l›r. Bu
sistemde arazi yap›s› ve büyüklü€ünün makinal› tar›ma elveriflli olmas› flartt›r.
Makinal› hasat yapan bu ünitelerde domatesleri belirlenen renklere göre de
ay›rma ifllemi yap›lmakta, özellikle yeflil olanlar tarla da b›rak›lmaktad›r. Bu hasat zaman›na ve ekilen çeflitlere göre de€iflmekle birlikte % 3-10 aras›nda kay›plara neden olmaktad›r. Tarladaki bitkilerden ayn› sezon yeni ürün almak
mümkün de€ildir. Toplanan domateslerde mekanik hasar azd›r, ancak fabrikaya gelen domateslerle birlikte çok miktarda toprak da tafl›nmaktad›r. Bu nedenle bu tip hasatlarda fabrika da ki y›kama ve boflaltma havuzlar›nda çok miktarda
kum ve toprak çöker. Domateslere giren kumlar›n da, domates fl›ras› elde edildikten sonra uygun sistemlerle ayr›lmas› gerekmektedir. Makinal› hasat, elle
hasata göre önemli maliyet avantaj› getirmesi nedeniyle giderek yayg›nlaflmaktad›r. Hasat edilen domatesler do€rudan romörk veya kamyonlara yüklenerek
fabrikalara tafl›nmaktad›r.
23
Elle hasat ise genelde ayn› tarlaya hasat için 3 defa girilmesi ve tüm ifllemin elle yap›lmas› nedeniyle giderek ekonomik olmaktan uzaklaflmaktad›r. Ancak hasatta göz ve el kontrolü esas oldu€undan dikkatli yap›ld›€› durumlarda
yeflil domates miktar› en az olmaktad›r.
Toplanan domatesler kasa veya sepetlerle romörklere veya kamyonlara aktar›lmakta daha sonar da fabrikaya tafl›nmaktad›r.
Fabrikaya tafl›nan domateslerde romörk ve kamyonlara yükleme s›ras›nda
ezilmeler ve kay›plar oluflur bu da kalite sorunlar›na ve üretim kay›plar›na neden olmaktad›r. Türkiye’de genelde salça sezonu temmuz ay› sonu ile ekim ay›
ilk haftalar›na kadar sürer ve bölgesel olarak de€ifliklikler gösterir. Genelde sezon 60 -75 gün çok ender olarak da 90 gün sürer. Hasat dönemi önce güney
de bafllar ve kuzey bölgelere do€ru devam eder.
Domatesler kontratl› ekim yapan çiftçilerden veya serbest ekim yapan çiftçilerden temin edilmektedir. Özelikle kontratl› ekimlerde, gübreleme ve ilaçlama fabrika kontrolünde oldu€u ve hasat program› yap›ld›€› için, olgunlaflmas›
tam, hastal›k hasarlar› az ürünler elde edilir ve 4.000 tuk romörklerle tafl›n›r. Bu
domateslerdeki mekanik hasarlar›n en az olmas›n› sa€lar, romörkde ki fazlal›klar ve tafl›ma mesafesi kay›plar› art›r›r, kay›plar ezilme nedeniyle ve domates sular›n›n akmas› ile ortaya ç›kar. Ayr›ca bu domatesi fabrika bekleme
sahalar›nda kabul s›ralar›n› beklemeleri de küflenmelere ve salça imalat›nda
kullan›lamayacak domateslerin at›lmas›na neden olur. Bu durum özellikle 20
ton hatta 26 ton yüklü domates kamyonlar›nda daha net görülmektedir.
Özellikle hammaddenin yetersiz oldu€u sezonlarda veya sezon sonu üretim plan›n› gerçeklefltirme telafl› ile fabrikalar uzak bölgelerden domates al›m›
yapmaktad›r. Hatta zaman zaman 500 km uzaktan domates tafl›nmaktad›r. Bu
durumda yukar›da belirtilen sorunlar fazlas› ile ortaya ç›kar. Özellikle hasat dönemi sonunda ki domateslerde,nakliye s›ras›nda ki ezilmeler ve kay›plar artar.
Genel olarak domates nakliyesinde %3 civar›nda ortalama kay›p bulunmaktad›r. Ancak belirtildi€i üzere sezon sonu ve afl›r› olgunlaflma döneminde baz›
kamyonlarda % 10’lar› bulan kay›plar görülmektedir.
Fabrikaya gelen domates kamyonlar›n›n 4-6 saat içinde üretime al›nmas›
istenir. Bu iyi bir hasat ve nakliye planlamas› yapan ve kontratl› al›mlar› fazla
olan iflletmelerde mümkündür. Ancak özellikle plans›z çal›flan iflletmelerde veya teknik nedenlerle fabrikalarda üretime plans›z verilen aralar nedeniyle gelen domates kamyonlar› 24 saatten fazla da beklemektedir. Bu durumlarda
kamyonlardan akan domates sular› görülmektedir. Bu hem kay›p hem de çevre aç›s›ndan sorundur. Özellikle domates sular›ndaki meyve flekeri sinek ve
benzeri uçucular için çok cezbedicidir.
Romörk ve kamyonlarla fabrikalara tafl›nan domatesler kalite kontrolü yap›ld›ktan sonra fabrikalara kabul edilirler ve su ile kamyonlardan su dolu havuzlara indirilir. E€er bas›nçl› su kullan›l›r ise domatesler parçalan›r ve kay›plara
neden olur. ‹ndirme havuzun al›nan domatesler su dolu kanallarla tafl›narak,
24
y›kama ve seçme bantlar›na gelir. Bu bantlarda çal›flan iflçiler taraf›nda parçalanm›fl, ezik, meyveler, sap ve yapraklar, yeflil renkli domatesler ile küflü veya
çiçek burnu çürüklü€ü olanlar domatesler ayr›lar. ‹yi hammadde ile çal›flan iflletmelerde bu kay›plar % 1’den azd›r. Seçme band›nda ayr›lan bu domateslerin hiç bir ekonomik de€eri yoktur. Genellikle çöp olarak de€erlendirilir. Küflü
olan domatesler olarak hayvan yemi olarak da kullan›lamazlar.
‹malata uygun olarak belirlenen domatesler bant üzerinde dönerek yuvarlan›rken, üstten f›skiyeler yard›m› ile temiz su alt›nda y›kan›rlar.
3.2.2. Parçalama
Seçme iflleminden geçen domatesler, parçalama ünitesinde 1 cm3 veya daha küçük parçalara bölünürler ve daha sonra kabuk ve çekirdeklerinden ayr›lmak üzere Elek veya Pulper olarak isimlendirilen bölüme giderler.
Buradaki iflleme metodu ele€e girifl s›cakl›€› ve ›s›tma yöntemine göre iki
farkl› flekilde yap›l›r.
Parçalamadan sonra domates parçalar›n›n s›cakl›€›n› h›zla 85 C’nin üzerine ç›kartan sistemlerle yap›lan salçalar HOT BREAK ad› verilir. E€er bu s›cakl›k 65-70 C ise -ki bu ön ›s›t›c›larla sa€lan›r- COLD BREAK ad› verilir. Hot
Break olan salçalar, ketçap ve sos yap›m›na daha uygundur, stoklamada da serum ayr›lmas› olmaz.
0
0
3.2.3. Pulper/Elek
Parçalanm›fl domatesler, 0.6-1.00 mm delikleri olan 2 veya 3 kademeli eleklerden geçerken püre haline gelir, burada domates kabuklar› ve çekirdekleri de
ayr›l›r ve makinan›n özel bir tahliye kanal›ndan d›flar› at›l›r. Parçalanm›fl domates miktar›n›n yaklafl›k % 2.5 kadar› kabuk ve çekirdek olarak ayr›l›r ve domates suyu tanka al›n›r.
Bu at›k hayvan yemi olarak de€erlidir. Meyve flekeri ve lif içerir. Ayr›ca çekirdekler de bulunan ya€ ve protein de önemlidir. Ancak çekirde€in tam olarak
sindirimde de€erlendirilmesi için önceden parçalanmas›nda yarar vard›r . Ancak bu ifllem pratik de uygulanmamaktad›r. Bu nedenle hayvan beslemesinde
besin de€erinden de tam olarak yararlan›ld›€› söylenemez.
Bu at›klar hayvanlara yafl olarak verilebildi€i gibi, silaj yap›larak daha uzun
bir sezonda da kullan›lmaktad›r.
3.2.4. Stok Tankı
Elde edilen domates suyu bir ara tank da depolan›r ve kalite kontrolü yap›ld›ktan sonra, yaklafl›k %4-5 olan çözünmüfl kuru maddesinin yükseltilmesi için
Evaporatör lere gönderilir.
25
3.2.5. Evaporasyon
Evaporatörler, düflük vakum ve s›cakl›kta, domates suyunda bulunan çözünmüfl kuru maddeyi istenilen kuru madde oran›na yükseltirken, renk, tat kay›plar›n› en aza indiren ve kapal› bir ortamda çal›flan sistemlerdir. Salçalar ticari
anlamda kuru madde miktar› 28-30 Bx veya 36-38 Bx olarak üretilirler. Püre tiplerinde ise + 24 Bx kullan›lmaktad›r.
Bu makinalar 24 saat ve genelde 7 gün hiç hatta daha uzun sure ara vermeden çal›fl›rlar, içindeki borularda yanma nedeniyle t›kanmalar oluflmamas›
için CIP sistemi ile y›kan›rlar . Bu aflamada bir miktar salça at›l›r .
görülen paslanmalar da iadeyi artt›rmaktad›r.
Sat›fla sevk edilen teneke kutu ambalajlarda iade % 0.1’e kadar görülmektedir. Cam kavanozlarda ise % 0.5 civar›ndad›r. Aseptik salçalar ise endüstriyel
olarak kullan›lmakta olup % 0.02’den azd›r.
3.3. Sebze Konserveleri üretim aflamalar›
Evaporatörlerde istenilen uru maddeye (Brix) ulaflan domates salçalar› içine hiç bir katk› kat›lmadan, ›s›l iflleme bafllamak için ara tanklara al›n›r, e€er s›cak dolum yap›lacak ise, salça kapal› sistemlerde 90- 92 0C ye kadar ›s›t›l›r ve
pastörize edilmifl olur ve teneke kutulara veya kavanozlara konur, kapat›l›r. Vakum kontrolleri yap›l›r, ve ortam s›cakl›€›na kadar so€utulmas› için dufllardan
geçer, paletlere dizilir.
Gerekiyorsa etiketleme yap›l›r. Üretim tarihi, parti no vb. bilgiler etiket veya
kapak üzerine bas›l›r ve depolan›r.
Salçalar aseptik olarak paketlenecekse, evaporatörden gelen salça, kalite
kontrolü yap›ld›ktan sonra ara tanka al›n›r ve bas›nçl› pompalarla borulu sterilizatörler gönderilir ve 118 0C ye kadar ›s›t›l›r bir süre bu s›cakl›kta tutulduktan
sonra so€utularak steril koflullarda aseptik torbalara doldurulur ve steril kapaklarla kapat›l›r.
Teneke kutularda (28-30 Bx) 85 gr, 170 gr, 380 gr, 850 gr ve 4500 gr net dolum, cam kavanozlarda (28-30 Bx) 380 gr, 520 gr, 780 gr yayg›nd›r.
Aseptik dolumlarda da ise 28-30 Bx ve 36-38 Bx üretilmifl salça kullan›l›r.
Bu salçalar ketçap ve sos üretimi veya yeniden teneke veya cam kavanozlara
dolum için kullan›lmaktad›r.
Evaporasyondan depolama ifllemine kadar geçen süre içindeki kay›plar %
1’dir. Bunlar kapama makinas› ar›zalar› ile hatal› kapatmalar, so€utmada ezilmeler ve cam kavanoz k›r›lmalar› yan›s›ra, hatal› ›s›l ifllemler salça da görülen
gaz oluflumlar› nedeniyle teneke kutular ve aseptik ambalajlarda görülen fliflmelerdir.
Depolama s›ras›nda paletlerde bulunan tenekelerin ezilmesi, eksik dolum
veya fazla vakum nedeniyle özellikle ince teneke levha veya yumuflak teneke
levha kullan›larak yap›lan kutularda ezilmeler ortaya ç›kar, Bu durumlarda salçada sorun olmad›€› halde tüketici taraf›ndan iade edilen ürünleri oluflturmaktad›r. Ayr›ca nemli koflullarda saklana kutularda veya kapak kapatmada
kullan›lan hatal› makara ayarlar› nedeniyle lak s›yr›lmas› sonucu tenekelerde
‹lkemizde sebze konserveleri olarak, bezelye, fasulye ve bamya konservesi ile türlü konservesi bakliyat hafllamalar› ve salatal›k turflusu vard›r. Ayr›ca pilaki, sarma gibi haz›r yemekler ile reçel ve meyve konserveleri de say›labilir.
Sebze konservelerinin imalat aflamalar›nda hasat sonras› baz› benzer ifllemler yap›l›r. Bunlar bezelye de kabuk alma, fasulyelerde uç kesme ve k›lç›k
alma bamya da ise uç kesmedir.
Bezelyede kabuk alma ifllemi makinalarda (Batöz) yap›lmaktad›r. 2 Kg sapl›
olarak hasat edilen bezelyeden yaklafl›k 1 Kg kabuklu bezelye (Bakla) elde edilir, bundan da yaklafl›k 500 gr dane bezelye elde edilir. Elde edilen yeflil k›s›mlar (bakla kabu€u,sap ve yaprak) hayvan yemi veya toprakta b›rak›larak organik
gübre olarak de€erlendirilir.
Nakliye tasarrufu için son y›llarda bu ifllem fabrikalar yerine tarlada yap›lmakta böylece fabrikaya gelmeden do€rudan ve bozulmadan kullan›m› sa€lanmaktad›r. Elde edilen iç bezelyeler uygun kaplarda ve bozulmadan fabrikalara
tafl›narak konserve veya donmufl ürün olarak ifllenmektedir.
Fasulyeler ise uç k›s›mlar› ile yanda bulunan sert dokular›ndan (k›lç›k) özel
makinalar yard›m› ile kesilerek temizlenirler sonra da 2 veya 3 parçaya bölünerek imalata haz›rlan›r.
Burada kay›plar % 7-10 civar›nda d›r.
Bamya ise hasat sonras› sap ve çevresindeki sert doku b›çak yard›m›yla
ve elle kesilir. Kesme ve rutubet kayb› % 18’e kadar ulaflabilir..
Türlü konservesinde ise, kabak, patl›can, fasulye, bamya, domates ve biber kar›fl›mlar› birlikte kullan›l›r. Bu amaçla patl›can kabuklar› 2/3 oran›nda soyulur, kabak, domates biber ise dilimlenmifl olarak, fasulyeler kesilmifl bamya
ise bütün olarak kullan›l›r.
Yukar›da belirtilen sebzeler önce 90 0C civar›ndaki hafllama suyunda bir kaç
dakika hafllanarak enzimlerin k›smen tahrip edilmesi sa€lan›r daha sonra teneke veya cam kavanozlara konur, üzerine s›cak salamura (tuzlu su) ilave edilir, hava ç›kartma ifllemini takiben kapat›l›r ve ›s›l ifllem için otoklavlara
yerlefltirilir.
‹rün cinsi, hasat olgunlu€u, ambalaj büyüklü€ü gibi faktörler dikkate al›narak 120 C ye kadar ulafl›lan s›cakl›klarda sterilize edilir. So€utulur ve ambalajlan›r. Bu aflamada yeterli sterilizasyon s›cakl›€›na ve süreye ulafl›lamaz ise
fliflme (bombaj) ile kendini gösteren bozulmalar olur. Bu yaklafl›k % 1 civar›ndad›r. Ayr›ca eksik dolum, yüksek vakum, yetersiz vakum veya h›zl› so€uma gi-
26
27
3.2.6. Isıl İşlem
bi nedenlerle tenekelerde fiziksel olarak ezilmeleri veya kavanoz k›r›lmalar› görülebilir. Bu kay›plar›n da toplam› % 0.5’den azd›r.
Teneke kutulu ürünlerde tafl›ma ve depolama s›ras›nda ezilmeler görülebilir. Tüketici taraf›nda tercih edilmez ve sat›n al›nmaz. Ezik teneke kutularda lak
y›rt›lmalar› da olaca€›ndan uzun sürede yüzeyde paslanmalar olabilir.
Türkiye de y›ll›k olarak 40.000 ton iç bezelye, 12-15 000 ton fasulye ve 56.000 ton türlü konservesi üretilmektedir.
Konserve üretimin de y›llara göre önemli bir art›fl görülmemektedir, Taze tüketim, dondurulmufl sebzeler giderek konservenin yerini almaktad›r. Bu bir çok
ülke de de y›llar içinde benzer geliflmeler olmufltur.
‹ç piyasada çok sat›lmakla birlikte do€ranm›fl biber konservesi özellikle ihracat için yap›lmaktad›r. Bu amaçla tohum ve saplar›ndan ayr›lan biberler fleritler halinde kesilmekte ve di€er konservelere benzer flekilde bazen de
salamuras›na sirke ilave edilerek konserve edilmektedir. Bu ifllemde tohum ve
sap temizli€i ile % 15 civar›nda fire oluflmaktad›r.
Nohut, kuru fasulye ve kuru barbunya da evde piflme süresinden tasarruf
edilmesi ve kolay haz›rlanabilir olmas› için konserve edilmektedir.
Reçel de özellikle çilek, viflne, ahududu, gibi meyveler bütün veya püre fleklinde, ve yüksek fleker konsantrasyonu içinde haz›rlan›rlar, Çilek ve ahududu
sap ayr›lmas› aflamas›nda % 1, viflne ise sap ve çekirdek ç›kartma ifllemleriyle % 12 fire verirler.
Kay›s›lar bütün veya yar›m, fleftaliler dilimlenmifl veya küp kesilmifl olarak
kullan›l›rlar çekirdek ve kabuk ayr›lmas› soncu meyve büyüklü€üne ba€l› olarak, kay›s›lar da % 20-25, fleftalide ise % 15 civar›nda fire oluflur.
Portakallar ise küp kesilmifl portakal kabu€u kullan›m› yayg›nd›r.
Türkiye de ambalajlanm›fl reçel sat›fl›n›n 30.000 ton civar›nda oldu€u bilinmektedir.
3.4. Meyve konserveleri üretim aflamalar›
Meyve konservesi olarak en çok fleftali, kay›s› ve viflne kullan›lmaktad›r.
Konserve meyvelerin tüketimi pastac›l›k sektörünü hedef alm›flt›r. ‹hracat amaçl›
olarak armut, mandalina, greyfurt, elma, ananas, mango ve baz› tropik meyveler ile üzüm hem endüstri hem de ev tüketimi için yap›lmaktad›r.
Bu amaçla seçilen meyveler y›kan›r, çeflidine göre, çekirdek ç›kart›l›r, soyulur, dilimlenir ve genellikle hafif bir fleker flurubu içinde teneke veya cam kavanozlara konur, pastörize edilir, so€utulur ve saklan›r.
Buradaki kay›plarda di€er konserve çeflitlerinde oldu€u gibidir.
Dondurularak saklanan meyve ve sebze sektörü ise her geçen y›l büyümektedir. Bu amaçla sebzelerin ve meyvelerin haz›rlanmas› konserve sektöründe oldu€u gibidir. Hammadde haz›rlanmas›ndaki kay›plar benzerdir. Ancak
viflne çekirdek ç›kartma iflleminde çekirdek haricinde % 5 kadar meyve suyu
28
kay› oluflur. Donma ifllemlerinde blok donma (kasalarda) veya tek tek dondurulma (Iqf) ifllemleri uygulanmaktad›r.
Bu üretim tekni€inde donma yan›kl›€› olarak bilinen ve yüzeyde lekelenmeler olabilir. Bu ürünler de fire olarak ayr›l›r. Ayr›ca donmufl ürünlerin muhafazas›nda zamana ba€l› olarak çilek, domates ve biber gibi renkli meyve ve
sebzelerde renk aç›lmalar› görülebilir.
Sat›fl için depolanan veya sat›fl raflar›nda elektrik kesilmeleri olursa,erimeler ve tekrar donmalar nedeniyle fiziksel yap›da bozulmalar ve ürün üzerinde
buz kristalleri oluflumu nedeniye kalite kay›plar› ortaya ç›kar.
3.5. Meyve suyu konsantresi üretimi
Meyve suyu konsantresi muhafaza yöntemlerinden biridir. Son y›llarda özellikle portakal ve elma suyunda konsantre yerine do€rudan meyve suyunun dayan›kl› (NFC) hale getirilerek saklanmas› yöntemi tercih edilmektedir.
Meyve konsantresi için al›nan meyveler, tekni€ine uygun olarak s›k›larak
meyveden ayr›l›r. Elde edilen su do€rudan ›s›l ifllem görerek veya konsantre
edilmek üzere Evaporatöre gönderilir. Uygun KM (Brix) de€erine ulaflt›ktan sonra da aseptic veya uygun ambalajlara al›n›r.
Bir kg portakal konsantresi (65 Bx) için yaklafl›k 18-20 Kg portakal kullan›l›r,
verimlilik % 50-55 civar›nda d›r. Yani kullan›lan portakal›n yaklafl›k yar›s› posa
olarak ayr›l›r ve ülkemizde hayvan yemi olarak de€erlendirilir.
Elma konsantresi (72 Bx) üretiminde yaklafl›k 5-5.7 Kg aras›nda elma, viflne konsantresi (65 Bx) içib 4-5 kg meyve kullan›l›r. fieftali ve kay›s› ise genellikle 22-24 Bx veya istenilen daha düflük bx lrde haz›rlan›r ve aseptik olarak
ifllenir. Yaklafl›k 3-4 kg meyve kullan›l›r.
Elma posas› da k›ymetli bir hayvan yemidir. Ancak fleftali çekirde€i ve kay›s› çekirde€i kozmetik amaçl› kullan›m›n yan› s›ra kay›s› çekirde€i içi çerez olarak kullan›lmaktad›r. Viflne saplar› ilaç sanayiinde s›n›rl› bir kullan›ma sahiptir
çekirdekleri ise di€er sert çekirdekler gibi yak›t olarak baz› f›r›nda ve baz› bölgelerde sobada yakacak olarak kullan›l›r.
29
Tablo 10 :Türkiye de üretilen baz› meyve çeflitleri ve üretim miktar› (TÜİK 2014)
Meyve çeflidi
Üretim (ton)
Üzüm
Elma
Portakal
Zeytin
Mandarin
Limon
Armut
Kay›s›
Erik
Muz
Alt›ntop
Viflne
4.175.536
2.480.444
1.779.675
1.768.000
1.044.844
608.513
462.336
270.000
265.490
252.000
229.595
182.557
4. GIDA SANAY‹‹NDE KAYIP VE ‹SRAFLAR
4.1. Genel De€erlendirme
G›da, üretim kaynaklar›na göre et, süt yumurta gibi hayvansal veya meyve
ve sebzeler gibi bitkisel esasl› hammaddelerin, çi€ veya tekni€ine göre kurutulmufl, dondurulmufl veya ›s›l ifllem uygulanarak dayan›kl› ve tüketime uygun hale getirdi€imiz ürünlerdir.
Bu ürünlerin elde edilifli veya hasat edilme döneminden bafllayarak, tafl›nmas›,saklanmas›,ifllenmesi, tüketiciye ulaflt›r›lmas›, depolama ve sat›fl aflamalar›nda ve tüketimi s›ras›nda baz› kay›plara u€rarlar.
Bunun sonucunda da insan g›das› olarak tüketilmesini engelleyen bozulmalar ortaya ç›kar ve israf olurlar ya da tüketici taraf›ndan tercih edilmeyerek
at›l›rlar. Burada kaybedilen de€er sadece hayvansal veya bitkisel g›da de€il,
bunun eldesinden tüketiciye ulaflmas›na kadar geçen sürede harcanan, enerji, zaman, emek ve para da bofla gitmifl olur.
Ayr›ca bitkisel üretimin yap›ld›€› topraklar›n her geçen gün azald›€›, hayvansal üretimin zorlaflt›€›, üretim için kullan›lan enerji kaynaklar›n›n tükenmeye bafllad›€› veya maliyetinin artt›€›, üretimle birlikte ortaya ç›kan çevre
kirlenmesi ve dünya da hala açl›k s›n›r›n›n alt›nda yaflamak zorunda kalan veya beslenemeyen milyonlarca insan›n bulundu€u dikkate al›n›rsa, g›dadaki israf ve kay›plar konusundaki endiflelerin, sadece o ürünün kendisi ile s›n›rl›
olmad›€› aç›kt›r.
Bu nedenle g›dalarda israf ve kay›plar›n nas›l ortaya ç›kt›€› ve nas›l önlenece€i bir araflt›rma ile ortaya konup çözülecek bir konu de€ildir. Bu problem
sanayileflme ile birlikte flekil de€ifltiren, toplumun al›flkanl›klar›na göre yeni boyutlar kazanan ve zaman içinde de€ifliklik gösteren ve yaflayan ve flekil de€ifltiren bir sorun olarak tan›mlanabilir. Sorunun devaml›l›k göstermesi nedeniyle
bulunan çözümlerinde zaman içinde gözden geçirilmesini gerektirecektir.
FAO taraf›ndan yap›lan ve 2011 y›l›nda yay›nlanan araflt›rmada, G›da ‹sraf›
ve Kay›plar›n›n ürün, ülke veya bölgenin koflullar› ile geliflmifllik ile farkl› bir iliflkisi oldu€u anlat›lmaktad›r. Geliflen veya geliflmifl ülke olmak g›dalardaki israf
ve kay›plar› azaltmamakta, ancak olufltu€u aflamay› de€ifltirdi€i görülmektedir.
Geliflmifl ve geliflmekte olan ülkelerde, genellikle tüketici ve tüketim aflamas›nda ortaya ç›kan kay›plar, daha az geliflmifl ülkelerde ise üretim, iflleme ve
30
31
saklama aflamalar›nda ortaya ç›kmakta buna karfl›l›k tüketim aflamas›nda ise
azalmaktad›r.
Bu durum geliflmifl ülkelerin tar›m ve hayvan yetifltirme konular›nda geldikleri olumlu nokta nedeniyle saklama ve tafl›mada imkanlar›n›n artmas› ile üretim tekniklerinin geliflmesinin elde edilen üründeki kay›plar› azaltt›€›, ancak
tüketici tercihlerinin daha hassas olmas› nedeniyle israf›n artt›€› flekilde yorumlanabilir.
‹retilen ürünlerin standartlara uymamas› da tüketici taraf›ndan de€erlendirilmektedir.
Ayr›ca tüketici al›flkanl›klar› ve sa€l›kla ilgili baz› endiflelerin artmas› da israflara neden olmaktad›r. Özellikle örne€in, meyve ve sebzelerin baz› bölümlerinin ya da hayvansal g›dalarda ya€l›, veya deri ve benzeri k›s›mlar›n
tüketilmemesi, özellikle kültürel nedenlerle besin de€eri oldu€u halde sakatat
gibi ürünlerin yenmemesi israf› etkilemektedir.
Belirtildi€i üzere her üründe ve ülkede g›dalarda kay›plar ve israflar oluflmaktad›r.
Kuzey Amerika da kifli bafl›na 280-300 Kg /y›l g›da israf edilirken, bu de€er
Orta Afrika ile Güney ve Güneydo€u Asya ülkelerinde 120-130 Kg/y›ld›r. Bu o
bölgelerdeki kifli bafl›na üretilen ürünlerin toplam üretimin 1/3 üne yak›nd›r.
Geliflmifl ülkelerdeki g›da israf› geliflen ülkelere göre % 40 daha fazlad›r.
Özellikle de tüketim aflamas›nda ortaya ç›kmaktad›r.
Ürün gruplar›na göre bak›ld›€›nda Tah›l ve tah›llardan yap›lan ürünlerde kay›plar di€er g›da gruplar›na göre daha yüksektir. Bu grup da tah›llarda ortaya
ç›kan baz› hastal›klar, kullan›lan hasat ve saklama koflullar›n›n yetersizli€i gibi
nedenlerle geliflmekte olan ülkelerdeki kay›plar› daha yüksektir.
Tablo 11: Tah›llarda Kay›plar ve İsraf
Ül­ke­ler ­­­­­­­­­­­Üretim ­­­­­­­Ha­sat­/Sak­la­ma ­­­­­­­­­­­­‹fl­le­me­/Pa­ket­le­me­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Da­€›­t›m/Sa­t›fl­­­­­­­­­­­­Tü­ke­tim
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2
2
2
6
6
6
6
4
2
10
8
8
7
4
0.5-10
0.5 -10
0.5-10
3.5
2-7
3.5
2-7
2
2
9
2
4
2
4
25
27
10
1
12
3
10
Tah›llarda üretim döneminde zararl› ve hastal›klarla mücadelenin yap›lmas› hasat sonras› zararl›lardan koruma, depolama koflullar›n›n iyilefltirilmesi ve
sat›fl kanallar› gelifltikçe kay›plar azalmaktad›r. Ancak alt gelir grubunun yo€un
oldu€u bölgelerde tüketim aflamas›nda kay›plar daha az olup % 3’e kadar gerilerken, Rusya ve Kuzey Amerika ülkelerinde % 27’ye kadar yükselmektedir.
32
Tablo 12: Meyve ve Sebzelerde Kayıplar ve İsraf
Ül­ke­ler ­­­­­­­­­­­Üretim ­­­­­­­Ha­sat­/Sak­la­ma ­­­­­­­­­­­­‹fl­le­me­/Pa­ket­le­me­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Da­€›­t›m/Sa­t›fl­­­­­­­­­­­­Tü­ke­tim
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
20
20
10
10
17
15
20
5
4
8
9
10
9
10
2
22
2
25
20
25
20
10
12
8
17
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Üretilen meyve ve sebzenin üretim aflamas›ndaki kay›plar %10-20 aras›ndad›r. Farkl›l›k ürün türlerinden kaynaklanmakt›r. Hasat sonras› ve saklama ve
tafl›ma ifllemlerde meyvelerin hassas yap›lar› nedeniyle ve so€uk hava depolar› ve benzeri depo imkanlar›na göre kay›plar de€iflmektedir.
Özellikle narenciye, elma, kivi gibi ürünlerin ifllendi€i paketleme evlerinde,standardizasyon ve paketleme s›ras›nda standart d›fl› ürünler nedeniyle kay›plar oluflmaktad›r. Ancak yine en çok israf, geliflmifl ülkelerde tüketicilerin
seçicili€ine göre artmaktad›r.
Tablo 13: Et Üretiminde Kayıplar ve İsraf
Ül­ke­ler ­­­­­­­­­­­Üretim ­­­­­­­Ha­sat­/Sak­la­ma ­­­­­­­­­­­­‹fl­le­me­/Pa­ket­le­me­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Da­€›­t›m/Sa­t›fl­­­­­­­­­­­­Tü­ke­tim
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3.1
3.5
2.9
15
6.6
5.1
5.3
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0.6
0.7
0.2
0.3
1.1
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Et hayvanlar› kesim sonras›, karkas veya k›rm›z› et so€uk koflullarda saklanmal› ve tafl›mal›d›r. Aksi halde çok k›sa zamanda kokuflma ve bozulma meydana gelir ve insan g›das› olarak tüketilemez. Hayvan sa€l›€› da kay›plar için
çok önemlidir. Tablodan aç›kça görüldü€ü üzere Afrika gibi s›cak ve alt yap›n›n
olmad›€› yerlerde, üretim kay›plar› di€er bölgelerden yüksek, ancak tüketicinin
daha az seçici olmamas› nedeniyle de israf azalmaktad›r.
33
G›dalarda kalite ve miktar azalmas›na neden olan kay›plar, her üründe, iflletmede, saklama, tafl›ma ve iflleme esnas›nda ortaya ç›kar, israf ise, sat›fl ve depolaman›n yetersizli€i, tüketici al›flkanl›klar› ve kültürüne ba€l› olarak ortaya ç›kar.
G›da ifllenmesindeki her ürün ayr› özelliklere sahip oldu€› için, de€er zincirinde bu aflamalar›n ve her ürün için ayr› ayr› de€erlendirme yap›lmas›n› gerektirmektedir. Projede konumuz olan üretimler dikkate al›nd›€›nda: Süt ve et
ürünlerinde kay›p ve israf›n önlenmesinde hayvan sa€l›€› ve beslenmesine iliflkin önlemlerle bafllamak gereklidir.
Süt veriminin artmas› için bölgeye adapte olmufl, süt verimi yüksek ›rklar›n
seçilmesi, do€ru bir sürü yönetimi ile do€umlar›n planlanmas›,, hayvan beslenmesinin süt verimini artt›racak yönde yap›lmas›, di€er hayvan sa€l›€› takibi, süt
verimini düflüren Mastitis hastal›€›n›n kontrolü ve gerkirse tedavisinin zaman›nda yap›lmal›d›r..
Süt üretiminde miktar›n artmas› için, makinal› sa€›m›n artt›r›lmas›, do€ru
ekipman›n kullan›lmas› ve sa€›m ve meme hijyenine dikkat edilmelidir.
Sa€›lan sütün mikrabiyal yükünün azalt›lmas› ve kalite kay›plar›n›n önlenmasi için; Sa€›m hijyeninin sa€lanmal›, sütün uygun filitrelerle ön temizli€inin
yap›lmal› ve süratle 4-6 0C aras›na so€utulmal›d›r.
Bu sütün toplama merkezlerine veya fabrikaya kadar,izoleli tankerlerle tafl›narak asitli€inin yükselmesinin önlenmelidir.
Süt hayvanlar›n›n hamilelik ve do€um do€um sonras›nda gerekli sa€l›k koflullar›n›n sa€lanmas› ve düzenli kontrolleri yap›lmal›d›r.
Et üretimi için yetifltirilen hayvanlarda canl› hayvan ölümlerinin azalt›lmas›
için hastal›klarla mücadele ve afl›lanmalar›, do€ru beslenme programlar› uygulanmal›d›r.
Et hayvanlar›n›n (s›€›r, koyun, keçi, ve kanatl›lar) nakliye s›ras›nda ölümlerin olmamas› için, tafl›ma araçlar›nn hayvan türüne uygun olarak tasarlanm›fl,
havaland›rmal› ve gere€inde beslenmelerini sa€layan ekipmanlarla donat›lm›fl
araçlarla tafl›ma yap›lmas› tercih edilmelidir.
Bitkisel üretimde de bitki zararl› ve hastal›klar› ile zaman›nda ve yeterli mücadelenin yap›lmas› önemlidir. Özellikle mücadelenin yetersiz oldu€u durumlarda üretinde kalite ve üretim miktar›nda kay›plar› ortaya ç›kar. Hastal›k ve baz›
zararl›lar›n oluflturdu€u,flekil ve renk bozukluklar›, yaralanmalar bu ürünlerin
sanayii de de€erlendirilmelerini zorlaflt›r›r.
Taze sat›lan meyve ve sebzelerdeki görünüfl renk, leke ve benzeri bozukluklar›, bu ürünleri standart d›fl› olarak b›rak›lmalar›na yola açar. Tüketici taraf›ndan da istenmeyen ürünler sat›lamaz ve bazen meyve suyu üretiminde
de€erlendirilir, çok kötüleri ise hayvan yemi olarak kullan›l›rlar .
Taze meyvelerin standart d›fl› olanlar›ndan uygun olanlar› meyve suyu fabrikalar›nda kullan›labilir, ancak her meyvenin böyle de€erlendirilmesi mümkün
de€ildir. Özellikle marketlerde standart d›fl› olan ürünlerin tekrar toplan›p meyve sebze sektörüne gönderilmesi zordur.
Bu nedenle tüketim yerlerinde sat›lan ürünlerle ilgili standartlar›n oluflturulmas›nda, standart d›fl› ürünlerin yarataca€› kay›p ve israfa dikkat edilmelidir.
Örnek olarak taze sat›lmakta olan, elma, portakal, çilek vb gibi ürünlerde e€er
standartlar çok da kat› ise (boy, renk, flekil vb), bu ürünlerin haz›rl›€›nda ç›k›nt›
olarak isimlendirilen standart d›fl› ürünler artar. Bu da kay›p demektir. Bu nedenle standartlar haz›rlanan standartlarda s›n›fland›rmalarda seçenekler artt›r›lmal›d›r.
Bitkisel üretim önemli ölçüde aç›k arazilerde yap›lmakta, iklim koflullar› ve
zararl› ve hastal›k tehdidi alt›nda bulunmaktad›r . Do€ru tar›m teknikleri uygulansa bile, hava koflullar› ya€›fl ve s›cakl›klarda art›fl veya don gibi etkiler nedeniyle üretim miktar› ve kalitesi de€iflir..
Bu nedenle çiftçiler üretim planlamas› yapmadan ço€unlukla bir önceki y›l›n verilerine bakarak üretim yaparlar bu ürünlerde eksiklik veya fazlal›k olarak
ortaya ç›kar. Ancak, üretim fazlas› oldu€u y›llarda ürün de€erlendirilmesinde ve
taze sat›fl›nda da sorunlar olursa, üretim fazlas›n›n israfa dönüflmesi kaç›n›lmazd›r. ‹rünün planlanan dan çok olmas› fiyat düflmesine de sebep olaca€›ndan çiftçilerin beklenen geliri elde edemezler. Meyve ve sebze iflleme sektörü
de fazla ürünün zaman›nda ifllemesine uygun nakliye, saklama ve iflleme kapasitesi bölgede yoksa, tarlada bekleme veya fabrika önünde baklameler sonucunda ürün kay›plar› olur.
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Tablo 14: Süt Üretiminde Kayıplar ve İsraf
Ül­ke­ler ­­­­­­­­­­­Üretim ­­­­­­­Ha­sat­/Sak­la­ma ­­­­­­­­­­­­‹fl­le­me­/Pa­ket­le­me­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Da­€›­t›m/Sa­t›fl­­­­­­­­­­­­Tü­ke­tim
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Süt üretiminde de bir çok yerde benzer ekipmanlar ve tedbirler uyguland›€› için tüketiciye kadar olan aflamalarda kay›plar birbirine yak›nd›r. Ancak geliflmifl bölgelerde di€er bölgelere k›yasla büyük ölçüde israf artmaktad›r.
Ülke/Bölge:
1. Rusya, 2.Kuzey Amerika, 3 Çin Japonya Kore
4. Afrika (Sahra alt›), 5. Kuzey Afrika, Bat› ve Orta Asya
6. Güney ve Güney Do€u Asya, 7. Latin Amerika
4.2. G›dalarda Kay›p ve ‹sraflar›n Önlenmesi
Bu nedenle çiftçilerin o y›l için üretim planlamalar›n› meyve sebze iflleme
tesisileri ile birlikte yap›lmas›nda yarar vard›r. Bu da özellikle y›ll›k sebze ve
meyvelerde kontratl› üretimi plan› ile olur. Böylece üretim kay›plar› iflletmeler
ve çiftçiler için en aza inmifl olacakt›r.
Bazen erken hasatlar da israflara neden olmaktad›r. Özellikle turfanda ürünün daha fazla de€ere sat›lmas› ve çiftçinin eline erken para geçmesi beklentisi nedeniyle, hasat olgunlu€una gelmeden toplan›r ve pazara verilir.
Ancak bu ürünlerin tat ve lezzet gibi tüketici taraf›ndan istenilen kaliteye
ulaflmadan sat›fla verilmeleri sonucunda, yeterli al›c› bulamaz. Bu hem beklenen sonucu vermez hem de üretim kay›plar›na neden olur.
Hasat edilen meyve ve sebzelerin tafl›mas›nda uygun sepet veya kasalar
kullan›larak, ürünlerin mekanik olarak zedelenmesi veya tafl›ma s›ras›nda ezilmelerin önüne geçilmesi gerekir. Bu hem taze tüketilen sebze ve meyveler hemde fabrikalarda ifllenen ürünler için önemlidir.
S›cak hava ve rüzgar hasat edilen birçok ürünün tafl›nmas› s›ras›nada kalite kay›plar›na ve israf edilmesine yol açar, özellikle sebzelerde bu durum daha hassast›r. ‹rünlerin serin koflullarda saklanmas› için so€uk hava depolar›n›n
üretim bölgelerinde yayg›nlaflt›r›lmas› ve so€utuculu araçlarla tafl›man›n yap›lmas›nda yarar vard›r.
Uygun hasat plan› yap›larak fabrikalara gelen ürünlerin kamyonlarda bekleme süreleri k›salt›lmal›d›r. Bu konu özellikle domates ürünleri, bezelye,fasulye, ›spanak gibi ürünlerin ifllenmesinde çok önemlidir. Kamyonlarda bekleyen
domateslerde ezilmeler sonucunda domates sulalar› akar, bekleyen domateslerde de gözle görülebilen küflenmeler ortay ç›kar. Bu nedenle kamyonla tafl›nan domateslerde yükleme miktar› ezilmeyi önleyecek düzeyde olmal›d›r.
Bezelye, bamya, fasulye ve salatal›k gibi ürünlerde kapal› ortamlarda ve afl›r› yüklenmifl kamyonlarda ve kasalarda ›s›nma ortaya ç›kar ve ürünler k›sa sürede özelliklerini kaybeder.
Tüketiciler taraf›ndan g›dalar›n israf› belirleyen çok say›da etken vard›r.
Tüketiciler zaman zaman ihtiyaçlar›ndan fazla ürünü sat›n almaya yönelmektedirler. Büyük am balajlarda fiyat avantaj› alg›s›, belli miktar alana bedava
ürün verilmesi gibi özendirici pazarlama politikalar› sat›n alma kararlar›n› etkilemektedir.
‹htiyaç fazlas› say›labilecek ve raf ömrü s›n›rl› olan g›dalar›n saklanmas›
sorun olmakta ve ürünlerin bir k›sm› bozulmakta ve israf olmaktad›r.
Tüketicilerin ürünlerini al›rkan fiyat avantaj›n›n yan›s›ra bu ürünlerin bozulabilece€ini de dikkate almalar› gerekmektedir.
Bu nedenle üreticilerin, mamullerin ambalajlama boyutlar›n› saklama koflullar›na uygun, buzdolab›na konabilir ölçülerde, aç›ld›€› zaman tekrar kapat›lmas›
mümkün olan malzemeleri kullanmas›nda veya uygun porsiyonlarda ambalajlama gibi seçenekleri oluflturmas› g›dalarda israf› önleyecek tedbirlerdir.
Özellikle, gelir düzeyinin artmas› ile birlikte seçicili€in artmas›, ürünlerde ka-
lite beklentisinin yükselmesini de beraberinde getirdi€inden, ürünlerin kalitesi
ödenen bedele uygun olmal›d›r. Aksi halde tüketici beklentisini karfl›lamayan
ürünler be€enilmemekte, sat›n al›nsa bile tüketilemedi€i için israf olmaktad›r.
‹sraf›n önlenmesi için üreticiden bafllayarak, de€er zinciri içinde yer alan
her kesime g›da daki kay›p ve israf anlat›lmal›d›r. Burada da e€itim en önemli
araç olacakt›r.
Çiftçilerin üreticilik ve yetifltiricilikle ilgili bilgileri zaman zaman gözden geçirilmeli yeni teknikler ve yöntemler anlat›lmal›d›r. Özelikle çiftçilere dönük yay›n
yapan TV ve radio kanallar› çok baflar›l› yay›nlar gerçeklefltirmektedir. Buradaki programlarda g›dalarda kay›plar ve israf› anlatan konular da ifllenmelidir.
Kay›p ve isfarlar›n di€er bir tan›m› da maliyettir. Bu nedenle üretim ve yetifltiricilik yapan herkes bu konuya gereken ilgiyi gösterecektir.
Bölgenin üretim ve yetifltiricilik desenine göre, bölgelerede verilcek e€itimlerle, sürekli ö€renme al›flkanl›k haline getirilmelidir.
G›da Tar›m ve Hayvanc›l›k Bakanl›€›n›n bölge teflkilatlar› ile üniversitelerin
ilgili bölümleri bu konuda çal›flmalar›n› bölge üreticileri ile paylaflmaktad›r.
G›da sanyiinde çal›flmakta olan her düzeydeki personele, kay›p ve israf›n
önemi ve önlenmesi için meslek içi e€itimler veilmelidir.
Bu sektörde çel›flanlar›n sürekli iyilefltirme çal›flmalar› için, kay›p ve israflar› önleme önerileri ve projeleri düzenli aral›klarla de€erlendirilmeli ve baflar›l›
olanlar ödüllendirilerek, bunun devam› özendirilmelidir.
G›da iflletmelerinde geçmiflde kazan›lan do€ru uygulamalar›n yeni çal›flanlara aktar›lmas› için düzenli e€itim seminerleri verilmelidir.
Meslek kurulufllar›, dernekleri ve iflçi / iflveren sendikalar›n yard›m› ile, kurumlarda ortaya ç›kan iyi uygulamalar üyeler aras›nda paylafl›lmal›d›r.
Tar›msal üretimde iyi tar›m uygulamalar›n tan›t›lmal›, izlenebilirli€in faydalar› anlat›lmal›d›r.
G›dalar›n ifllenmesinde ekonomik ömrünü tamamlam›fl olan ekipmanlar›n
yenilenmesi ile üretimdeki kay›plar azalt›labilir.
G›da sanayiinin çiftçilerle ürün seçiminden yetistirilmesine, hasattan saklanmas› ve nakliyesine kadar bir çok konuda birlikte davranmalar› yerinde olur.
Üretim fazlas› veya son kullanma tarihi yaklaflm›fl ürünlerin “G›da Bankas›”
veya “Sosyal Market” yap›lanmas› alt›nda ihtiyaç sahiplerine ulaflt›r›lmas› için
yap›lan çal›flmalar desteklenmelidir. Türkiye’de 5179 soy›l› yasa ile kurulan ve
burada de€erlendirilen ürünlerin do€rudan gider olarak yaz›lmas› ve KDV indirimi nedeniye firmalar için özendiricidir.
Son y›llarda özellikle Belediyeler taraf›ndan sahiplenilen bu yap›n›n yayg›nlaflmas› için yeterli tan›t›m yap›lmal›d›r.
G›da ürünlerinin ambalajlar›nda ve ambalajlama yöntemlerine iliflkin proje-
36
37
G›dadaki israflar›n azalt›lamas› için neler önerilebilir?
ler ile raf ömrünü artt›ran projeler özendirilmeli ve desteklenmelidir.
Evdeki dolap ve so€utuculara konmas› mümkün olmayan büyük boyutlu
ambalajl› g›dalar›n üretiminden sak›n›lmal›d›r.
Farbikalar›n üretim planlama, sat›n alma bölümlerinin sat›fl la koordinasyonu artt›r›lmal›d›r.
Evde tüketilen g›dalar›n saklanmas› ve ürünler hakk›nda do€ru bilgilendirilmeleri için yaz›l› ve görsel bas›ndan yararlan›lmal›d›r. Beklemeler sonucunda
ürün kay›plar› olur.
Bu nedenle çiftçilerin o y›l için üretim planlamalar›n› meyve sebze iflleme
tesisileri ile birlikte yap›lmas›nda yarar vard›r. Bu da özellikle y›ll›k sebze ve
meyvelerde kontratl› üretimi plan› ile olur. Böylece üretim kay›plar› iflletmeler
ve çiftçiler için en aza inmifl olacakt›r.
Bazen erken hasatlar da israflara neden olmaktad›r. Özellikle turfanda ürünün daha fazla de€ere sat›lmas› ve çiftçinin eline erken para geçmesi beklentisi nedeniyle, hasat olgunlu€una gelmeden toplan›r ve pazara verilir.
Ancak bu ürünlerin tat ve lezzet gibi tüketici taraf›ndan istenilen kaliteye
ulaflmadan sat›fla verilmeleri sonucunda, yeterli al›c› bulamaz. Bu hem beklenen sonucu vermez hem de üretim kay›plar›na neden olur.
Hasat edilen meyve ve sebzelerin, tafl›mas›nda uygun sepet veya kasalar
kullan›larak, ürünlerin mekanik olarak zedelenmesi veya tafl›ma s›ras›nda ezilmelerin önüne geçilmesi gerekir. Bu hem taze tüketilen sebze ve meyveler hemde fabrikalarda ifllenen ürünler için önemlidir.
S›cak hava ve rüzgar hasat edilen birçok ürünün tafl›nmas› s›ras›nda kalite kay›plar›na ve israf edilmesine yol açar, özellikle sebzelerde bu durum daha
hassast›r. ‹rünlerin serin koflullarda saklanmas› için so€uk hava depolar›n›n üretim bölgelerinde yayg›nlaflt›r›lmas› ve so€utuculu araçlarla tafl›man›n yap›lmas›nda yarar vard›r.
Uygun hasat plan› yap›larak fabrikalara gelen ürünlerin kamyonlarda bekleme süreleri k›salt›lmal›d›r. Bu konu özellikle domates ürünleri n, bezelye,fasulye, ›spanak gibi ürünlerin ifllenmesinde çok önemlidir. Kamyonlarda bekleyen
domateslerde ezilmeler sonucunda domates sular› akar, bekleyen domateslerde de gözle görülebilen küflenmeler ortay ç›kar. Bu nedenle kamyonla tafl›nan
domateslerde yükleme miktar› ezilmeyi önleyecek düzeyde olmal›d›r.
Bezelye, bamya, fasulye ve salatal›k gibi ürünlerde de kapal› ortamlarda ve
afl›r› yüklenmifl kamyonlarda ve kasalarda ›s›nma ortaya ç›kar ve ürünler k›sa
sürede özelliklerini kaybeder.
Tüketiciler taraf›ndan g›dalar›n israf› belirleyen çok say›da etken vard›r.
Tüketiciler zaman zaman ihtiyaçlar›ndan fazla ürünü sat›n almaya yönelmektedirler., Bunlara büyük ambalajlarda fiyat avantaj› alg›s›, belli miktar alana
bedava ürün verilmesi gibi özendirici pazarlama politikalar› sat›n alma kararlar›n› etkilemektedir.
‹htiyaç fazlas› say›labilecek ve raf ömrü s›n›rl› olan g›dalar›n saklanmas›
sorun olmakta ve ürünlerin bir k›sm› bozulmakta ve israf olmaktad›r.
Tüketicilerin ürünlerini al›rken fiyat avantaj›n›n yan› s›ra bu ürünlerin bozulabilece€ini de dikkate almalar› gerekmektedir.
Bu nedenle üreticilerin, mamullerin ambalajlama boyutlar›n› saklama koflullar›na uygun, buzdolab›na konabilir ölçülerde, aç›ld›€› zaman tekrar kapat›lmas› mümkün olan malzemeleri kullanmas›nda veya uygun porsiyonlarda
ambalajlama gibi seçenekleri oluflturmas› g›dalarda israf› önleyecek tedbirlerdir.
Özellikle, gelir düzeyinin artmas› ile birlikte seçicili€in artmas›, ürünlerde kalite beklentisinin yükselmesini de beraberinde getirdi€inden, ürünlerin kalitesi
ödenen bedele uygun olmal›d›r. Aksi halde tüketici beklentisini karfl›lamayan
ürünler be€enilmemekte, sat›n al›nsa bile tüketilemedi€i için israf olmaktad›r.
38
39
YARARLANILAN KAYNAKLAR
1- Dünya’da ve Türkiye’de Süt Sektörü ‹statistikleri, 2013, Ulusal Süt Konseyi Raporu, May›s 2014, Ankara
2- Global Food Losses nad Food Waste, Rapor FAO, Interpack 2011, Düsseldorf,
Germany
3- G›da At›€› Yönetimi, Unilever Food Solutions www.ufs.com
4- Preventing Food wastage in the Food and Drink sector Food Drink Europe,
Brussels
5- Süt ve Süt Ürünleri Sektörüne Genel Bak›fl, ‹zmir Ticaret Odas›, fiebnem
Boran ,2010 ArGe Bülteni
6- Seçilmifl Ülkelerde 2012 y›l› kifli bafl›na et tüketimi,
BESD-B‹R, www.besd.bir.org/assets/documents
7 -SET B‹R , www.setbir.org.tr/kaynaklar/istatistikler. Sloughterhouses,
www.fao.org/wairdocs/lead
8- Türkiye ‹statistik Kurumu, TÜ‹K www.tuik.org.tr
9-Türkiye Tavuk ve Et Üreticiler, Tesisleri ‹hracat›,Tüketimi ve Dünya Piliç Sektörüne Göre Karfl›laflt›r›lması, www.pilicihracat›.com
10-Türkiye K›rm›z› Et Sektörü ve Rekabet Politikas›, Rekbet Kurumu 3. Daire
Baflkanl›€›, 2010 Ankara
11- Türk G›da ve ‹çecek Sanayi, 2013 Envanteri, Türkiye G›da ve ‹çecek Dernekleri Federasyonu, May›s 2014 Ankara
12- Utilizations of byproducts and waste material from meat, poutry and fish processing industrie, K.Jayathilakan and at all. J.Food Science and Technology,
2012 jun 49(3) 278-293
41
FOODWARD PROJESİ
ANKET SORULARI
Adınız Soyadınız:
ERASMUS PLUS PROGRAMME
KA2 – Cooperation and Innovation for Good Practices
Strategic Partnerships for Adult Education
PROJECT NUMBER - [2014-1-TR01-KA204-013041] FOODWARD
Gıda kayıpları - üretim, hasat ve proses sırasında oluşmaktadır. Gelişmekte
olan ülkelerde gıda üretim sistemlerindeki yetersiz ekipman, düşük teknolojik
seviye ve yetersiz altyapı nedeniyle gıda kayıpları çok önem teşkil etmektedir.
Gıda kayıpları proses, işleme ve depolama sırasında oluşan organik atıkları
(havuç ve patates kabuğu gibi) da içermektedir.
Günümüzde gıda kayıplarını ve israfını azaltmak için bir çok çalışma yapılmaktadır. Ancak bu çalışmalar farklı platformlara kolaylıkla ulaşamamaktadır.
FOODWARD adlı projemiz yardımı ile bu araştırmaların sonuçları incelelenecek, konu ile ilgili tecrübe ve bilgiler toplanacaktır. Bu bilgiler ışığında eğitim
materyali ve seminerler oluşturulacak ve daha sonra e-öğrenme materyalleri
hazırlanacaktır. Projenin bu bütünleyici kısmı geniş bir kitleye sunularak gerçekleştirilecektir.
Proje aşağıda listelenmiş ana başlıklar üzerine odaklanmaktadır:
Türkiye, İtalya, Almanya ve Slovakya’daki gıda sanayi atık/artıklarının bileşimsel
analizleri,
Süt, et ve konserve sektörlerindeki gıda kayıplarının miktarlarının belirlenmesi,
İşletmelerindeki mühendislerin eğitimleri,
Gıdaların işlenmesi sırasında meydana gelen atık/artıklar konusunda farkındalığın kazandırılması
Gelecekte gıda kayıplarının önlenmesi ve sürdürülebilir gıda üretiminin oluşturulması.
Kurumunuz:
1-İşletmeniz hangi endüstri alanı içerisinde yeralmaktadır?
Süt
a) pastörize
b) UHT
c) Süt tozu
d) Peynir
e) Ayran
f) Tereyağı
g) Yoğurt
h) Diğer (lütfen belirtin)-.............
Et
a) Kırmızı et
b) Beyaz et
c) Kırmızı et ürünleri
d) Beyaz et ürünleri
e) Diğer (lütfen belirtin)-.............
Konserve
a) Sebze
b) Meyve
c) Salça
d) Hazır yemekler
e) Diğer (lütfen belirtin)-.............
2- İşletmeniz;
a)Ulusal
b) Yabancı Ortaklı
c) Yurtdışı Kaynaklı
İşletmenizin yıllık üretim kapasitesini belirtiniz.
Bu bağlamda firmanızın değerli katkılarına şimdiden çok tesekkür ederiz.
3-İşletmenizde gerçekleştirdiğiniz üretim sırasında ekonomik kayıp olarak düşündüğünüz (hammadde/ ürün) var mıdır?
a) Var
b) Yok
4- Bu tür kayıplar varsa tanımlaması yapılmakta mıdır?
a) Evet
b) Hayır
42
43
a) 0-3%
b) 3-6%
c) 6-10%
d) 10% dan daha fazla
5- Varsa bu kayıplar;
a) Süt
b) Et, kemik, ya da doku
c) Tüy, kan, iç organ
d) Meyve ve sebzelerin bozulmaları
e) Kabuk, çekirdek
f) Diğer (lütfen belirtin)-.............
6-Varsa, hangi asamada gerçekleşmektedir?
a) Hammadde girişi
b) Ham madde depolanması
c) Üretim aşamasında
d) Paketleme esnasında
e) Dağıtım esnasında
f) Bozulmuş son ürün
g) Satış dan iadeler ( kalite nedeniye / raf ömrü nedeniyle)
h) Diğer (lütfen belirtin)-.............
7- Bu tür kayıplarların azaltılması ile ilgili çalışan biriminiz var mıdır?
a) Evet
b) Hayır
8- Bu konularda firma dışı yardım alıyor musunuz?
a) Evet
b) Hayır
14-İşletmeniz bünyesinde geri kazanılamayan kayıpları nasıl değerlendiriyorsunuz?
a) Hayvan yemi
b) Gübre
c) Enerji üretimi
d) Sivil toplum kuruluşları
e) Diğer (lütfen belirtin)-.............
15-Diğer endüstri kuruluşlarıyla paylaşabileceğiniz sürdürülebilir
atık/kayıp eğitimi var mıdır?
a) Evet
b) Hayır
16-Varsa paylaşmak ister misiniz?
b) Hayır
a) Evet
17-Sürdürülebilir atık/kayıp yönetimi eğitimi ile ilgili eğitime katılmak
ister misiniz?
a) Evet
b) Hayır
9-Bu konuyla ilgili proje yaptınız mı?
a) Evet
b) Hayır
18-Bunlar dışında bu konu ile ilgili eklemek istediğiniz bilgiler var
mıdır? Varsa ; lütfen belirtiniz.
10-Eğer proje yaptıysanız;
a) Ulusal
b) Uluslararası
11- Projenin destek birimi;
a) Şirketiniz
b) TÜBİTAK
c) Sanayi Bakanlığı
d) Avrupa Birliği projeleri
e) Diğer(lütfen belirtin)-.............
12-Kayıplarla ilgili ekonomik/ istatistiksel çalışmanız var mıdır?
b) Hayır
a) Evet
13-İstatistiksel çalışmanız varsa ortalama yıllık kaybınız ne kadardır?
44
45
FOOD RECOVERY AND
WASTE REDUCTION
FOODWARD PROJECT
APRIL 2015
TABLES
INTRODUCTION
FORWARD
1. Milk and Milk Products
1.1. General Status
1.2. Milk production and collection of milk in Turkey
1.3. Milk production and number of milked animals
1.4. Production of some milk products in Turkey
1.5. Drinking milk
1.6. Cheese production
1.7. Kashar cheese
1.8. Processed cheese
1.9. Yoghurt
1.10. Buttermilk
1.11. Cream and Butter
1.12. Milk powder
Table 1: Farmer number and % value according to milk cows
Table 2: Number of milked animals and milk production
Table 3: 2014 estimated milk products production and production per capita
Table 4: Existence of poultry animals
Table 5: Meat production with slaughtered bovine animal and sheep
number in Turkey
Table 6: % of the by-products according to live weight in the cattle and sheep
Table 7: By-products in poultry slaughter
Table 8: Fresh tomato production in Turkey
Table 9: Procession stages of tomato sauce
Table 10: Some fruit types and amounts that are produced in Turkey
Table 11: Loss and wastage in the cereals
Table 12: Loss and wastage in the fruits and vegetables
Table 13: Loss and wastage in the meat products
Table 14: Loss and wastage in the milk products
2. Meat and Meat Products
2.1 General Status
2.2 Procession of poultry
2.3 Procession of red meat
3. Canned Fruit and Vegetable
3.1. General Status
3.2. Tomato sauce
3.2.1. Harvest
3.2.2. Slicing
3.2.2. Pulper/sieve
3.2.3. Stock tank
3.2.4. Evaporator
3.2.5. Heat Treatment
3.3. Production stages of canned vegetable
3.4. Production stages of canned fruit
3.5. Fruit juice concentrate
4. Losses and wastages in food industry
4.1. General Assessment
4.2. Prevention of loss and wastage in the foods
4.3. Survey Form
48
49
FOREWORD
Turkey is exerting a grand effort to become a full member of the European
Union. The main target is become European and achieve to developed country
welfare level by reaching to the European Union Standards. European Union
is a civilisation project.
European Union is creating opportunities for Turkey to reach the union acquis.
The Food recovery and Waste Reduction Project (Project No: 2014-1TRO1KA204-013041), in short the Foodward Project is executing together with
TUGIS/Turkey Food Industry Employers Syndicate, T.C Food, Agriculture and
Livestock Ministry, General Directorate of TAGEM, ODTU Food Engineering
Department, MKV Consulting, Italy SPES/ GEIE, Italy EURO CREA, Germany
Mönchengladbach Niederlain University and Slovakia Cassavia / Kosica by utilizing the European Union Funds (with in the frame of the ERASMUS PLUS
program). Determination of the losses in the food industry, prevention of the
food loses and wastage and recycling of these losses for economy is the main
target of this project. The subject of the project is filling a gap that should be
studied in Turkey. In these studies, Turkish partners of Turkey will benefit from
Germany, Italy and Slovakia’s experiences which are its other partners and
members of European Union; and the experiences and information in Turkey
will be examined by mutual opinion exchanging. Within the scope of the project,
each partner has undertaken responsibilities. Seminars, formation meeting conferences will be organized and especially in the subject of dissemination of European Union idea, technical information related to the subject will be
transferred to the relevant authorities from first-hand.
The seminars and formation meetings that will be organized for this purpose in
various cities of Turkey are very important and they will open a new horizon for
food sector. Also, E-modules that will be prepared as part of the project will presented continuously to the benefit of all relevant persons. This report is an important document that presents the actual status about food losses and food
waste. Wishing the success of the project, I would like to thank all our partners
in the project and Ministry of European Union National Agency Officials and I
wish you success.
Yours faithfully
Selçuk Maruflu
TÜGİS Executive Committee
Member and General Secretary
16 April 2015
51
INTRODUCTION
The­project­partners­from­four­countries­were­cooperated­in­this­project­supported­by­R.T­Agence­Europe­or­coordinated­by­Turkey­Food­Employers­Syndicate­(TUGIS)­for­searching­the­losses­that­occur­from­Food­Industry­and­each
country­will­prepare­its­own­workers­within­this­frame­and­will­transfer­its­results
to­the­sector­managers­through­the­seminars­and­meetings­to­be­organized.
R.T­Ministry­of­Food­Agriculture­and­Livestock,­General­Directorate­of­Agricultural­Research­and­Development­(TUGEM),­Middle­East­Technical­University,
Food­Engineering­Department,­Turkey­Food­Employers­Syndicate­(TUGIS)­and
MKV­Consultancy­company­are­among­the­project­partners­in­Turkey.­
The­abroad­project­partners­are­Spread­European­Safety­and­Euorocrea­Merchant­Srl­from­Italy,­Hochschule­Niederrhein­from­Germany­and­Cassovia­Life
Sciences­from­Slovakia.
The­findings­to­be­obtained­from­this­study­will­be­also­submitted­to­continuous
usage­of­sector­workers­through­electronic­platform.
In­the­study­to­be­carried­out­in­Turkey,­it­was­aimed­to­review­losses­and
wastages­in­Meat­Products,­Milk­and­Canned­Goods­and­products.­After­the
pre-report­that­was­prepared­with­this­aim,­the­table­to­be­obtained­from­survey
study­done­with­the­producers­and­mutual­interviews­done­with­sector­representatives­will­be­assessed­with­project­partners.
Hereby­we­thank­to­the­sector­representatives­who­share­their­opinions­concerning­to­this­subject­with­us.
The­report­that­is­formed­from­the­findings­and­solution­recommendations­devoted­to­the­subject­will­be­transferred­to­the­sector­representatives­through
the­seminars­to­be­organized­in­different­5­cities­of­Turkey.
Also­the­information­to­be­obtained­as­a­result­of­the­studies­to­be­done­as­relevant­to­this­subject­in­Turkey­and­project­partner­countries­will­be­transferred
to­education­module­to­be­reached­via­electronic­media­to­be­used­in­the­training­of­technical­personnel­who­works­in­this­sector.
Our­object­is­to­make­contribution­to­right­usage­of­the­sources­expensed­in
this­subject­by­decreasing­the­losses­and­wastage­in­our­products.
53
Table 1: Number of the Farmers and % distribution according to dairy cattle
1. MILK and MILK PRODUCTS
1.1. General Status
While milk and milk products industry of Turkey is distributed in primarily
Marmara, Aegean and Mediterranean regions where cowís milk production is
dense, medium and small seize enterprises and especially the ones who assess sheep and goats milk take place in Thrace and Marmara regions. The
small size enterprises that are known as dairy farms almost take place in every
region and some of them make seasonal production. Water buffalo milk is used
in very few enterprises for making yoghurt and clotted cream production.
According to 2013 Turkey Food Inventory report, there are 1.243 enterprises
at which milk enterprising and cheese manufacture is done. But it is seen that
there are 10 companies having 6.6 milliard TL total turnover among 500 big
companies and there is a company having total 1 milliard TL turnover among
2 nd 500 It is estimated that number of the total workers are about 30.000.
1.2 Milk production in Turkey and collection of milks
Milk production in Turkey is done as very scattered and with a different organization and the enterprises are reached through various ways.
There is an important milk production in Turkey. But this production is done
through a structure in which so many small family enterprises are mostly available. The positive perception of social dimension of this may be thought and
as well as it is true that especially the families dealing with agriculture will make
contribution to the revenue of raising a few milk animal, this will bring some
technical problems along with it.
It hardens collection of the milk healthy that there are so many production
points. Bringing these milks to collection centers take time and in cold storage
conditions are not paid attention within this period, acidity of the milks increases.
Against that collection is done for 2 times in summer months, the milks that
are milked at mornings and nights are collected together in the periods when
this is not appropriate.
Number of the
Dairy Cattles
1-5
6-9
10-19
20-49
50-99
100-199
200-499
550+
Total
Number of the
Farmers
701.907
253.776
190.009
85.910
16.204
3.141
783
217
1.250.947
%
56.11
20.11
15.19
6.87
1.3
0.25
0.06
0.02
100
As seen from Table 1, milk production is done with 1.250 947 farmers or
farm. Number of the farmers whose animal number is 1-5 is 701.907 and this
forms 56 11% of total producer amount. The number of producers who have 69 dairy cattle is 253.776 and this forms 20.11% of total farmers’ number.
In summary, the producer number who has less than 10 dairy cattle forms
76 % of total milk producers.
In the cases that producer number is too much and milked animal number
is less, making profitable production gets hardened. An efficient feeding, fighting
against the diseases and birth planning are not at the desired level.
Average milk yield is calculated as 3 tons/year in dairy cattle, 83 kg/year in
the sheep and goats and 1 ton/year in the water buffalos.
Against cooling procedure of the milk that are milked in so many small sized
enterprises is done under insufficient conditions, milk cooling tanks are used in
medium and big sized enterprises. As there is no enough hardware in cooling
the milk, this brings quality losses with it.
Technically it is aimed to store the milk without increasing the microorganisms contaminating the milk during the milking procedure by cooling the milk
down immediately after milking. Within this aim, the milk is leaved from rough
dirt by filtering from cheesecloth and they are taken to the kettle. The milks
needs to be cooled down until they are brought to milk collection centers.
The milks that are put into kettle within this aim in the enterprises are kept
in a flowing water pool and they are cooled. The milks that are brought to milk
collection centers are cooled down up to +4 0C in the cooling tanks and they
are carried to the factories by heat isolated tanks.
Different ways are followed in bringing the milks to the enterprise.
1- The milk that is taken from the farmer is collected into the kettle by inde-
54
55
pendent people known as milk collectors and brought to the milk collection centers that are the milk cooling centers. Then they are sent to the factories or
dairy farms from there.
3- The milks that are produced in the farms are cooled down in the tanks
available in their own facilities after the milking procedure and they are transferred to the factories
4- The milks that are bought from the farmers are collected in definite centers and they are transferred to be sold direct to the consumer as raw milk.
It is estimated that only 40-45% of the milk production is brought to big sized
enterprises and its remaining part is brought to small sized enterprises and sold
as street milk.
As well as health of the animals, also it is required to be paid attention that
the milking is done in accordance with the milking rules and hygiene of the animal breast is paid attention. Especially at the machine milking, not damaging
the breast is also important. After the milking, filtering the milking or exposing
to cheesecloth and bringing it to the enterprises in the shortest time without
breaking the cooling or cooling chain.
Especially in the milks whose microorganism load is very much, quality
losses occur and these milks are not processed to every product. The raw milk
quality and especially milk acidity are important issues in acceptation of the
milk in the UHT and Pasteurized milks. The milks whose acidity is increased
may not be used as they are congealed in the heat treatment.
The first losses in the milk sector are seen as raw milk quality and losses
that occur as bound to that. This is more distinct especially at the milks that are
gained in the hot regions in summer times. There is no any other solution except
for that making a product called as “Çökelek” from the high acidity milks by boiling these milks. This leads to economical losses.
1.3 Milk production and number of the animals that are milked
Table 2: Number of the animals that are milked and milk production (2014)
Type
Native sheep
Merinos sheep
Native goat
Angora goat
Culture cattle
Crossbreed cattle
Native cattle
Water Buffalo
Unit
13.575.321
936.669
4.323.507
77.665
2.411.557
2.404.942
750.675
54.795
Milk (Ton)
1.068.700
44.429
460.641
2.751
9.319.391
6.563.875
984.151
54.687
Source:­TÜ­‹K­2015
2014 year total milk production was 18.498.607 tons.
91.2% of produced milk is cowís milk, 6% of these milks is sheepís milk, 25% of these milks is goatís milk and 0.3% of these milks is water buffaloís milk.
1.4. Productions of some milk products in Turkey
The raw milk production in Turkey per capita was calculated as 238 l/year.
Table 3: 2014 milk products production estimates and productions per capita
Production (ton)
Production per capita (Kg)
Drinking milk: 1.347.785
Cheese: 638.647
Yoghurt: 1.110.907
Ayran drink: 617.000
Butter: 45.203
Milk powder: 80.793
17.34
8.22
14.30
7.94
0.58
1.04
Source:­TGDF­Food­Inventory, 2013
85% of drinking milk production is UHT and remaining 15% is pasteurized
milk.
56
57
1.5. Drinking Milk
1.6. Cheese Production
After making necessary analysis on the milks that are brought to the factory
as raw milk, they are exposed to cleaning separators and filters and then taken
to the tanks after being cooled down. After these milks are separated in accordance with the product groups that they will be processed, the ones that will be
assessed as drinking milk will be exposed to fat separators and their fat ratios
are standardized and then they are adjusted to desired fat level, then they are
exposed to procedure in accordance with pasteurized or sterilized processing
methods and then filled to glass, cartoon or special plastic based sterile boxes
in accordance with the technique and then they are closed.
The aim is here to process and package the milk without any losses. If there
is no any problem at the milk quality, the procedure is completed without having
a coagulation problem.
The waste here is the waste of cleaning separator that are constituted from
milk proteins and fat milk sugar proteins including fatty and very high microorganism and somotic cells that occur at the cleaning stage of raw milk.
The cream that is taken at the standardization of the fat amount available
in the raw milk is kept to be used in the butter production. But an amount of the
milk taken at the beginning and end of the milk production exposed to heat
treatment is not put on sale in terms of security and especially at the final stage
water is given to the systalk and due to possibility of the water to the milk, they
are kept to be used with other aims.
If there are the ones that have cartoon bonding and cap error at the packing
stage, they are separated. These are very few among the daily production.
If heat treatment insufficiency is not problem, a safe production is done. If
heat and heat treatment period insufficiency occurs time to time, swellings defined as bulges occur at these packages and these products occur during the
quarantine period after the production and they may be disposed. But enough
auto-control and safety systalks are available at the modern machines.
Another loss occurs due to that packages of these products are damaged
during handling, storage and sale. The packages may be damaged due to the
reasons such as crushing, forklift crashing, etc. as a result of excessive loading
on the pallets. These products are to be withdrawn from the sale.
The milks that are not sold for averagely 1 week in the pasteurized drinking
milks and for 16 weeks in UHT milks are refunded. As these products are not
suitable for human consumption again, they may be assessed to be used as
animal feed.
It is known that there is approximately 200 cheese types in Turkey. But the
ones those are produced and sold commercially is about 20 types. The most
known and sold one is white cheese and forms nearly half of the cheese production. Kashar cheese and processed cheese follows the white cheese.
There are various cheese types such as Gruyere, Circassia Cheese, Halloumi Cheese, Tulum Cheese, Mozerella, local cheeses Van herby cheese, Erzincan Tulum, Izmir Tulum, Skin Tulum, Mihaliç cheese, Ezine cheese, etc. When
compared with other cheese types, these are produced in some small seized
enterprises at which there is no automation due to that the production amount
is less.
As well as generally pasteurized or raw milk is used in the cheese production, there are cheese types at which curd is boiled. Following the coagulated
in the cheese production, the coagulation is pressed after the slicing procedure
and whey is separated and the whey amount that will stay at the cheese with
the applied press is determined and the remaining is collected as whey.
This whey may include the proteins that are not coagulated with rennet but
may be separated with heat treatment and partially milk sugar (lactose) and
mineral materials and very little fat. In the old methods, these whey is heated
up and a soft coagulation called as “Lor” is collected. Sometimes salt may be
added to that. Approximately less than 1 kg whey cheese is obtained from 100
kg and the remaining whey is thrown. But as this waste includes an amount of
melted milk protein and milk sugar, it causes to environment pollution.
But as whey powder has founded a wide usage field in the food industry in
the recent years, we see that whey powder is used in the demineralized whey
powder and lactose production although it is not produced in our country or in
hydrolized protein production.
The whey is dried at the spray driers in the modern enterprises or sold to
the facilities that have these kinds of units but the curd cheese production is
the only solution as collection is not economic in the small sized or scattered
enterprises.
The white cheese done in the dairies were sold in 17 kg can packages in
the past. Then these cheese were taken from the can packages and sold as
opened, appropriate hygienic conditions were not met during the sale and especially the breakings and scatterings that occurred in the cheese blocks were
decreasing their economical value.
But along with development of packing industry in the recent years, its sale
is widespread in smaller and single cupsor cans. Also packing in the vacuumed
packages has abolished big part of this problem.
After the ripening, they have shelf life up to 1 year.
58
59
1.7. Kashar Cheese
As different from the white cheese production; as the “Curd” obtained by
pressing the coagulation after coagulating the milk with the rennet is subjected
to the heat treatment, a harder and yellowish cheese compared to the white
cheese is obtained. The surface of this cheese is partially salted down and then
left for ripening for 6-8 months under cold conditions. But a similar cheese that
is not ripened and named as fresh kashar has become widespread in the recent
years. It has a softer structure compared to known kashar and it is sold in the
vacuumed packages.
The whey that is obtained in both of the cheese is assessed as stated
below.
In the kashar cheeses that are not packaged under appropriate conditions,
losses occur as the outer shell is thrown during the cleaning due to the mould
development on the surface.
Also losses occur as a result of crushing or package tearing during storage,
transportation and sale. With the aim of preventing this, the packaged products
are kept and handled in the steady packages.
1.8. Processed Cheese
The cheese that is at different ripening periods and ages are subjected to
heat treatment in special closed systalks and under vacuum and they are reshapened. This cheese has forms that are expellable or elidible in the blocks.
But the widespread one is the ones that are sold in the plastic cheese hoops
and as it over closed with a folio. Also triangular shaped packages are very
widespread. Processed cheese production is the way of reassessing healthily
some cheese types that have shape deformities in some aspects.
1.9. Yoghurt
filled into the packages and then left for incubation at approximately 40 0C in
the special rooms or cabinets (named as incubation). After formation of the coagulation, they are cooled down appropriately and then kept until the delivery.
It is required that the cold chain will not be broken within the time from transportation, sale and to the consumption.
If the milk fat is left as it is after the standardization, unskimmed yogurt is
obtained and this fat forms a film on the yoghurt surface. The diameter of the
fat globes available in the milk that has been exposed to the devices at which
special pressured pumps are available (homogenizator) gets smaller and the
yoghurt significantly losses its feature for forming a film on its surface and does
not form a fat film on its surface These kinds of yoghurts are named as homogenized or unskimmed yoghurt
The drained yoghurts form yoghurts that have high protein and fat content
as a result of partially separating the yoghurt water (serum) by processing it in
accordance with the technique.
The fruit yoghurts are the yoghurts that may include naturally colored fruit
puree or parts and partially sugar or sweetening agent and some functional additives added.
The shelf life of the classic yoghurts is generally limited with 1-2 weeks. This
period may be longer for the fruit and condensed yoghurts.
The losses that may be seen at the yoghurts occur mostly during the transportation and sale stages and occur due to damage of the packages. The products that are not sold during their shelf period is accepted as refund. At the
yoghurts that are produced in the small sized enterprises or not produced under
hygienic conditions, some yeast and moulds that are contaminated from the
environment may occur on the yoghurt surface and then taste of the yoghurt
deteriorates and this prevents their sales.
1.10. Ayran Drink
Yoghurt is very important fermented milk product for Turkey. Due to its consumption is very wide, it is produced in every enterprise. Widely, cowís milk that
is pasteurized in the production and whose fat ratio is standardized is used. In
some small and medium sized enterprises, sheep, goat and water buffalo milks
is solely used or produced by mixing with the cowís milk.
In the recent years, fruit yoghurt has been increasingly given place as well
as the yoghurt types such as unskimmed, fat homogenized, condensed yoghurt.
After cooling the milk that has been pasteurized in the classical yoghurt production down up to 42 0C, the yoghurt bacteria (yoghurt yeast) is added and
It is a milk fermented milk product that is unique to Turkey. It is also manufactured in some countries where Turkish population is dense in abroad. But
there are some differenced in their contents.
In the classic ayran drink production that is done in Turkey, yoghurt and
water at definite amounts are mixed and also includes a few amount of salt. In
some techniques, the milk is homogenized after standardizing the dry material
and fat. It is inoculated with yoghurt culture and after the fermentation is finished
at the desired place, it is filled in the packages and kept in cold.
The ayran drinks are packaged in tetra pak, glass bottle or plastic based
bottles and the losses that may occur are that the products sour due to damage
of packages of the distributed products or not being stored in cold places or
that the products are not sold within their shelf periods.
60
61
1.11. Cream and Butter
The excessive milk butter is taken during standardization of raw milk. This
mixture that includes about 66% fat is called as milk cream. After heating procedure, an amount of serum also separated and the product that is rich in terms
of gained fat is named as “Clotted cream”.
The cream that is gained from raw milk after pasteurizing culture is added
to butter to give aroma and it is incubated. Then it is subjected to churning procedure, the serum (buttermilk) is separated and the one that includes approximately 82% milk fat is called as the “Butter”. At some local productions, the
clotted cream that is taken from yoghurt with the milk cream is also used.
The serum that occur during butter churning procedure is called as buttermilk and this butter aromatized by-product that includes partial fat is available
in some places or it may be consumed by mixing with buttermilk drink.
Even if cream and butter seem durable microbiologically due to its high fat
content, they are not safe as to be assumed due to that they include water. With
prevention of molding, they are to be packaged absolutely under good conditions and they are to be kept in cold. Also sour tasting based on oxidation is
widely seen and this leads to losses during sale stage.
2. MEAT AND PRODUCTS
2.1. General Status
The meat sector is collected under two main groups as red meat and poultry.
Processed chicken sector was also reviewed in the project except for poultry
livestock rising and hen poultry.
In the poultry meat sector, also advanced processed chicken products were
taken into hand as well as slaughterhouse and parted chicken products.
As well as the poultry sector covers chicken, turkey, goose and duck, goose
and duck has not become an industry product in Turkey yet due to insufficiency
of the consumer requests. As well as the turkey products draw attraction as a
meat product whose production has been increased in the recent years, this
form 4% of total poultry meat.
Table 4 : Existence of poultry animals
1.12. Milk Powder
There are two different milk powders as fat milk and fat free milk. Its production is commercially done by spray drying or rolls drying techniques. Due to
that solubility feature of the spray milk powder is too much, it is also used in
the yoghurt and baby foods as well as the drinks. The ones that are dried with
roll drying method is preferred at milk powder, chocolate and biscuit production.
The production wastages are very low that may not be neglected in the milk
powder. During the drying procedure, a loss other than the ones that are stuck
on hot surfaces and the ones that are burned are not expected. If the milk powder that is packaged in the paper bags after the production is kept in the hot
places, taste deformations as a result of the oxidation in the fat milk powders
within a short period may be seen.
62
CHICKEN
TURKEY
Years ­­­­­­­­­­­­Slaughtered Animal ­­­­­­­­­­­Produced Meat­(Ton) ­­­­Slaughtered Animal­­­­­­­­Produced Meat­(Ton)
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
843.987.793
963.245.455
1.047.782.683
1.060.673.395
1.090.742.317
1.444.059
1.613.309
1.723.918
1.758.362
1.864.668
3.656.578
4.043.525
4.764.322
4.574.443
5.174.055
31.965
36.331
41.930
39.627
48.662
Source:­TÜ‹K­2015
Egg production in Turkey had reached 17.145.389.000 in 2014 from
11.840.369.000 in 2010 and had reached 10th rank in the world.
The chicken meat is at 1st rank in the Europe and 8th rank in the world.
The egg consumption per capita is 220/years. The egg has also become
an important export item. Its usage has been increased in the industry. It is used
in the biscuit and cake production and also pasteurized egg has usage in the
both industry and collective consumption.
63
Table 5: Meat production with slaughtered bovine animal and sheep number
in Turkey
­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Slaughtered­Animal ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Produced­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Slaughtered­Animal­­­­­­­Produced­Meat
­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Cattle ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Meat­(Ton) ­­­­­­­­­­­­Sheep ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Meat­(Ton)
2010
2.602.246
618.583
6.873.626
135.687
2011
2.571.765
644.905
5.479.546
107.076
2012
2.791.034
799.344
4.541.122
97.334
2013
3.430.723
869.291
4.958.226
102.942
2014
3.712.281
881.998
5.197.289
98.977
Also 525 tons meat was gained from 2.176 water buffalo and 26.769 tons
meat was obtained from 1.570.239 goats in 2014.
According to official statistics in Turkey, camel and pork slaughter is not
done.
2014 was the year ay which more than 1 million red meat production was
done for the first time compared to the past years. 87.47% of this produced
1.008.261 tons was beef meat, 9.81% of these meats was sheepís meat, 2.65%
of these meats was goatís meat and 0.07% of these meats was water buffalo
meat.
2014 year population of Turkey was 77.695.904. According to that annual
red meat consumption per capita was approximately 13 kg. The white meat
consumption per capita was 24 kg chicken and 0.626 kg turkeyís meat. Total
meat consumption was 37.6 kg/year.
The meat products that are known as charcuterie are sold in so many small
sized and local enterprises, groceries and markets as well as big sized enterprises.
With the new amendment that has been done on the legislation concerning
to the meat and meat products, fermented sausage and meatball production
will not be done in the groceries.
It is estimated that the charcuterie products are 60.000 tons in total. It is
estimated that 30.000 tons of these are fermented sausage, 15.000 tons of
these is sausage, 12.000 tons of these is salami, 3.000 tons of these is jambon,
roasted and smoked meat.
Also it is estimated that burger meatballs among the meatball products of
frozen meats are 20.000 tons. Ready to be consumed rotary production is another meat product. As there is too much and scattered meat production, the
data are based on estimations.
Among rank of biggest companies in Turkey, there are 14 companies processing meat and meat products among first 500 companies. 2013 year
turnovers of these companies were more than 8 Milliard Turkish Liras. There
64
are 10 companies having total 1.2 milliard TL turnover among 2 nd 500 big
companies. According to Food Inventory 2013, 46 of 452 companies that carry
business in the meat sector in Turkey process and store poultry meats. When
company turnovers are taken into consideration, there are 202 companies that
process and store red meat. Approximately 40.000 employees work in the poultry and red meat sector (TGDF Food Inventory 2013).
2.2. Processing of the Poultry
The poultry sector includes an integrated organization. This organization
covers the hatchery and egg production, chicken raising poultry houses, slaughterhouse, slicing and packaging, advanced processed products (feed facilities
and rendering units as well as the rotary, pane products and sausage, salami,
etc products).
The chickens that are brought to the slaughterhouses from the poultry farms
are slaughtered in the modern facilities and in accordance with the technique.
Daily slaughter amount in most of the facilities are 300.000 and more than that.
The chickens are left as whole chicken or sliced to the parts such as leg,
wing, chest and they are weighed after being packaged and then they are
stored in cold to be sold.
The chicken livers and giblets are assessed as offals and some products
such as chest and filet are sold after removing their skins. Therefore the skins
that are removed may be assessed as protein source at some products.
After processing the feet, they are sold to the far eastern countries as frozen
products.
Also rotary, salami, sausage and some foods with chicken may be also produced as advanced processed chicken products.
The bone and unused parts are assessed in meat-bone flour facilities to be
used as animal feed.
2.3. Processing the red meat
The red meat production in Turkey is assessed as fresh or meat products.
The factories slaughter the live animals that they raise in their own farms or
they purchase in the slaughterhouse after their health controls are done and
the skin, head, feet and internal organs carcass are cooled down and then they
are taken to the slicing department.
The carcass meats are parted here by specially trained butchers. The parts
of the carcass that are desired for fresh, frozen or packaged meat are parted
as with bones or without bones and then packaged.
The fats are separately collected and stored to be used in the meat prod65
ucts. Offal, intestines and tripe among the internal organs may be assessed in
the domestic market. The skins are separately sold. The wastes such as bones
and horns are done bone flour and then used as animal feed.
The most common ones of meat products are fermented sausage, salami,
sausage, bacon, rotary or meatball.
By using salt, spices and some functional additives according to technique
and recipe, these products are obtained.
With the aim of not losing during the slicing from a precious raw material
such as meat, the butchers who take duty here are to be the persons who have
received a good training and know the animal anatomy and meat parts to be
used very well. Here the important thing is to parting the precious and expensive
parts of the animal and mixing these parts with other parts that are less expensive.
The shelf life of the products varies according to product types. Therefore
the real losses occur at the sale stage. Protection of the cold chain is important.
But the losses may occur due to storage sale and handling stages. The losses
of heat treated meat products are lesser compared to the fermented ones. Especially with the development of packing technique, the losses that may occur
after the production are minimized in these enterprises that apply these packing
applications.
The products that are not sold within their shelf periods are collected by the
producers. As it is not appropriate to sell these products as human food, they
are given to the zoos with the aim of feeding the animals or left to the nature at
the controlled places for wild animals in winter times.
Another application is providing a fast sale and consumption for the products whose expiry dates are close by applying a promotion especially in the supermarkets.
One part of the by-products that occur at red meat and poultry slaughter
may be eaten and some part of these may not be consumed as human food.
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Table 6: % of the by-products according to live weight in the cattle and
sheep
Cattle (%)
Carcass
Blood
Fatty tissue
Skin
Internal organs
Head
Feet
Tail
Brain
63
18
4
6
7
2
0.1
0.1
Sheep (%)
62.5
2.4
3
15
10
2
2.6
Source:­FA­O
The ones that occur as by-products have an important nutritional value. It
includes amino acids, minerals, vitamins and fatty acids. The water amount inside the blood and internal organs are much more than meat. There are much
more carbohydrate in the liver and kidneys. The collagen amount available in
the liver, tail, ears and feet is high.
There are less protein in the brain compared to other products and meat.
The amino acid composition in the meat by-products is different from meat. It
includes much more connective tissue than meat. There are proline, hydroxyproline and glycine available in the ears, lungs and rumen. Tryptophan and triocine is less. The vitamin is much more than unfatty meats.
Kidney and liver include so much riboflavine. This is 5-10 times more than
meat. Liver is a good source for niacin, Vit 12 and Vita A. There are polyunsaturated fatty acids in so many organs.
As well as the blood will be used by adding it to the feeds, it may be also
used as emulsifier and stabilizer and coloring for medical studies. As the blood
plasma increases foam stability, it gives a reaction that is close to white of the
egg. It is used in the preparation of the feeding place for the microbiological
studies.
It is used at leather, gelatin and zamk production as well as the confection
(leather jacket, shoe, etc.) Also it is used the collagen sausage sleeves.
Also rennet (chimozin) is obtained from sheep omasum.
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Table 7: By-products in poultry slaughter
Father
Head
Blood
Giblets
Fat
Feet
Internal organs
%
Usage place
7-8
2.5-3.0
3.2-3.7
3.5-3.7
3.5-4.0
3.5-4.0
8.5-9.0
Fertilizer, textile
Feed
Feed
Chitinolytic enzyme
Broth, fat
Broth, fat, frozen
Feed and enzyme production
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3. FRUIT and VEGETABLE CANNING
3.1. General Status
Turkey has an important variety and production amount in the fruit and vegetable production. As well as that agricultural production is done in nearly whole
of the country, the canning industry aims to store the fruits and vegetables by
canning them in the periods when their production is much more and it takes
place in agricultural production centers due to that it is a degradable raw material. Therefore Marmara and Aegean regions draw attraction as the regions
where the canning factories processing fruit and vegetable are dense when it
is geographically reviewed. As well as that, also there are companies that produce fruit juice concentrate and supply raw material to the fruit juice factories
in Mediterranean region, Central Anatolia and Eastern Anatolia region. Especially apple, apricot, pomegranate and sour cherry and citrus pulp fruits are
processed in these facilities.
Fruit vegetable canning is done in so many small and a few medium and
big sized enterprises. As well as fruit vegetable canning, there are also 3 companies that produce fruit juice among 500 companies of Turkey. There are a
few companies as primarily tomato tomato paste in the supermarket shelves.
The brands of 5-6 big companies including the pickle production are known in
the canning production. Although there are approximately 5 tomato paste
brands in Turkey, most of these take place in the local markets and groceries
and they are sold in the bazaar regionally.
The canned fruit and vegetables that are packaged in the cans and glass
jars assess regional productions naturally. Mainly tomato paste and pepper
paste rank the firsts in these kinds of productions.
The canned fruits are sold in pastry sector with peach, apricot and sour
cherry produced in composte or sugar syrups or some collective consumption
places. Jam is other storage way of the fruits. As well as home production, it is
produced in the factories. The jam production in Turkey is a little different from
the production known in Europe and it is formed from the fruits as whole (sour
cherry, raspberry, etc.), segmented (apricot), sliced or parted (peach, orange
peel) inside the high density sugar syrup.
The canned fruits are manly based on Peas, Okra, mixed vegetables (eggplant, zucchini, peppers, beans and tomatoes) and sometimes it is regionally
69
seen that the vegetables such as (cow pea and artichoke) are processed.
The cucumber and pepper canings that are fermented or used as raw material have a wide production field.
Although there are such production varieties, it is seen that development of
canning sector is completed and it has been giving its place to the processing
techniques such as fresh consumption and partially freezing.
The fresh vegetable and fruit is not produced in only known seasons but
also they are produced on mainly nylon covers that are known are undercover
and greenhouses primarily Aegean and Mediterranean regions.
Especially due to information deficiency, the perception of that additives are
used in the canning production is also effective in that.
Turkey has a wide fruit variety. As well as apple, pear, quince, citrus, plum,
it also has kiwi and banana production. Except for the fruits that are raised in
the tropical regions, there are microclimate regions that are appropriate for so
many fruit rising.
3.2. Tomato Paste
The tomato production in Turkey is approximately 12 million tons. An important part of this is consumed as fresh. But tomato paste forms the biggest
production of canning industry. Frozen tomato and dried tomato is another storage and assessment methods.
Table 8: Fresh tomato production in Turkey
Years
Production (Ton)
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
10.052.000
11.003.433
11.350.000
11.820.000
11.850.000
ages and a few ones are into glass jar and very few of them is put into cartoon
(Tetra Pak) packages.
In the tomato sauce production, generally there are two different production
types. As well as that preparation of raw material is same, there are heat treatment and package differences.
Table 9: Procession stages of tomato paste
HARVEST (Machine or Hand)
REAPING
TRANSPORTATION
WEIGHING / DISCHARGING TO THE POOL
WASHING
SELECTING
WASHING
CRUSHING SIEVING
WORT TANK
EVAPORATION
TOMATO PASTE TANK
HEAT TREATMENT
FILLING
CLOOSING
COOLING
STORAGE
3.2.1. Harvest
Source:­GTHB­Sources
An important part of tomato production is consumed as fresh. The amounts
that are used for tomato sauce varies according to the years and it is about to
1.800.000 tons. Averagely 300.000 tons tomato paste is produced and 220.000340.000 tons production is done according to the years.
Tomato paste production is done by heating up to 120 C at 45-55 C as sterile that is called as aseptic according to production technology or by heating
up to 92 C as hot filling and then it is cooled down. 1/3 of this production is put
into aseptic packages and most of the remaining ones are put into can pack-
70
After control of the tomatoes (dry material and color) that are harvest ripening is done, the harvesting procedure is started. At the harvest, appropriate varieties are used and this is also done through machine as soon as the cropland
completes its ripening. It is compulsory that the land structure and bigness is
to be appropriate for machine agriculture in this systalk. In these units that make
machine harvesting, the separation procedure is done according to the determined colors and especially the ones that are green colored are left in the cropland. As well as that varies according to harvest time and variety of the products
that are planted, this leads to 3-10% losses. Cultivating new products at the
same season from cropland plants is not possible. The mechanical damage is
less at the harvested tomatoes but also a large amount of soil is also brought
to the factory along with the factory. Therefore a large amount of sand and soil
is sunk to the bottom of washing and discharging pools in these kinds of harvests. The sands entering through the tomatoes are required to be removed
with appropriate systalks after gaining the tomato order. The machining harvest
71
has been increasingly widened due to that it brings a cost advantage compared
hand harvesting. The tomatoes that are harvested are loaded to the directly
trailers or trucks and then transported to the factories.
Hand machining has been increasingly going away from being economic due
to that the same cropland is entered for harvesting for 3 times and all procedures
are done through hand. But as the harvesting is done based on eye and hand control, the green tomato amount is less in case the harvesting is not done carefully.
The harvested tomatoes are transferred to the trailers or trucks with the
cases and baskets and then they are transferred to the factories.
The smashes and losses occur during loading to the trailers and trucks on
the tomatoes that are transported to the factory and this lead to quality problems
and production losses. The tomato paste season in Turkey generally extends
from end of the July to the first weeks of October and varies regionally. The season generally extends 60-75 days and rarely 90 days. The harvesting period
firstly starts at south and continues towards the northern regions.
The tomatoes are supplied from the farmers who make contracted farming
or free farming. Especially at the contracted farming, completely ripened and
less damaged by the diseased products are obtained due to that fertilization
and disinfection are controlled by the factory and harvesting is planned and
then these products are transported through 4.000 kg trailers. It is provided that
the mechanical damages will be less and the excessive amounts at the trailers
and transportation distance increase the losses and the losses occur due to
the smashes and flow of tomato waters. Also keeping these tomatoes waiting
for so long time in the factories leads to mouldings and thrown away of the
tomatoes that will be used in the sauce production. This situation is more clearly
seen especially in 20 tons and eve n 26 tons tomatoes trucks.
Especially in the seasons when raw material is insufficient or with the hurry
of carrying out a season end production plan, the factories make tomato purchases from distant regions. Even they make tomato purchases far away from
500 km. In this case, the aforementioned problems occur. Especially the
smashes and losses that occur during the transportation of the tomatoes at the
end of harvesting period will be increased.
Generally approximately 3% loss occurs at the transportation of the tomatoes. But as stated, the losses up to 10% are seen in some trucks at the end of
the season and during excessive ripening period.
The tomato trucks that come to the factory are desired to be taken to the
production within 4-6 hours. This is possible in the enterprises that make a good
harvesting and transportation planning and whose contracted purchases are
much more. But especially in the enterprises that works unplanned or the
tomato trucks that arrive to the factories late due to unplanned intervals as a
result of the technical problems should not be waited for more than 24 hours.
In these cases, the tomato waters that flow from the trucks are seen. This is
problem for both loss and environment. Especially the fruit sugar available in
the tomato waters is very attractive for clubs and similar flies.
After careful controls of the tomatoes that are transported to the factories
via trailers and trucks are done, they accepted to the factories and discharged
to the water pools from the trucks. If pressurized water is used, the tomatoes
are parted and these leads to losses. The tomatoes that are taken to the pool
are transported to the water channels and taken to the cleaning and selection
bands. The tomatoes that are and smashed and stalks and leaves, green colored tomatoes are sorted by works who work on these bands as well as the
molded or blossom end rot. In the enterprises that work with good raw materials,
these losses are less than 1%. Any of these tomatoes that are separated on
the selection band has no any economical value. They are assessed as rubbish
in general. The molded tomatoes are not used as animal feed.
The tomatoes that are determined in accordance with the production are
washed under clean water with the help of upper nozzles while these tomatoes
are rolling on the bands.
72
73
3.2.2. Crushing
The tomatoes that are subjected to selecting procedure is divided to 1 cm3
or smaller pieces and then they are send to the departments called as sieve or
pulper to be separated from their skins and seeds.
The processing method is done in two different ways in accordance with
the entry temperature to the sieve and heating method.
After crushing, the paste that are done in the systalks increasing temperature of the crushed tomato over 85 C are called as HOT BREAK. If this heat is
65-70 C and this is provided with pre heaters, this is called as COLD BREAK.
The sauces that are Hot Break is more appropriate for ketchup or tomato paste
manufacture and serum separation does not occur in the stocking.
3.2.3. Pulper / Sieve
The crushed tomatoes are pulped while passing through 2 or 3 staged
sieves that have 0.6-1.00 mm holes and skins and seeds of the tomatoes are
removed and discharged from a special discharge channel of the machine. Approximately 2.5 of parted tomato amount are separated as skin and seed and
they are taken to tomato juice tank.
This waste is used as animal feed. It includes fruit sugar and fiber. Also fat
and protein available in the kernels are very important. But completely assessing the seed in the digestion, its being crushed will be useful. But this procedure
is not applied in the practical. Therefore it may be said that a complete benefit
is get from the nutritional value in the animal feeding.
As well as that these wastes may be given to the animals as wet, they are
used in a longer season by making silage.
3.2.4. Stock tank
The tomato juice that is obtained is stored in a tank and after making its
quality control, they are sent to the evaporators with the aim of increasing
solved dry material that is approximately 4-5%.
3.2.5. Evaporation
While the evaporators increases solved dry material available in the tomato
paste to the desired dry material ratio at the low vacuum and temperature, it
minimizes color and taste losses and these are the systalk that are operated in
closed environment. The sauces are produced as the products whose dry material amount is 28-30 Bx or 36-38 Bx commercially. +24 Bx is used at puree types.
These machines operates without giving break for 24 hours and generally
for 7 days and even for a longer period and they are washed with CIP systalk
for forming obstructions due to burnings occur at the pipes inside it. An amount
of tomato paste is thrown away at this stage.
The losses within the period from evaporation to the storage procedure are
1%. These losses are the swellings seen in the cans and aseptic packages due
to the gas formations seen at defective heat treated sauces as well as defective
closings due to machine breaks, smashes and the cooling tunnel and break of
the glass packages.
The colleps occur at the boxes done by using especially thin plates or soft
can plates due to smash of the cans on the pallets during storage, missing filling
or too much vacuum. In these cases, the losses are formed by the products
that are returned back by the consumer even if there is no problem in the tomato
paste. Also at the boxes that are stored under the humid conditions or the rusts
as a result of lac striping due to the defective rollers used in the cap closing
also increase the refund.
The refunds are seen up to 0.1% at the can packages that are transferred
to the sale. The refunds are about 0.5%. The aseptic tomato paste are used industrially and they are less than 0.002.
3.3. Production stages of vegetable canning
Without adding any additive in the tomato paste that reaches at the desired
dry material (Brix) in the evaporators, the tomato paste is taken to the intermediate tanks to start the heat treatment and if hot filling will be done, the tomato
paste is heated up to 90-92 0C and thereby it is pasteurized and the placed in
the can boxes or bottles and they are closed. The vacuum controls are done
and subjected to the showers until they are cooled down the ambient temperature and they are palletized.
If needed, labeling is done. The information such as production date, lot
number, etc. is pressed on the label or cap and then it is stored.
If the sauces will be packaged aseptically, the sauces that come from evaporators are taken to the intermediate tanks after quality controls are done and
sent to the stabilizers with pipes through pressurize pumps and they are heated
up to 118 0C and after keeping at this temperature, they are cooled down and
filled in the aseptic bags under sterile conditions and closed with sterile caps.
85 gr, 170 gr, 380 gr, 850 gr and 4500 gr net filling is common at cans and
(28-30 Bx) 380 gr ,520 gr, 780 gr are common at glass bottles.
In the aseptic fillings, 28-30 Bx and 36-38 Bx produced tomato paste is
used. These tomato paste are used in ketchup and tomato paste production or
used for filling in the can or glass bottles.
There are all kinds of canning such as canned peas, beans and okra and
boiled legumes and cucumber prickles as canned vegetables in our country.
The jams and canned fruits may be also said as well as the convenience foods
such as ready meals and stuffed vine leaves.
Some similar procedures are done after the harvest during production
stages of the canned vegetables. These are removing shells of the peas, cutting
the edges of the beans and removing awns and cutting the edges of the okras.
The procedure for removing the shells of peas is done at the machines
(thrasher). Approximately 1 kg shelled peas is gained from 2 kg peas that is
harvested with stalk and approximately 500 gr peas are gained from that. The
green parts that are obtained (bean shells, stalks and leaves) are assessed as
animal feed or fertilizer by being left in the soil.
For transportation saving, this procedure has been done in the croplands
instead of the factories in recent year and therefore it is provided that they are
directly used without being brought to the factory and deterioration. The peas
are transferred to the factories in appropriate caps and without being and use
for canning or or processed as frozen products.
The edges and hard parts of the beans available in side of these beans
(awns) are cut with the help of special machines and cleaned and then they
are prepared to the production by cutting them into 2 or 3 pieces.
The losses here are about 7-10%.
The stalks and hard parts of the okras are cut with the help of a knife and
hand. The cutting and humidity loss may reach up to 18%.
All kinds of canned products are used with zucchini, eggplant, green beans,
74
75
3.2.6. Heat Treatment
okra, tomatoes and peppers mixtures. Within this aim, the shells of the eggplant
are peeled at the rate of 2/3 and zucchini, tomato and pepper are used as sliced
and green beans are used as cut and okra is used as whole.
The aforementioned vegetables are boiled for a few minutes in the boiling
water around 90 0C and partially damage of the enzymes are provided and
then they are put in the can or glass bottles and added to hot pickled (salty
water) and they are closed following the deaeration and placed on the autoclaves for heat treatment.
By taking the factors such as product type, ripening, package size, etc. into
consideration, they are sterilized at the heats up to 120 C. They are cooled
down. If enough sterilization temperature and period is not reached, deformations that will show itself such as swellings are seen. This is approximately 1%.
Also physical smashes at the cans and glass breaks may be seen due to missing filling, high vacuum or fast cooling may be seen. Total of these losses are
less than 0.5%.
Colleps may be seen at the cans during the handling and storing stages.
They are not preferred and purchased by the consumers. As lac breaks will
occur at the smashed cans, rust may be seen on the surfaces in the long term.
Annual 40.000 tons peas, 12-15.000 tons green beans and 5-6.000 tons
mixed vegetable are produced in Turkey.
An important increase is not seen in the canned product production. Fresh
consumption and frozen vegetables has been increasingly taking the place of
canned products. Similar developments occur in so many countries within
years.
As well as that it is highly sold in the domestic market, sliced pepper canning
is produced especially for exportation. The peppers that are separated from
their seeds and stalks within this aim is sliced in strips and by sometimes adding
vinegar to the pickled into other canning, the canning is obtained. Approximately
15% waste is formed with seed and stalk clean within this procedure.
Canning is obtained from chickpeas, white beans and dried red beans due
to economization from cooking period and easily preparation.
Jams are prepared from the fruits such as strawberry, sour cherry, raspberry,
etc. inside a high sugar concentrate as whole and puree and they give 1% outage at the stage of separating the stalks from strawberry and raspberry and
12% waste from the procure separating the stalk and seeds from sour cherries.
The apricots are used as whole or half piece and peaches are used as
sliced or in cube and as a result of coring and peeling, 20-25% waste occur at
the apricots and approximately 15% waste occurs depending on the fruit sizes.
Usages of orange peel that are cuts in cubes are common for oranges.
It is known that packaged jam sale in Turkey is about 30.000 tons.
76
3.4. Production stages of fruit canning
Mostly peach, apricot and sour cherry are used as fruit canning. Consumption of canning fruits is aimed in the pastry sector. The pear, mandarin, grapefruit, apple, pineapple, mango and some tropical fruits and grape are used for
both industry and home consumption.
The fruits selected within this aim are washed and kernels are cored according to fruit types and then they are peeled sliced and generally put into can
or glass bottles inside a slight sugar syrup and then pasteurized, cooled down
and stored.
The losses that may occur here are as the ones in other canning types.
The fruit and vegetable sector that is storage after being frozen has been
increasing year by year. Within this aim, preparation of the fruits and vegetables
are as in the canning sector. The losses that may occur at raw material preparation are similar. But at the coring procedure of the sour cherry seed, there will
be 5% fruit juice loss except for seed. Block freezing (in the cases) or indivitual
quick freezing (lqf) methods are applied for the freezing procedures.
In this production technique, freezing burns or staining may occur on the
surfaces. These products are separated as outage. Also color changes may be
seen at the colorful fruits and vegetables such as strawberry, tomatoes and
pepper based on the time in terms of storage of the frozen products.
Also quality losses may be seen due to physical deformations as a result
of that the products stored or on the shelves are melted and then frozen again
because of the electricity power cuts and formation of ice crystals on the products.
3.5. Fruit juice concentrate production
Fruit juice concentrate is one of other storage methods. In the recent years,
the fruit juice is directly made stable (NFC) and preferred for storage in orange
and apple juices instead of concentrate.
The fruits that are taken for fruit concentrate are extracted in accordance
with the relevant technique and separated from the fruits. The juice that is obtained is directly subjected to heat treatment or sent to evaporator to be concentrated. After reaching appropriate (Brix) value, it is taken to the aseptic or
appropriate packages.
One kg orange concentrate (65 Bx) is approximately 18-20 kg orange is
used and its yield is about 50-55%. In other words, approximately half of the
orange is separated as pulp and this amount is assessed as animal feed in our
country.
Approximately 5-5.7 kg apple is used in the apple concentrate (72 Bx) and
77
approximately 4-5 kg fruit is used at the sour cherry (65 Bx) is used for sour
cherry concentrate. Peach and apricot is generally prepared at 22-24 Bx or desired lower bxs and processed aseptically. Approximately 3-4 kg fruit is used.
Apple pulp is a precious animal feed. But peach kernel and apricot kernel
may be used with cosmetic purposes and as well as that apricot kernel may be
used as snack. The sour cherry stalks has a limited usage in the drug industry
and hard kernels are used as fuel for some ovens and stoves in some regions.
Table 10 : Some fruit types and amounts that are produced in Turkey.
(TUIK 2014)
Fruit Type
Production (ton)
Grape
Apple
Orange
Olive
Mandarin
Lemon
Peach
Pear
Apricot
Banana
Grapefruit
Sour Cherry
4.175.536
2.480.444
1.779.675
1.768.000
1.044.844
608.513
462.336
270.000
265.490
252.000
229.595
182.557
78
4. LOSSES and WASTAGES in the FOOD INDUSTRY
4.1. General Assessment
According to production sources, the food is the products that are made resistant and appropriate for the consumption by drying, freezing or applying heat
treatment procedure according to raw material or technique of the animal based
raw materials such as meat, milk and egg or herbal based raw materials such
as fruit and vegetables.
These products are subjected to some losses during handling, storing, processing of these products starting from the harvest period, transportation to the
consumer, storage and sales stages and consumption starting from obtaining
these products or harvesting period.
And as a result of that, the degradations that will prevent its usage as human
food will occur and they are run to waste or they are thrown away as they are
preferred by the consumers. The value that is lost here is not animal or herbal
food, but also the energy, time and money that are spent within this process
from obtaining these products to transportation to the consumers are lost.
Also if these issues are taken into consideration that the lands at which
herbal production is done has been decreasing day by day, animal production
has been getting hard, the energy sources used for the production has been
started to consumed away or their cost has been increased, the environmental
pollution occurred along with the production has been increasing and there are
millions of people who are still living under the hunger limit in the world or not
able to get enough nutrition, it is clear that the concerns concerning to these
wastages and losses is not only limited with this product.
Therefore how wastages and losses in the food occur and how these will
be prevented is not a subject that will be put forth and solved with a research.
This problem may be defined as a problem that changes shape with the industrialization, gains new dimensions according to habits of the community and
changes in time and lives. Due to that the problem shows continuity, it is required that the solutions that have been found will be reviewed in time.
In the research that was done by FAO and published in 2011, it was stated
that Food Wastage and Losses had a different relation with product, country or
conditions and development of the region. Being a country that has been de79
veloping or developed country decreases wastage and losses in the foods but
it is seen that this has changed the stage that it forms.
The losses that generally occur at the consumer and consumption stages
in the countries that are developed and that have been developing occur at the
production, processing and storing stages in the countries that are less developed and against that these losses are decreased at the consumption stage.
This situation may be interpreted as that development of the production
techniques in the developed countries decreases the losses in the foods with
the increase of the opportunities available in the storing and handling conditions
as a result of the positive point that they have came about agriculture and animal breeding but the wastage has been increased due to that the consumer
prefers are much more sensitive.
It is also assessed by the consumer that the produced products do not conform to the standards.
Also habits of the consumers and increase of some concerns concerning
to the health lead to wastage. Especially for example; not consuming some
parts of the fruits and vegetables or the fatty or skin and similar parts of the animal products and the products such as offals having a nutritional value due to
the cultural reasons affect the wastage.
As stated, wastages and losses occur in every product and countries.
While 280-300 kg/year food per capita wasted in North America, this value
is 120-130 kg/year in Central Africa and Southern and Southeastern Asia countries. This is equal to 1/3 of the total production of the products that are produced per person in these regions.
The food wastage in the developed countries is 40% times more than the
developed countries. These wastages occur at the consumption stage.
When it is taken into hand in accordance with the product groups, the losses
in the products that are produced from cereals and cereal products is higher
compared to other food groups. Some diseases that occur on the cereals in
this group is higher than the losses in the developing countries due to insufficiency of harvesting and storing conditions.
Table 11: Loss and wastage in the cereals
Countries ­­­­­Production­­­­Harvest/Storing ­­­­­­Processing/Packing­­­­­­­­­­Distribution/Sale­­­­­­Consumption
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2
2
2
6
6
6
6
4
2
10
8
8
7
4
0.5-10
0.5 -10
0.5-10
3.5
2-7
3.5
2-7
2
2
9
2
4
2
4
25
27
10
1
12
3
10
Struggling with harmful and diseases at the production period of the cereals,
protection from the harmful after the harvesting, improving the storing conditions
and development of the sales channels decrease the losses. But the losses increased up to 27% in Russia and North America countries while the losses that
occur at the consumption stage in the regions where low income groups are
dense are lesser and regresses to 3%.
Table 12: Loss and wastage in the fruits and vegetables
Countries ­­­­­Production­­­­Harvest/Storing ­­­­­­Processing/Packing­­­­­­­­­­Distribution/Sale­­­­­­Consumption
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
20
20
10
10
17
15
20
5
4
8
9
10
9
10
2
22
2
25
20
25
20
10
12
8
17
15
10
12
25
27
10
1
12
3
10
The losses at the production stage of produced fruits and vegetables are
10-20%. The difference is resulted from product types. The losses vary due to
post-harvesting, storing and handling conditions, sensitive structures of the
fruits, cold storage depots and similar storage opportunities.
Especially in the packing houses at which the products such as citrus, apple,
kiwi are processed, losses occur due to the non-standard products during standardization and packing. But the most of these wastages increases according
to selectivity of the consumers in the developed countries.
80
81
Table 13: Loss and wastage in the meat products
4.2. Prevention of Losses and astage in the Foods
Countries ­­­­­Production­­­­Harvest/Storing ­­­­­­Processing/Packing­­­­­­­­­­Distribution/Sale­­­­­­Consumption
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
3.1
3.5
2.9
15
6.6
5.1
5.3
0.7
1
0.6
0.7
0.2
0.3
1.1
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
6
7
5
7
5
11
11
8
2
8
4
6
The carcass or red meats after slaughter of the meat animals are to be kept
and transported at the cold conditions. Otherwise deterioration and deformation
occur in a very short time and may not be consumed as human food. Animal
health is very important for the losses. As clearly seen from the table, the production losses are higher in the countries such as Africa that is hot and where
substructure is not available but the wastage is decreased due to that the consumer is less discriminative.
Table 14: Loss and wastage in the milk products
Countries ­­­­­Production­­­­Harvest/Storing ­­­­­­Processing/Packing­­­­­­­­­­Distribution/Sale­­­­­­Consumption
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
3.5
3.5
3.5
6
3.5
3.5
3.5
0.5
0.5
1
11
6
6
6
1.2
1.2
1.2
0.1
2
2
2
0.5
0.5
0.5
10
8
10
8
7
15
5
0.1
2
1
4
As similar equipments and precautions are applied in so many places in
the milk production, the losses until the consumer stage is so close to each
other. But the wastage increases significantly in the developed countries compared to other regions.
Country/Region:
1. Russia, 2. North America, 3. China, Japan, Korea
4. Africa (Sub-Saharan), 5. North Africa, Western and Central Asia
6. Southern and Southeastern Asia, 7. Latin America
82
The losses that lead to quality and amount decreases in the foods occur
during storing, handling and processing stages in very product and enterprise
and the wastage occur due to insufficiency of sale and storage, habits and culture of the consumer.
As every product in the food enterprise has a different feature, making separate assessments for each stage and each product is required to be done.
When the productions that is our subject in the project is taken into consideration; it is required to start taking precautions relevant to animal health and feeding for preventing the losses and wastages in milk and meat products.
Selecting the races that have been adapted to the region and whose milk
efficiency is high with aim of increasing the milk efficiency, planning the births
with right herd method, making feeding of the animals as to increase the milk
efficiency, follow up of health of other animals, control of the Mastitis disease
that decreases the milk efficiency and if needed treatment of this disease are
required.
With the aim of increasing the amount in the milk production, machine milking is to be increased, right equipments are to be used and milking and breast
hygiene are to be paid attention.
With the aim of decreasing microbial load of the milked milk and preventing
the quality losses; hygiene of the milking is to be provided, pre-cleaning of the
milk is to be done through appropriate filters and is to be immediately cooled
down to 4-6 0C.
Increasing acidity of the milk is to be prevented by handling it with isolated
tankers until to the collection centers or factories.
Providing necessary health conditions during pregnancy and post-birth of
the milk animals and making regular controls are required.
With the aim of decreasing the live animal deaths at the animals that are
brought for meat production, struggling with the diseases and vaccination and
right feeding programs are required to be applied.
At the transportation of the animals, the transportation vehicles that are designed and ventilated in accordance with the animal type to be transported and
that are equipped with the equipments providing feeding of the animals if required is to be preferred with the aim of preventing the deaths that may occur
during transportation of meat animals (cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry).
It is very important to struggle with the harms and diseased on time and
enough in the herbal production. Especially in the cases at which struggle is
not enough, the losses occur in the quality and production amount in the production. Shape and color deformities that diseases and some harm cause and
injuries harden usage of these products in the industry hard.
83
The appropriate ones among the nonstandard ones of the fresh fruits may
be used in the fruit juice factories but usage of each fruit is not possible. Especially recollection of the nonstandard products in the markets and sending them
to the fruit vegetable sector is compulsory.
Therefore the losses and wastages that nonstandard products will create
in formation of the standards relevant to the products that are sold in the consumption place are to be paid attention. For example: if the standards (size,
color, shape, etc.) relevant to the products that are sold as fresh such as apple,
orange, strawberry, etc.) are very strict, nonstandard products that are named
as bulge when these products are prepared. Therefore types of the classifications prepared at the standards are to be increased.
An important part of the herbal production is done at open lands, there are
threats such as climate conditions, harms and diseases. Even if right application
techniques are applied, the production amount and quality varies due to the increases that may occur on air conditions, rains and heats or the effects such
as frost.
Therefore farmers mostly make production by reviewing the data of previous
year without making a production planning and the deficiencies or surpluses
may occur at these products. But if there are problems in the product assessment and fresh sales in the years when excessive production occurs, transformation of excessive production to the wastage is indispensible. As this will lead
to a price decrease on the products that the production is more than planned,
the farmers may not obtained the expected income. If there is no appropriate
transportation, storage and procession capacity is not available in terms of processing the excessive products on time in the fruit and vegetable processing
sector, the product losses occur due to waiting periods in front of the factory.
Therefore, it will be useful for the farmers if they make the production planning for that year with fruit vegetable processing facilities. This will be especially
with annual contracted production plans in the fruits and vegetables. Thereby
the production losses that may occur will be minimized for the enterprises and
farmers.
Sometimes early harvests also lead to wastages. The crops are harvested
and given to the market without ripening due to that early grown products are
sold much more price and the farmers expect gaining more money.
But these products do not find enough buyers as a result of that they are
put on sale without reaching the quality desired by the consumer such as taste
and flavor. This both does not give the expected result and leads to production
losses.
By using appropriate baskets and cases in the transportation of harvested fruits
and vegetables, mechanically damage of the products or smashes during transportation is to be prevented. This is very important both for vegetables and fruits
that consumed as fresh and the products that are processed in the factories.
Hot weather and wind lead to quality losses and wastages that may occur
during transportation of the products to be harvested and this is very sensitive
especially at the vegetables. For storing the products under cold conditions,
widening cold air storages in the production regions and transportation via the
vehicles with refrigerators are useful.
Heat up occurs on the products such as peas, okra, beans and cucumbers,
etc that are in the closed environments and excessive loaded in the trucks and
cases and these products loss their features within a short period.
There so many factors that determine wastage of the foods by the consumers.
The consumers are directed to purchase much more products than they need
time to time. Initiative marketing policies such as price perception in the big packages, giving free products in definite amounts affect purchasing decisions.
Storage of the foods that may be deemed as need surplus and whose shelf
life is limited cause problems and some part of these kinds of products derogates and they are wasted.
The consumers are to take into consideration that these kinds of products
may derogate as well as the price advantages.
Therefore, these are the precautions that will prevent the losses in the foods
that package sizes of the products are to be in accordance with the storage
conditions and at the dimensions to be put in the refrigerator and the materials
being able closed again after being opened are to be used or the options such
as packaging in the appropriate portions are to be formed.
As especially increase of the selectivity with the increase of the income level
brings increase of the quality expectation in the products along with it, quality
of the products are to be in accordance with the cost. Otherwise the products
not meeting the consumer expectation are not appreciated and as they are not
consumed even if they are purchased, these products are wasted.
The losses and wastages in the food are to be told to everybody who takes
part in the value chain starting from the producer with the aim of preventing the
wastage. Training will be the most important tool here.
The losses and wastages in the food are to be told to everybody who takes
part in the value chain starting from the producer with the aim of preventing the
wastage. Training will be the most important tool here.
Information of the farmers concerning to production and farming is to be reviewed from time to time and new techniques and methods are to be told. Especially TV and radio channels that make broadcasting devoted the farmers
make very successful broadcastings. The subjects concerning to the losses
and wastages in the foods are told in these programs.
84
85
What may be recommended for decreasing the wastage in the food
Another definition of the losses and wastages is the cost. Therefore everybody who makes production and farming will show the necessary interest to
this subject.
According to production and farming pattern of the region, continuous learning will become an habit through the trainings to be done to the regions.
With the regional organizations of Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock, relevant departments of the universities has been sharing their studies
concerning to this subject with producers of the region.
The occupational trainings are to be given to the personnel who work in the
food industry with the aim of preventing the loss and wastage.
Recommendations of the ones who work in this sector concerning to prevention of losses and wastages and their projects are to be regularly assessed
and by awarding the ones who are successful, continuity of this is to be encouraged.
Regular training seminars are to be given for transferring the right applications that are gained in the food enterprises in the past to the new employees.
With the help of the occupational institutions, associations and employee/
employer syndicates, good applications that may occur in the institutions are
to be shared with the members.
The good agricultural practices are to be promoted in the agricultural production and benefits of the traceability are to be told.
With the renewal of the equipments that have been completed its economic
life in the food enterprises, the losses that may occur in the production may be
decreased.
It will be the point that the food industry acts together with the farmers in
the subjects such as product selection, raising, harvesting, storing and transportation.
The studies that are done for sending the products that are surplus production or whose expiry dates are soon to the needers under the organization of
“Food Bank” or “Social Market” are to be supported. Recording the products
that are established in Turkey with code No 5179 and assessed here directly
as expenditure are incentive for the companies due to that VAT reduction.
In the recent years, enough promotion is to be done for widening this organization that has been adopted by Municipalities.
The projects that are concerning to packages and packing methods of the
food products and the projects that increase the shelf life is to be encouraged
and supported.
Production of big sized packaged foods whose storage of home refrigerators and freezers is to be avoided.
The coordination of sale departments of the factories with production planning and purchase departments is to be increased.
Written and visual press is to be get benefit for storage of the home-con-
sumed foods and giving right information concerning to the products. Product
losses occur due to this waiting period.
Therefore, it will be useful for the farmers if they make the production planning for that year with fruit vegetable processing facilities. This will be especially
with annual contracted production plans in the fruits and vegetables. Thereby
the production losses that may occur will be minimized for the enterprises and
farmers.
Sometimes early harvests also lead to wastages. The crops are harvested
and given to the market without ripening due to that early grown products are
sold much more price and the farmers expect gaining more money.
But these products do not find enough buyers as a result of that they are
put on sale without reaching the quality desired by the consumer such as taste
and flavor. This both does not give the expected result and leads to production
losses.
By using appropriate baskets and cases in the transportation of harvested fruits
and vegetables, mechanically damage of the products or smashes during transportation is to be prevented. This is very important both for vegetables and fruits
that consumed as fresh and the products that are processed in the factories.
Hot weather and wind lead to quality losses and wastages that may occur
during transportation of the products to be harvested and this is very sensitive
especially at the vegetables. For storing the products under cold conditions,
widening cold air storages in the production regions and transportation via the
vehicles with refrigerators are useful.
By making appropriate harvesting plan, the waiting periods in the products
that arrive to the factories are to be shortened. This subject is especially very
important in the processing of the products such as tomato products, peas,
beans, spinach, etc. The juices of the tomatoes flow due to the smashes that
may occur on the tomatoes waiting in the trucks and distinct molding occur on
these waiting tomatoes. Therefore the loading amount is to be at the level that
will prevent these kinds of smashing.
Heat up occurs on the products such as peas, okra, beans and cucumbers,
etc that are in the closed environments and excessive loaded in the trucks and
cases and these products loss their features within a short period.
There so many factors that determine wastage of the foods by the consumers.
The consumers are directed to purchase much more products than they
need time to time. Initiative marketing policies such as price perception in the
big packages, giving free products in definite amounts affect purchasing decisions.
Storage of the foods that may be deemed as need surplus and whose shelf
life is limited cause problems and some part of these kinds of products derogates and they are wasted.
86
87
The consumers are to take into consideration that these kinds of products
may derogate as well as the price advantages.
Therefore, these are the precautions that will prevent the losses in the foods
that package sizes of the products are to be in accordance with the storage
conditions and at the dimensions to be put in the refrigerator and the materials
being able closed again after being opened are to be used or the options such
as packaging in the appropriate portions are to be formed.
As especially increase of the selectivity with the increase of the income level
brings increase of the quality expectation in the products along with it, quality
of the products are to be in accordance with the cost. Otherwise the products
not meeting the consumer expectation are not appreciated and as they are not
consumed even if they are purchased, these products are wasted.
What may be recommended for decreasing the wastage in the food;
The losses and wastages in the food are to be told to everybody who takes
part in the value chain starting from the producer with the aim of preventing the
wastage. Training will be the most important tool here.
Information of the farmers concerning to production and farming is to be reviewed from time to time and new techniques and methods are to be told. Especially TV and radio channels that make broadcasting devoted the farmers
make very successful broadcastings. The subjects concerning to the losses
and wastages in the foods are told in these programs.
Another definition of the losses and wastages is the cost. Therefore everybody who makes production and farming will show the necessary interest to
this subject.
According to production and farming pattern of the region, continuous learning will become an habit through the trainings to be done to the regions.
With the regional organizations of Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock, relevant departments of the universities has been sharing their studies
concerning to this subject with producers of the region.
The occupational trainings are to be given to the personnel who work in the
food industry with the aim of preventing the loss and wastage.
Recommendations of the ones who work in this sector concerning to prevention of losses and wastages and their projects are to be regularly assessed
and by awarding the ones who are successful, continuity of this is to be encouraged.
Regular training seminars are to be given for transferring the right applications that are gained in the food enterprises in the past to the new employees.
With the help of the occupational institutions, associations and
employee/employer syndicates, good applications that may occur in the institutions are to be shared with the members.
The good agricultural practices are to be promoted in the agricultural production and benefits of the traceability are to be told.
With the renewal of the equipments that have been completed its economic
life in the food enterprises, the losses that may occur in the production may be
decreased.
It will be the point that the food industry acts together with the farmers in
the subjects such as product selection, raising, harvesting, storing and transportation.
The studies that are done for sending the products that are surplus production or whose expiry dates are soon to the needers under the organization of
“Food Bank” or “Social Market” are to be supported. Recording the products
that are established in Turkey with code No 5179 and assessed here directly
as expenditure are incentive for the companies due to that VAT reduction.
In the recent years, enough promotion is to be done for widening this organization that has been adopted by Municipalities.
The projects that are concerning to packages and packing methods of the
food products and the projects that increase the shelf life is to be encouraged
and supported.
Production of big sized packaged foods whose storage of home refrigerators and freezers is to be avoided.
The coordination of sale departments of the factories with production planning and purchase departments is to be increased.
Written and visual press is to be get benefit for storage of the home-consumed foods and giving right information concerning to the products.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1- Statistics of Milk Sector in the World and Turkey , 2013. Report of National Milk
Commission, May 2014 , Ankara
2- Global Food Losses and Food Waste, Report FAO, Interpack 2011, D¸sseldorf,
Germany
3- Food Waste Regulations Unilever Food Solutions www.ufs.com
4- Preventing Food wastage in the Food and Drink sector Food Drink Europe,
Brussels
5- General Overview in Milk and Milk Products Sector, İzmir Chamber of Commerce, fiebnem Boran, 2010 Re&De Bulletin
6- 2012 meat consumption per person in the selected countries, BESD-BİR,
www.besd.bir.org/assets/documents
7 -SET BİR , www.setbir.org.tr/kaynaklar/istatistikler, Sloughterhouses,
www.fao.org/wairdocs/lead
8- Turkish Statistical Institute, TUİK www.tuik.org.tr
9 -Turkey Chicken and Meat Producers, Facilities, Export, Consumption and
Comparison to the World Chicken Sector. www.pilicihracat.com
10- Turkey Red Meat Sector and Competition Policy Competition Institution, 3rd
Head Department, 2010 Ankara
11- Turkish Food and Drink Industry, 2013 Inventory Turkey Federation of Food
and Drink Association, May 2014, Ankara
12- Utilizations of byproducts and waste material from meat, poultry
and fish processing industry, K.Jayathilakan and at all. J.Food Science and Technology, 2012 jun 49(3) 278-293
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FOODWARD PROJECT SURVEY
ERASMUS PLUS PROGRAMME
KA2 – Cooperation and Innovation for Good Practices
Strategic Partnerships for Adult Education
PROJECT NUMBER - [2014-1-TR01-KA204-013041] FOODWARD
Food waste — occurring at the production, harvest, post-harvest and processing phases — are very important in developing countries, due to poor infrastructure, low levels of technology and low investment in the food production
systems. Food looses also includes the organic residues (such as carrot or potato peels) generated by the processing, handling, storage.
There have been many researches about decreasing food losses and wastes.
However, the results are not easy to be reached and the accessible ones are
in different platforms. FOODWARD will gather the obtained project results, experiences, knowledge and best practices in the subject of decreasing food losses and wastes, put them into order and create training modules and e-learning
materials. The complementary part of the project is the wide dissemination of
the results of carried out projects.
This project focuses on the following themes:
• Compositional analysis of food waste and losses in Turkey, Italy, Germany
and Slovakia.
• Food waste quantification in milk, meat and canning sectors.
• Training of production engineers in plants.
• Building awareness of waste problem.
• Reducing food waste and creating a sustainable food future.
In this matter we will appreciate careful contributions of your company for the
success of the project.
Name Surname:
Company:
1- Your main production area;
Dairy Industry
a) Pasteurized
b) UHT
c) Milk powder
d) Cheese
e) Butter
f) Yogurt
g) Others (Please define)………
Meat and Meat products
a) Red meat
b) Poultry
c) Meat products
d) Poultry products
e) Others (Please define)…….
Canning Industry
a) Fruits
b) Vegetables
c) Tomato paste
d) Convenience foods
e) Others (Please define)…….
2- Your company is;
a) National
b) International
3- Do you have any food waste, causing economic loss?
a) Yes
b) No
4- If so, do you have any effort to characterize this loss in your company?
a) Yes
b) No
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5- If you have food waste in your company, what are these food
wastes?
a) Milk
b) Meat, bone or tissue
c) Spoiled fruits and vegetables
d) Blood, hives or internal parts
e) Seeds and husk
f) Others (Please define)…..
6- In which step do you encounter food waste?
a) Raw material input
b) During raw material storage
c) During production
d) During Packaging
e) During distribution
f) Retail (i.e., spoiled end product)
g) Retail (i.e., recalling of end product due to the extension of shelf life)
g) Others (Please define)…..
7- Do you have a department within your company focusing on the
reduction of food waste?
a) Yes
b) No
8 –If not, do you get any external consulting for the management of
food waste?
a) Yes
b) No
13- What is the average food waste in your company annually?
a) 0-3%
b) 3-6%
c) 6-10%
d) More than 10%
14- How is the food waste of your company recovered?
a) As animal feed
b) As fertilizer
c) In energy production
e) Other (Please define)…..
15-Do you have any training on food waste management that can
also be shared with other industrial organizations?
a) Yes
b) No
16-If so, do you want to share?
a) Yes
b) No
17- Do you want to participate any trainings related to the management of food waste?
a) Yes
b) No
18- Is there any additional information on food waste that you want
to share? If so, please share.
9- Have you done any project focusing on the management of food
waste in your company?
a) Yes
b) No
10- If so, it is
a) National
b) International
11- If so, the founding source is
b) International
a) National
12- Do you conduct any statistical analysis for the food waste in
your company?
a) Yes
b) No
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